Lecture 1. Localization taxonomy.

Main process constituents

Theoretical aspect

Localization

Localization involves complex technological, textual, communicative and

cognitive translational processes that introduce modifications to source
interactive digital texts with the goal of rendering them usable in linguistic and
sociocultural contexts other than those of production (Jimenez-Crespo 2013b).
It is now a “lucrative, dynamic and interprofessional field, often involving
marketing, design, software engineering, as well as linguistic processes” (Pym,
2011c:410), has become one of the main engines of growth for the language
service industry (GALA 2016) and is part of what is known as the language
technology industry, estimated at over 30 billion dollars annually. It is also
widely present in non-professional activities, where crowdsourced, fan or
activist localization of webpages, smart phone apps and videogames is
widespread (Jimenez-Crespo 2017a). Localization represents a consolidated
area within translation studies research, with publications dating back to the
late 1990s (Freigang 1996; Parra 1999), journals such as the Journal of
Internationalization and Localization (JIAL) and the Localization Focus now
devoted to research in the field, and several seminal monographs dedicated to
different subtypes of this translational practice (Pym 2004; Dunne 2006;
Jimenez-Crespo 2013b; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2014; Roturier 2015), all
contributing to establishing what has been referred to as localization studies
(Munday 2012; Jimenez-Crespo 2013b).

Historical overview

Localization emerged in the context of software development for personal

computing in the late 1970s and early 1980s in the United States (Esselink
2006; Dunne 2006). As soon as software for personal computing was
popularized in the US, companies such as Sun Microsystems, Oracle and
Microsoft turned their attention towards international users to increase their
market share (Esselink 2006). The initial targets were Japan and the so-called
FIGS countries (France, Italy, Germany and Spain). Initially, industry
publications conceptualized translation tasks within localization as a discrete
step in a global process. Translation was often presented as a simple process
of finding equivalents for textual strings immersed in programming code. It
was part of a wider cycle, namely localization, that was considered “more
sophisticated” (Pym, 2004:25). This distinction between localization and
translation served to justify the added value and cost of the engineering and
management of complex projects (Jimenez-Crespo 2013b), highlighting the
complex set of interrelated processes necessary to make digital products
available to different sociocultural and sociolinguistic communities. In the early
days, localization engineers and developers would extract textual strings in
separate files from programming code. These would then be sent to
translators, often referred to in early publications as linguists, and developers
would subsequently attempt to reintegrate the translations back into digital
products. All interested parties – business partners, developers, localization
managers and translators – soon discovered that separating the development
stage from the linguistic transfer stage was impractical for a wide variety of
reasons; for instance, translated segments may be too long to fit into the
space allotted to them, or there may be a need to adapt elements such as date
and time formats, paper sizes and script to the requirements of different
cultures (Esselink, 2000; Dunne 2014). With time, the industry realized that
localization had to be collaboratively conceived from the start of the
development cycle. This resulted in the emergence of a distinct localization
industry. The 1980s saw the emergence of world localization hubs (Esselink
2006), and by the 1990s the localization service industry was well
consolidated.

Landmark developments such as the emergence of the World Wide Web in the
1990s, the gaming revolution and the mobile revolution in the 2000s further
transformed the localization industry. Its scope expanded with the increase in
the number and variety of emerging digital texts, including videogames
(O’Hagan and Mangiron 2014; Bernal Merino 2015), websites (Jimenez-Crespo
2013b), smart phone and tablet apps (Seron-Ordonez 2017; Jimenez-Crespo
2017c) and other small devices, creating further subspecializations within the
field. Today, web and videogame localization represent the largest share of the
localization industry. This is not surprising given that there were over 3.73
billion Internet users globally and almost 1.26 billion active websites in October
2017 (Internet Live Stats 2017). Similarly, videogames represent the sector
with the largest volume of business in the digital world (O’Hagan and Mangiron
2014). These two new subtypes were developed by adapting software
localization models to the specifics of digital hypertexts or multimedia
interactive videogames.

Web localization requires a lower level of technological competence from

intervening participants than software localization (Esselink 2006; Jimenez-
Crespo and Tercedor 2012). Videogame localization additionally requires a set
of competences related to audiovisual translation (O’Hagan and Mangiron
2014).

The mobile and social network revolution and the emergence of server-based
cloud technologies further impacted the development of the localization
industry since the late twentieth century. In the participatory and open world
created by the Web 2.0 environment, localization crowdsourcing quickly
became widely popular (Jimenez-Crespo 2017a), with initiatives to localize
websites dating back to the early

2000s (Shimoata et al. 2001) and collaborative localization of videogames

dating back even earlier. Crowdsourcing has made use of distinct workflows
and volunteers through micro-task approaches as an alternative paradigm to
handle the explosion of content in digital societies and the subsequent funnel
effect: as more and more digital content is produced and circulated around the
world, translation needs greatly surpass the capacities of the professional
market (Gambier 2014). New companies are continuously emerging online in a
push to offer quicker and more economic services by bringing together
professional translators, postediting machine translation and volunteer
communities on the web (Jimenez-Crespo 2017a, 2017b).

Similarly, social localization initiatives, or what has been referred to as

development localization (Schaler 2009), continue to grow. Localization in
industrial settings is primarily carried out in terms of Return on Investment
(ROI), with countries with the highest per capita income often included in
localization projects even when certain languages such as Danish or Dutch
serve a relatively small number of speakers.

Development localization, by contrast, is based on the premise that “access to

and a presence in the digital world is a right for speakers of any language and
should not be dependent on their income” (Schaler 2009:161). A number of
initiatives based on crowdsourcing have attempted to bridge this digital divide,
both through the online platform (O’Brien and Schaler 2010) or MT postediting
app (Moorkens et al. 2017) of

non-profit initiatives such as the Rosetta Foundation, and through the

crowdsourcing efforts of companies such as Adobe and Skype to reach
languages of lesser diffusion (Mesipuu 2012).

Definitions and scope

The term localization emerged in the 1980s and derives from the notion of
locale, which covers the combination of sociocultural region and language for
business, production and marketing purposes. Different definitions of
localization have emerged from the industry (LISA 2003; Brown-Hoekstra
2017) and translation studies (Schmitz 2007; Schaler 2009, 2010; Dunne
2014), and “tend to be contextually bound, reflecting the perspectives of those
who formulate them” (Folaron 2006:197). One of the most widely used
definitions is offered by the now extinct Localization and Internationalization
Standardization Association (LISA): “[l]ocalization involves taking a product
and making it linguistically and culturally appropriate to the target locale
(country/region and language) where it will be used and sold” (LISA 2003:13).
Translation scholars initially adopted industry definitions and discourses, given
the slow pace at which the discipline has embraced the impact of technology
(O’Hagan 2013).

Some attempted to propose definitions that stressed distinct features of

localization compared to general translation processes (Wright and Budin
2001; Gouadec 2007; Schmitz 2007; Schaler 2010). Other scholars have
encouraged the development of a distinctive approach informed by translation
theory, providing critical analyses of definitions of localization (Pym, 2004;
Jimenez-Crespo 2013b:12–19, 2018; Achkasov

2017). This has in turn enriched the discipline by highlighting aspects of

localization

not generally taken into account in theorizing translation. For instance,

localization involves managing large multilingual projects (Gouadec 2007;
Schaler 2010); it is associated with distinctive procedural features related to
technology (Pym 2011c), such as the application of specific quality assessment
processes and standards; and its collaborative nature produces distinct job
profiles, including quality assessment specialists, localization engineers and
localization managers (Gouadec 2007; Pym 2011c; Snopek 2014).

The growth of localization research in translation studies has been

accompanied by a broadening of the scope of the term to encompass several
types of non-digital texts that involve translation as part of and interdependent
with a larger set of processes. Scholars now refer to the localization/translation
of news (Bielsa and Bassnet 2008), advertising material (Declercq 2011) and
comic books (Zanettin 2008a). Zanettin refers to the localization of comics to
mean the “publication of target products designed for markedly different
audiences” (2008a:200), stressing the dependence on market and economic
forces, the combination of cultural and product adaptation, and the necessity
of collaboration among a team of experts. Localization also shares many
features with audiovisual translation (AVT). Like AVT, the content of
localization “is often multimodal, it can come as text, audio, or video” (Schaler
2010:201). AVT scholars often use terms such as film localization and
audiovisual localization. Gambier (2013:46) explains that both localization and
screen translation involve teamwork and their quality is not assessed only in
relation to “acceptability” but also with due regard to “compressibility,
accessibility and usability” (2013:58).

Practical aspect

There is much confusion as to how the terms "globalization,"

"internationalization," "localization," and "translation," should be used. These
terms are frequently thrown about in the press and by product developers,
marketing departments, product managers, and even localization vendors. Yet
understanding these terms is a critical first step when considering expansion
into the competitive global marketplace.

A commonly used acronym in the language industry is "GILT"(globalization,

internationalization, localization, translation). We agree with Multilingual
Magazine editor, Laurel Wagers who writes in Chapter 21 that, "We don't use
the term at Multilingual, partly because the word gilt refers to surface
embellishment, a thin layer of gold over something less valuable. In this
wireless, broadband, web-connected world, multilingual presentation and
support are not "gilt" at all. They are essential components." We could not
agree more.

You may run into people using these terms in different ways, but here is how
we interpret them:

Globalization

The process of conceptualizing your product line for the global marketplace so
that it can be sold anywhere in the world with only minor revision. It is most
easily thought of as your global marketing strategy and is associated with all
marketing concepts (branding, establishing market share, and the like).
Globalization is particularly important in consumer industries such as clothing
and food. Anyone, anywhere in the world, can drink Coca-Cola or wear Levi
Strauss jeans, for example.

Internationalization

The process of engineering a product so that it can be easily and efficiently

localized. Engineering can take the form of something as basic as document
layout, for example, to the more complex enabling of software to handle
double-byte character sets. See the sections on Engineering and Writing for
Localization (Chapters 6 and 10) for more details on how to internationalize
your products.

Localization

The process of customizing a product for consumers in a target market so that

when they use it, they form the impression that it was designed by a native of
their own country.

Translation

The process of actually converting the written word of a source language into
the written word of a target language. Translation is a crucial component of
localization.

These four terms fit together as a "bull's eye" diagram. Globalization envelops
the entire concept of taking your product line global. Internationalization is
performed so that the product can then be localized. Finally translation is the
"base" component of the entire process as it represents the language
transformation.

To better understand the difference between these

terms, imagine that you are a product manager for
a new software application that manages sales
contacts. Your product development team likely
assembled comments from distributors throughout
the world whose customers requested new features
for your yet-to-be designed contact management
software. Your marketing department has
determined the global demand for such a product and has developed a global
branding campaign. Your design team begins work on the look and feel of the
software. Here is where internationalization comes into play. You and your
team must consider the following:

1) Color schemes and graphic selection that avoids offending potential

customers,

2) Dialog boxes wide enough to accommodate text expansion,

3) Functionality that supports various date, time, and currency formats,

4) Input and output functionality that supports the various character sets
(including double-byte characters for the Asian market),

5) Right justified text fields to prevent expanded text from overlapping the
graphics, and

6) A readily adaptable user interface to allow British customers to read from

left to right or Arabic customers to read from right to left.

Selling your contact management software to the customers in your new

markets will likely require localizing the user's manual, software, help files, and
user interface from English into each target language. Fortunately, proper
internationalization may lower your costs. One software manufacturer found
that nearly 50% of all support costs came from consumers in foreign markets
who could not understand English documentation.
Other key terms

There are several other related terms that you should also be familiar with
when you are ready to reach a multilingual audience.

Interpretation

The process of converting the spoken word of a source language into

the spoken word of a target language. This is done in two main ways. The first,
and most impressive to watch, is simultaneous interpretation. In this process,
a person is actually "thinking" in two languages at one instant (hearing the
speaker in one language and immediately converting it into the target
language and speaking that target language for others to hear). The more
traditional interpretation practice is delayed interpretation where an entire
thought is expressed by the speaker, the speaker pauses, and the interpreter
converts the content for the target language speakers to hear.

Content Management

A software application for creating, maintaining, storing and publishing content

that makes it possible to organize and publish in multiple media from one
central database.

Cultural Assessment

Analyzing an individual's cultural preferences through comparative analyses.

Allows individuals to acquire the awareness and knowledge necessary for
building effective skills and behavioral adaptations for multicultural
management and business.

Cultural Orientation

Developing cultural self-awareness and effective behavioral strategies to

minimize the cultural gaps that occur when contrasting value orientations of
different social groups.

Integration Testing (Interoperability)

Confirmation that two or more systems (computers, communication devices,

networks, software, and other information technology components) are able to
interact with one another and exchange data according to a prescribed method
in order to achieve predictable results.

Verification Testing

Confirmation of any testable requirement, including functional testing of

hardware and software system components, compatibility testing of one
component to another, design verification, compliance to industry standards,
and third party interoperability.

You may also hear people in the industry use the following terms when talking
about localization vendors. SLP (single language provider) is a company that
specializes in one language only, whereas an MLV (multiple language vendor)
offers many language combinations. You will also hear a lot of discussion about
translation memory (TM) which is a database where previous translations and
corresponding source text are stored for future re-use. TMs can significantly
reduce localization costs, while increasing both quality and consistency.

Localizing your product, while sometimes challenging, pays handsome rewards.

Major software and hardware manufacturers report that 60% or more of their
business revenues are now earned outside the U.S. By offering your products
around the world, in versions that appeal to each locale, your organization can
increase its distribution, extend the shelf-life of products, and ultimately be
less dependent upon the American market.

Planning a Successful Localization Project

You have received the green light for your product or service to go global and
now you must decide how to manage the project. There are several options for
localizing your materials. Selecting the correct resource, however, is only the
first of many issues that will need to be addressed in order to choose the best
solution. The answers to some "big picture" questions that will affect your
localization choices are:

1) What is your long-term globalization strategy?

2) How is your company positioned? Is it a market leader or specialty supplier;

top-of-the line standard-setter or low cost alternative; custom manufacturer or
commodity production; high-quality provider or low-quality solution?
Other basic questions that are important to answer are:

1) Which products and components will you localize?

2) What target markets and languages do you need?

3) What are the legal, regulatory, liability, and commercial requirements in the
target market(s)?

4) What is your timeline?

5) What level of quality and consistency will you need?

6) What is the likelihood and extent of on-going future updates?

7) How often will you have new products for localization?

8) Are there engineering and functionality issues?

9) Are the English source formats compatible with the languages targeted for
localization?

10) Is voice-over required, and if so, what are the gender requirements and
audio specifications?

11) If the final product is an interactive website or application, how much

functionality testing will be required?

With so many questions to answer, perhaps the question of paramount

importance is, "How are you going to do it?" The Guide to Translation
and Localization has this answer and many more.

How Much to Localize?

The first question many companies ask is, "How many components should I
localize?" The answer can be anything from "only the essentials" to "all content
for all product components." The second question often asked is, "How much
can I afford to localize?" When trying to answer the money question, however,
a better question might be, "What is the financial impact of not doing it?" By
choosing not to localize certain products, you ran the risk of missing potential
sales, or even worse, offending the target consumers in a new market by not
providing information in their language. Depending on the product, you could
also find yourself in violation of various legal or regulatory requirements,
possibly even preventing distribution of the product in the target market. At
Lingo Systems, we strongly recommend that you seek legal counsel regarding
the legal implications of not localizing some or all content when expanding into
a new market.

Unfortunately, when evaluating the business case for localization, many

companies only factor in how much it will cost. Do not make this mistake too!
An equally important question is, "How much additional revenue can we
reasonably expect to generate?" In our experience, your international sales
and marketing staff will most often drive the commercial justification to
localize.

Another item to consider when deciding how much to localize is whether

economies of scale are available. Once a localization program is established for
one language, the file preparation, project management, and back-office
administration are already established. Localizing into additional languages can
take advantage of these initial investments.

Finally, depending on the nature of your products or services, you may not
have much choice in whether to localize or not. For example, if software
developers want to increase customer usability, in addition to localizing the
software interface, they will need to consider localizing the application itself.
This includes help files, "read me" files, installers, legal warranties, user
guides, and installation instructions as well. Other examples include developers
of training materials who must decide which courses should be taught in which
languages and consumer electronics manufacturers who need to evaluate the
merits of supplementing user documentation with customer support websites
and other online resources.

Fortunately, localization of virtually any component is straightforward with the

right planning and the right technology. Several tools and methodologies have
been developed that allow you and your localization partner to "recycle"
translated content across many different media types. These include
translation memory data bases (discussed in Chapter 6) and single source
content management systems (discussed in Chapters 15 and 16). By reducing
the volume of new text that needs to be localized, and keeping changes to a
minimum, costs are reduced, timelines are shortened, and consistency is
improved across all components.

Plan Early

There is an old carpenter's saying: "Measure twice, cut once." In other words,
plan carefully and early for localization. For example, if your documentation
includes 20 screen captures from the software user interface (UI), the UI
should be localized before the documentation so that terminology that is frozen
and translated in the UI can be propagated to the documentation and/or help
files.

When tight timelines require that UI and documentation localization occur

simultaneously, aggressive localization schedules may still be possible.
Because these projects frequently involve the translation of thousands of
words, vendors form teams of linguists to work on both components at the
same time. At some point in the schedule, after the UI is frozen, time is
allocated to allow the documentation to "catch up" so that references to
buttons, menus, and other items in the text of the documentation match the
terminology used in the UI. Fortunately, other components such as training
materials and Web content can usually wait until the bulk of the product
localization is complete. After all, end users can't be trained until you have
something on which to train them!

One Language at a Time or All at Once?

Many international companies prefer to roll out new products to all of their
markets in a simultaneous or "sim-ship" release. Although such releases are a
goal of some multinationals, they are not a commercial priority for everyone.

A simultaneous release poses two main challenges for localization. First, in

order for a company to release English and localized products at the same
time, localization generally needs to begin while the English is still under
development. This means that each last minute change to the UI, online help,
or other documentation must also be incorporated by the localization team. As
you can imagine, such "stops and starts" make configuration management
more complicated and the project more expensive.
Given these challenges, consider an iterative development life cycle where
your localization vendor is provided with the "alpha" or "beta" version of the
software. Later, when the product is "functionally complete," the vendor can
finalize the translations. This approach means a little more work, but
everything can be finished for a "sim-ship". Alternatively, if you choose a
delayed release - localizing your components as they are needed - you can lay
the groundwork with your vendor so that each component is "ready to roll"
through the production process on your signal.

The second main challenge involves managing localization team complexity

and resource limitations. Depending on the word count, timeline, and number
of languages, your localization vendor may need to assemble teams of
translators, copy editors, and proofreaders to translate the content. There may
also be several teams of desktop publishers to lay out each page; two, three,
four, or more QA reviewers to inspect the work as it is done; and multiple
localization

engineers processing and preparing the files for each step. Coordinating all of
this activity requires one or more project managers. At Lingo Systems, we
have delivered large rollouts to 30+ countries that required a team of more
than 100 professionals! When qualifying a localization vendor, make sure they
have the resources and experience to handle your project.

Getting an Estimate

You have done your homework. You have scoured the latest issues
of Multilingual Magazine. You have spoken to your counterparts in the Society
for Technical Communication. You may have even checked your local
telephone directory, or perhaps conducted a web search. And, after compiling
a list of potential vendors you want to hear what they can do for you.

As you begin your discussions, many more questions may be posed than
answers delivered. Undoubtedly, you will be asked to clearly articulate your
requirements and provide electronic source files for the vendors to analyze.
This stage is all about exchanging information. What information does your
vendor need? What information do you want back? Depending on the size of
your project, you may even consider following a formal RFI (request for
information) or RFQ (request for quote) process. Remember, assumptions
represent risk for both you and the vendors. So, the more information you
provide and the clearer and more concise your instructions, the more accurate
the estimate and more realistic the project plan will be in return.

To help differentiate between vendors, many companies ask for a sample

translation as part of the bidding process. This can be a useful tool if your
materials are highly technical and you want to ensure that the localization
provider is qualified to handle the translations with linguists that have the
appropriate subject matter expertise. A word of caution: since localization
providers want to make a good impression, they will most likely use their best
linguist to translate your sample. Unfortunately, it does not necessarily follow
that the same linguist will be available (or utilized) if the vendor is awarded the
work.

Asking for references can be a fantastic way to evaluate and compare potential
vendors. As with sample translations, you will almost assuredly be provided
with contacts who will provide positive feedback, so your objective should be to
get a feel for the style and strengths of each vendor in order to determine
which one will be the best fit for your company. Start by asking for companies
whose projects were similar in size, scope, and type to yours. Then, when
speaking with the references, ask them to describe their experience working
with the vendor: what was helpful, how long did the project(s) take, and how
was the customer service? Find out how long the references have worked with
the vendor. Reliability and long-term consistency will be important factors in
your selection.

Selecting a Vendor

Unless you provide a template with your instructions, you will likely find that
each localization provider has a slightly different way of presenting their
estimate to you. Some vendors will respond with a great deal of information
detailing the specific tasks they propose to perform, the amount of effort that
is required, and a business case for why they are the best choice to perform
the work. Others may only submit a standard form with minimal detail.

The process that each vendor proposes to follow on your project, the number
of linguistic and QA steps employed, the qualification and location of the
resources, and the tools that they use vary significantly. These differences can
have a huge impact on cost. But how do you choose between competing
proposals when one vendor's estimate is 20% higher for what amounts to 50%
more effort?

Obtain the best value for your dollar by making an apples-to-

apples comparison, but be forewarned: this is easier said than done.
Standardizing localization estimates can be difficult and time consuming. As
with most things in life, you get what you pay for, and localization is no
exception. Take the time to investigate each vendor's services thoroughly.
Begin by asking a potential vendor these questions:

1) What subject matter and industry experience do you have?

2) How do you qualify your linguists?

3) Who would manage my project, where would they be located, and what
would be the process?

4) If required, would you be willing and do you have any experience staffing a
project manager onsite at the client's location?

5) How often would I receive status reports on my project and what

information would be in them?

6) Who would be my primary contact during the project?

7) Do you use state of the art localization tools and, if so, which ones?

8) When analyzing my elertronic source files, do you calculate leveraging?

9) How do you charge for repetitions, fuzzy matches, and unique text? Will you
create a TM (translation memory database) and will I own it?

10) How many projects like mine have you managed before?

11) Can I speak with your previous clients about their experiences?

12) How many linguistic steps will you perform?

13) What is your QA process?

14) How would you develop and maintain a terminology list specific to my
project?
15) Would my in-country team be able to speak directly with your linguists if
necessary?

16) How would changes be handled during the course of a project?

17) What is your record for delivering on time?

18) Is your estimate firm or is it subject to change?

A qualified localization vendor should be able to provide an estimate that is

comprehensive, accurate, and clearly defined. The table below offers a sample
pricing structure covering various services and how they might be billed.

Project Type Task How it is billed

All Projects Project management Typically 10-15% of the

project costs

Translation, new text Per word (usually a

  minimum charge if <250
words)

Translation, fuzzy matched Per word, normally less

 
text than full word rate

Translation, 100% matched Per word, normally less

 
or repetitive text than full word rate

Copyediting Per word or per hour

  (usually a minimum
charge if <950 words)

Proofreading (documentation) Per word or per hour

  or online review (usually a minimum
charge if <2000 words)

Glossary/terminology Per term or per hour

 
development

Translation Memory creation, Per hour

 
administration, and updating

  File treatments/file prep Per hour

Documentation Desktop publishing Per hour or per page

  Graphic design Per hour or per graphic

PDF creation (Print or Per hour or per page

 
Functional)

  Quality assurance Per hour

Software, website, Desktop publishing Same as for

& online help documentation

  Help generation & QA Per hour

  Engineering Per hour

  Functional testing Per hour

  Graphics and screen captures Per hour

Voice-over Voice talent Per hour (usually a

minimum charge if <2
hours)

Studio time (audio recording, Per hour (usually a

  editing, archiving) minimum charge if <2
hours)

Selecting the right localization partner is a critical component to the overall

success of your expansion into new international or multilingual markets. The
value of developing a long-term partnership cannot be overemphasized. Such
a relationship provides a means for the localization team to learn about your
company, constituents, and products, and to understand your requirements
and expectations inside and out. Often this results in improved workflows,
shorter timelines, and lower costs for you. The better your partner understands
you and your product line, the more smoothly the localization process can
proceed, and the more effectively project management and communication
protocols can be fine-tuned. The long-term relationship between you and your
localization provider is, ultimately, the best way to achieve cost-effective, high-
quality work for each and every project.
Lecture 2
Multimedia Localization

As communication tools have become more sophisticated, the methods used to

localize their output have had to change as well. Not many years ago,
localization was most often performed on written materials (e.g. product
manuals, user guides, training materials, etc.). As the world became wired,
next came online help, websites, and GUI. The new frontier, which is already
everywhere, is multimedia. Some of the more common examples of
multimedia materials are Flash movies, sound files, video clips, and complex
graphics. All can be found in such diverse places as video games, interactive
software, web applications, DVDs, kiosks, and CD-ROMs.

Unlike traditional localization, which typically uses professional linguists to

translate the materials and desktop publishers to format the output,
multimedia localization requires experts with additional skill sets for audio or
video text adaptation, script translation, and professional voice talent
recording. A healthy dose of software engineering is also needed. This
combination of linguistic work and in-studio production services can be used
for training, marketing, educational or commercial audio and video
applications, as well as entertainment products.

Regardless of the medium, there are some basic rules that should be followed
on every project. On the following pages, we will provide a brief overview of
multimedia localization and then describe a sample Flash project.

Pick Your Format

When it comes to presenting your multimedia message, the choices of format

are seemingly endless. Your production team can choose from a wide variety
of applications that use many different formats, including:

1) 3D Studio Max,

2) Alias,

3) Animated GIFs,

4) Direct X,

5) Macromedia Flash,
6) Macromedia Shockwave, and

7) Softimage.

Once you've decided on your format, the next decision is whether to provide
your multimedia presentation to a global audience. If your message is intended
for multilingual consumers, make every attempt to consider localization from
the outset, when the source files are first being developed.

Begin With Localization In Mind

Communicating to a global audience with a multimedia project presents both

technical and cultural challenges. If you begin with localization in mind, you
can avoid frastrating delays and increased costs down the road.

On the technical side, you may ran into issues such as text expansion. Plan for
25%, minimum. This applies to on-screen as well as spoken text. Make sure
you understand the character sets for different languages and how issues such
as concatenation and bidirectional scripts (see Chapter 13) are handled.
Anticipate how the synchronization of voice files will differ between languages.
Can your on-screen buttons accommodate translated text? Make a final
linguistic check on all these items.

As with written words, visual messages may inspire very different meanings as
they cross from culture to culture. For example, an image that is acceptable in
Europe may be unacceptable in Asia. Go with care and guidance here: a
misstep might result in some embarrassment, but it could also detract
significantly from your message.

How Localization Gets Done

Once you have created your multimedia message in its source language,
localization begins with a localization engineer (carefully) dismantling your
lovingly constructed source document - keeping an eye on such issues as color
specifications, system fonts, text attributes, navigation and interactive text.
Onscreen text is then pulled out and sent, along with any script, for
localization.
If your schedule permits, it is a good idea to forward the translated on-screen
and narrative text for in-country approval prior to entering the studio or
starting engineering. At the very least, this helps avoid basic cultural and
industry issues. At the very best, it gives your in-country team a valuable
stake in your localization project. Additionally, their up-front buy-in avoids
downstream delays to the timeline and costly studio and engineering re-work.

Once approved, the localization engineer places the on-screen text into the
localized visual files. Then the script goes to an audio/visual team that may
include audio engineers, voice talent and, perhaps, a linguistic producer.
Working with the specifics of the source files, this team produces the localized
voice files that are handed off to the localization engineer for final placement.

A final engineering step to spot script errors and broken links plus one last
linguistic review to ensure synchronization and your files are ready for a global
launch. By keeping these steps in mind from the outset in your production
cycle, you will ensure your multimedia project entertains and illuminates every
member of its audience.

Flash Case Study

The Product

Advertisement Flash movie

The Client

An innovative marketing agency that helps businesses promote their messages

through short, efficient Flash movies.

The Project

During the estimating process, localization engineers found that the source
Flash object contained complex and challenging text effects that required
localization. As is typical in these projects, the engineering lab asked for any
available information on how the client created the source movie. The lab
looked for a list of fonts used to create all objects that reside within the movie.
Also, the engineers were hoping to learn more about the software or plug-in
that had been used to create the text effects. In this case, the client used a
Flash authoring tool with a 230 effects library, a JavaScript-like scripting
language, and support for dynamic content and input forms.

The second major engineering challenge for this project was the
synchronization of the voice-over. As usual, the agency's source file was well
made. Every aspect of the movie, from text effects, to the music track, to the
voice-over was precisely placed within the source file. This, of course, is what
makes these animations so appealing and the localization engineering of the
voice-over needs to closely match the source in order to retain these winning
elements.

The Scope

1 Flash Movie, approximately 4:00 minutes (250 on-screen words)

1 Audio Script (750 Words)

Synchronization of the localized voice-over

Testing & QA: As usual for a Flash project, there is a typical QA step.

Timeline: 12 days

The Process

A constant of the localization industry is that any Flash authoring tool that
helps the designer will make life equally and proportionally miserable for the
localization engineer. The reason for this is simple: these tools almost always
create bitmap objects which by their nature are not editable. The only way to
localize them is to reverse engineer and reproduce the steps of the creation
process with the localized content. Lather, rinse and repeat for EACH
LANGUAGE. For this reason, the localization engineer spends significant time
up front identifying issues and gathering information.

All the localizable text in this source file, editable or not, was gathered and
sent off for translation along with the voice-over script. Once the on-screen
text came back from localization, it was a simple matter of using the same
authoring tool and settings to reproduce each object in the movie.

Text expansion is a common issue in documentation localization, but with

localization within Flash, it packs a double punch. Not only do you have to deal
with the expansion of on-screen text, but you now have the added issue of
dealing with the expansion of localized spoken text. The localization engineer
must find that delicate balance between the speed and length of the localized
voice-over file and the engineering of the localized movie itself.

As a matter of practice, once the voice-over is localized, there is almost no

turning back. Because of the logistics involved with getting talent and studio
time to re-record, the localization engineer may have no choice but to work
with what they have unless there is an obvious linguistic issue. There are not
many ways to synchronize a Flash movie other than altering the timeline by
moving big chunks of frames manually. Sometimes, this alteration must be
done to match the event on scene with the voice-over. Different languages
utilize different word orders and this can significantly affect synchronization as
well.

Once the linguistic and engineering checks of the published files have been
completed, the source and published files, along with any needed supporting
files, are delivered to the client.

Choose Your Type

There are two choices for how to use text when creating a source Flash
document. Here are some things to think about when it comes to localization:

Regular Text field: This is the easiest to manipulate and localize. Localization
software can automatically find this text, pull it out and leverage it against any
existing translation memory. The localization engineers still need to gather
information about the fonts and attributes used in creating the source file, AND
implement the fonts into their system prior to publication. Otherwise, Flash will
automatically substitute for missing fonts and undesirable results may be
published.

Bitmap Text field: While these text fields cross platforms and versions with
ease, they can be a challenge for the localization engineering team. The
resulting text is not editable and the only solution is to manually enter each
localized string into the same authoring tool using the same settings as were
used in the creation of the source. Bitmap text is often found when the source
designer has used a third-party authoring tool to apply effects to type.
Text Field Type Pros Cons

Editable
Regular Text
Can be linked to an external XML Portability issues can occur
field
file

What you see is what you get Not Editable

Bitmap Text
(WYSIWYG)
Necessary to have the
field
100% portable source font

Writing for Localization - Advice for Technical Writers

Technical writers play a crucial role in the product development process. They
are responsible for writing the content that describes your products to your
end users. Technical writers develop printed documentation, online
documentation (such as help files and functional PDF files), and website
content. They must take the technical knowledge imparted to them by product
developers and present it clearly and concisely to your less technically savvy
consumers. As you can well imagine, this is not an easy task.

When rolling out your products to the global marketplace, an additional burden
is placed on your technical writers. While they are preparing documentation for
your U.S. release, they must also keep in mind the requirements for
simultaneous or subsequent localization. This process of designing a product so
that it can be exported to other countries is known as internationalization.

Documentation that has been properly internationalized is easier, less costly,

and more efficient to localize. Not only does this reduce your localization costs,
but it can have huge indirect savings as well. Faster localization often means
quicker time to market and accelerated revenue streams.

Some tips that can help your company realize these benefits are described in
the following sections.

Layout Issues: Allow for Text Expansion

It is vitally important that your document's layout leaves enough room (i.e.,
white space) for the inevitable text expansion that occurs during the
localization process. This cannot be overemphasized; formatting the translated
document is far easier and more efficient when adequate space is available.
Formatting costs can rise dramatically when the translated text must be
laboriously manipulated to fit within a cramped space.

As a general rale, assume that your English text will expand 20 to 30 % when
it is translated. This should provide sufficient white space in the English source
document for effective localization. In technical documentation, there is a
tendency to crowd pages with too much information, impairing the readability
of the material presented. Keep in mind that extra white space also makes
your English version that much more readable. Because the exact amount of
expansion varies by language, please refer to the table presented in Chapter 9
for specific percentages.

Another factor that contributes to text expansion is whether or how

hyphenation is used in your document. For example, many German or Dutch
words can be much longer than their English counterparts, and many are also
hyphenated. How these hyphenated words are handled will either create an
opportunity for convenient line breaks, offsetting much of the extra space that
would otherwise be required, or necessitate even more white space.

If your text does expand when translated, you will need to decide whether the
localized documents should maintain the same page breaks and the same total
number of pages as the English source document. It is generally easier, and
therefore less expensive, if page breaks can flow during the localization
process. From the perspective of customer support, however, it is often
preferable for the localized manuals to match the page breaks in the English
version so that support personnel can easily refer to "page 37 of the manual"
for solving a problem. If page break matching between languages is necessary,
it is even more important to allow for that "extra white space" described
above. Matching page breaks from source to target documents can add to the
cost of the project, especially when the source document does not allow
sufficient white space for text expansion.

When you are ready to hand off your materials to a localization provider,
always include a PDF file with the electronic source files. This allows the
provider to double-check that the localized files match the electronic file you
provided. It is all too easy to accidentally hand off the wrong revision or
version of files for localization.

Graphical Considerations: Separate Text from Graphics

Ideally, graphics should not contain text for the simple reason that it
eliminates the need to translate it. If text must be associated with a graphic,
try to create the text as a separate component in the page-layout application
(e.g., FrameMaker, QuarkXPress, InDesign) used to create the document. That
is, a callout or caption for a graphic ideally should be a text block in the layout
program, not an element of an Illustrator Encapsulated Postscript (EPS) file.
This requires less work to localize (saving you money), as the graphic text is
part of the main document text and not a layer inside the graphic file.

If you must include text in EPS graphic files, remember to leave it in text form.
Do not outline the text, as this makes it very difficult and time-consuming to
retype and translate.

Screen captures are a special category of graphics. By their very nature they
contain text. Translation of screen capture text is accomplished through
localization of the software that was used to generate the English captures.
Once the software is localized, the screen captures are regenerated. When
developing application software, be aware of how the text fits in various
windows. As with printed documents, avoid packing text too tightly because,
as described in Chapter 9, it will expand when the software is localized. When
creating the screen captures, be sure to generate all of them at the same
screen resolution and scale, and then save the files in the same format used by
the document layout application. You will also want to employ a logical naming
convention that will help identify where they are placed.

Limit Your Font Types and Font Faces

When selecting fonts for a new document destined for translation, simpler is
better. Some languages contain a multitude of accents and special characters
that can become illegible if overly ornate or decorative fonts are used. The
conventional combination of a standard serif font (e.g., Times) for body copy
and a standard sans serif font (e.g., Helvetica) for headings is a good example
of font selections that work well for translation. In general, stick to fonts that
are clean and crisply drawn, avoiding fonts with exceptionally thin serifs or
wispy detail.

Try to keep the total number of fonts used in the document to a manageable
number - no more than three or four. Ideally, select fonts that are available on
both PC and Macintosh platforms. This facilitates the easy movement of the
document across platforms, if required, during localization.

As a general rale, custom or proprietary fonts can be problematic. They are

often expensive or difficult to acquire. If required in the final deliverable for
branding purposes, expect to provide them to your localization provider. Not
only will it reduce time and expense, but you will be sure to get the exact font
you need.

Some languages require extended character sets that provide accented letters
such as "1." Many specialized fonts do not support languages other than
English because they lack this extended character set, so select your fonts
carefully. Still other languages need special fonts that are not available as
extended character sets. For example, Japanese, Korean, Traditional and
Simplified Chinese are considered "double-byte languages," which means that
each written character contains two bytes (16 bits) of data instead of one byte
(8 bits). This used to cause problems for applications and operating systems
that did not support double-byte characters. Fortunately, today's operating
systems and the applications that ran on them use Unicode. Unicode directly
supports the double-byte character sets, as well as all other character sets,
making the display of foreign characters much easier.

Character styles used in Western European or U.S. English layouts are not
always transferable to Asian languages. In many cases they are not used at all.
For instance, character styles such as bold and italic are not always applicable
to Asian type styles. Furthermore, Asian characters do not distinguish between
upper- and lowercase. For design purposes, the best way to distinguish Asian
characters from surrounding text is to vary the font face or weight (e.g., using
a heavier version of a typeface for added emphasis). Your localization provider
should offer a variety of techniques to help keep the look and feel you
originally intended for your Asian products.

Internationalize Your Templates

If you use templates and associated scripts to provide a standard look and feel
for your layout, it is important to consider localization issues when designing
that template. Scripts that automatically capitalize titles, for example, rarely
work correctly on translated content, since capitalization rales vary by
language. So keep your target languages in mind, isolating text and automated
formatting in clearly identified sections of the template so that your localization
provider can easily find it.

Develop a Glossary

Glossaries help linguists understand any industry- or product-specific terms

you use in your writing. As you write, keep a separate list of terms that have
special meanings. If, at the beginning of the project, you provide these terms
and their definitions to your localization provider you will receive a much
higher quality product at the end. See Chapter 5 for more detailed information
about glossaries.

Write Marketing Materials with Localization in Mind

Marketing materials may require special handling as they do not always

localize easily. The text and images that succinctly communicate your company
or product to an American audience may not be relevant in Europe or Asia. We
are all familiar with the stories about product names that take on a second
meaning when introduced in another market. If possible, create your
marketing materials with localization in mind, and keep the content as precise
and globally understandable as possible. If this is not possible, be prepared to
provide supplementary materials that will help explain the background,
concept, and context behind your marketing campaign. At this point,
localization may become less about straightforward translation, and more
about creating the same idea or message while using a different concept
altogether. This is where your localization partner will prove their expertise and
become invaluable to you.

Remember Your International Audience

When developing your content, avoid using slang terms and culturally biased
graphics. Slang is difficult to translate and understand in a foreign context.
Similarly, graphics can also have a cultural bias that can be confusing. A rabbit
might be used in an English document to represent "fast," but to the French it
looks like dinner!

Define Acronyms

Write out the full form of each acronym when it first appears in the source
documentation. Later, when translated, the first use of the acronym should be
both defined and translated in the target language, even if the acronym
remains in its English form throughout the document.

Monitor Your Word Count

The cost of localization is directly related to the number of words you write;
more words mean higher costs. Monitor your documentation word count by
using the "Word Count" command found in your development software. Keep
sentence structure and grammar simple and vocabulary choices clear.

Use Repetitions in Your Documentation

The cost of localization can also be lowered by including repetitions in your

documentation. Most localization providers use tools to help identify text that
can be leveraged; that is, once translated it can be re-used either within the
same document or in subsequent versions. (See Chapter 6 for more details
about translation tools.) Although you may earn style points for finding new
and different ways to say the same thing every time a phrase or concept
appears in your English source document, you might also surpass your budget
by doing so. Including lots of repetitions in the text will increase the leveraging
percentages, which in turn can substantially lower the localization cost.

Re-use Your Content

Many companies make their documentation available to customers in both a

paper-based medium and an electronic form, such as HTML and PDF formats.
Other companies have opted to save the printing and distribution charges
associated with hardcopy manuals and rely solely on the electronic versions.
Both HTML and PDF formats are widely used on the Internet and on alternative
media such as distribution CDs because they appear virtually the same
regardless of the operating system the customer uses to view them. For
complex, interrelated documents, HTML and PDF formats also offer the
advantage of incorporating hypertext - clicking on a cross-reference, index, or
table of contents entry takes the user immediately to the relevant entry.

When generating electronic documents, you want the output style to convey
the same structured sense of importance that was incorporated in the print
document. Moreover, a document that does not use style tags efficiently (i.e.,
one that uses a different style tag each time to produce exactly the same
formatting attributes), requires much more time to set up than a document
that uses only one style tag to represent this uniform style. Using consistent
style definitions throughout your document allows both PDF bookmark data
and HTML style tags to be generated in the localized files more easily.

Content Management Systems [CMS Tools]

The advent of single-source and content management technologies has

everyone thinking about content re-use. For FrameMaker users, it is now
possible to structure a document that contains all of your print and online help
content and to use single-source publishing tools to publish this content as
print documentation, online (HTML-based) documentation, help files, and
functional PDFs. Each published output may use all of the original content, or
just a subset that can be selected using conditional text. Similarly, XML-based
content management systems allow you to store content "chunks" in a
database structure and to publish your deliverables from those chunks. Both
processes are great for localization because translation has to occur only once
for use in many outputs. See Chapters 15 and 16 for more information about
single-source content management tools. Creating modular content
repositories (whether for single-source applications or complete content
management systems) takes planning to design a logical structure that is easy
to reference. Though these tools may offer substantial savings in time, effort,
and money, they also require careful planning before starting the process.

 Case Study
Product: Training Materials for an SAP implementation

Situation

A leading global manufacturer of consumer products made a three year,

several hundred million dollar commitment to implement SAP - a well known
business process improvement software. Through the coordination of both in-
house and professional services consultants, the software was rolled out to
facilities first in the U.S., then to Europe and Asia.

To maximize the utilization of the software, the manufacturer initiated a global

end-user training program to accompany the implementation. After conducting
a series of internal needs assessments in each global locale, the company
determined that the training for certain courses would be more effective if
taught

in the native language of the employees, rather than English. The decision to
translate the courses is typically based on the level of English comprehension
expected from the locale's employee base. For example, in the accounts
payable department, English comprehension might be quite high, which means
that translating the training material is not necessary. Conversely, since the
English comprehension level of the facility's warehousing personnel is low, they
may need to be taught in the local language.

The training materials included a traditional instructor-led (ILT) curriculum and

a web-based application that functioned as an intelligent help system sitting on
top of the SAP software. The company's challenge was to find a localization
partner who provided experience with SAP, the ability to deliver quality results
under aggressive timelines, and the technical know-how to work within the
parameters of the project. Finally, and perhaps most commonly, the project
budget was very limited, so a cost-effective localization solution was needed -
without compromising the imperative for quality and speed.

Project Scope

Database localization: Four localizable tables in a SQL Server database,

totaling 310,000 words.
Instructor Led Training: 30 PowerPoint presentations, totaling 1,350 slides
and 65,000 words.

Supplemental Materials: 18 MS Word documents, totaling 85 pages and

11,000 words.

Timeline: 12 Weeks.

Process

Given that the majority of the localizable content resided in a SQL Server
database, extracting the text into a useable format for the linguistic tasks
became a chief concern. Tables may be exported as Excel worksheets;
however, there are notable disadvantages to using Excel: field formatting is
lost, and managing suing lengths becomes difficult if not impossible. Moreover,
without the use of a sophisticated software tool, repetitious strings cannot
automatically be excluded from the training materials.

As part of our solution we selected a tool designed expressly for database

localization. This provided an intuitive user interface (UI) for the linguists, tools
to manage suing lengths, and the ability to exclude duplicate strings
(repetitions) from translation. Because identical strings only had to be
translated once, significant cost savings and shortened timelines were
achieved. It also ensured that repetitions were consistently translated
throughout the material. Finally, in light of the aggressive timeline, we worked
together with the client to prioritize translating the materials based on the
training schedule. In this manner, we customized a "just-in-time" localization
process, delivering localized courses to the customer as they were needed.

Localization Testing. What is Localization Testing?

by Leonard Morales

Localization of software is a complex process. There are a lot of potential

failure points for any localization endeavor, both grammatical and cultural. For
this reason, localization testing is an essential component in the development
cycle of a successfully localized product.
Localization testing consists of three primary components:

- Cosmetic Testing,

- Functional Testing, and

- Linguistic Testing.

Translator Requirements

At PC Test, our localization testing is executed by a team of Translators,

QATest Engineers and QA Technicians. All of the translators are highly qualified
and experienced professionals who are selected according to the following
criteria:

- Translators must be a native of the nation from which the target language
originates,

- Fluency in the commonly spoken form of English and the target language,

- Fluency in the technical terminology of English and the target language, and

- Experience:

- As a Translator,

- Working in the computer technology sector both in English and the target
language,

- With a variety of platforms and applications.

Localization Methodology

All testing is performed on a system that is ghosted with a clean installation of

the target language's OS version(s). Generally the ghosts have the latest
patches and updates installed and are set for a typical user experience. Ghosts
can easily be manipulated in accordance with our clients' specifications and
requirements.

Cosmetic Testing
Cosmetic testing ensures that the localization process did not cause any visual
errors. The aesthetic appeal of the localization is also judged during this
process. The alignment and size consistency of buttons and boxes can
contribute to a failure of the localized products acceptance in the target market
simply because it is not visually appealing.

Extraneous Content

• Content (suing or character) that appears in the foreign localized version but
not in the English version will be considered a failure in localization.

Text Truncation

• Occurs when a text field is allotted a space that is appropriate for the English
version, but the target language translation requires a larger text field to
accommodate the correct foreign spelling.

• Truncated words appear to be cut off. Truncation is highly prevalent in some

localizations.

Text Overrun

• Occurs when the localized text exceeds the field boundary.

• Rare, but would be considered a failure in localization.

Menu Consistency

• Menus can also be affected by localization. Sometimes there are a different

number of menu items in a localized version of software than in its English
counterpart.

Unique Hot Keys

• Hot keys are occasionally doubled up within menus if they are not properly
allocated during the localization process.

Functional Testing
Functionality problems can (and usually are) introduced during the localization
process. To identify such errors, some of the basic operations that are
commonly tested on the target platform are:

- Install, installation modification, and uninstall,

- Menu functions and hot keys,

- Basic driver manipulation and operation,

- Core application functions,

- Localized input device functionality (international keyboards and layouts),

- Regional default settings,

-  Does the program default to the computer's regional setting and provide
correct settings for items such as paper size, date/time, number, and currency
formats?

- Copy and pasting of special characters into and out of the application

- Document transferability, and

- Can saved documents created in the domestic version be used in the

localized version?

- Compatibility Testing.

- Testing the compatibility of the localized version with commonly used

applications of the target market can expose problems that might occur on a
typical end-user computer.

Linguistic Testing

Linguistic testing is the largest component of localization testing. Linguistic

errors are also the most common errors in localization. Some of the key
linguistic errors are as follows:

Missing Content,
• Content that appears in the English version but is missing from the target
language version.

Spelling Errors,

• Checking for spelling errors in the foreign localized version will ensure that all
words are spelled correctly and according to the standards of the foreign
language.

Accuracy of Translation,

• Each word will be viewed and edited according to the highest standards of
the foreign language.

• Slang terms and lower idioms of the language would be considered a failure
in localization.

Literal vs. Functional Translations,

• Literal translations are not appropriate for localization because grammatical

structure varies by language. A functional translation is the solution to this
problem.

• Functional translations address these issues by ensuring that the translation

is not just word for word but also adheres to the grammatical rules of the
target language.

• Word-for-word sentence translation into any foreign language would not

necessarily make any sense and may end up seeming bizarre to a native
speaker of that language.

• Functional translations are critical to a successful localization.

Translation Consistency,

• Translation consistency is verified. This is primarily for standardized or official

terminology such as naming schemes such as "Company X Software X."
• This example in particular would be left in English throughout the GUI as it is
the name of the product and the company that produces it.

• This practice is the predominant standard of the industry.

• Translation consistency also verifies that functions with multiple instances are
referenced using the same translation such as "close," "file," "edit," etc.

• Inconsistent translations are considered a failure in localization.

Language Style,

• Language style consistency ensures that the methods of description for items
are consistent with the predominant style of the target language's technical
terminology.

• In English you could say "sheet," "page," "paper" and they roughly could
mean the same thing. The commonly accepted standard of style would dictate
that "page" be used in many contexts for domestic products. Lack of style
consistency would lower product acceptance in the target market.

Imperative Voice,

•   The imperative voice is standard for verb tense usage for software.
Using the imperative voice is proper for software applications that are
localized as well.

Example: We would say, "Turn off Computer" not "This Button Turns Off
the Computer." The imperative mood is often referred to as command voice,
as in giving commands.

Punctuation,

• Punctuation is verified as appropriate.

• Punctuation is not the same in every language and thus the proper
punctuation needs to be validated.

• If punctuation is incorrect, meaning can be lost.

Local Convention.

• Sensitivity to local convention is also considered in the localization process.

• Some phrases, words and gestures are offensive in some target markets that
would be considered harmless domestically.

• Offensive content would be considered a failure in localization.

About PC Test

PCTest provides enterprise-wide testing services for hardware, software, and

web/e-commerce applications. The company's state of the art testing lab is
unrivalled in the Pacific Northwest. With a rolling inventory of more than 1,000
computers, PCTest can provide large scale network testing for any size client
or system configuration. Core testing solutions include:

• Compatibility                                 • Accessibility

• Load and Stress                            • Benchmarking

• Functionality                                 • Performance

PCTest also offers comprehensive localization testing to provide unbiased,

independent testing of your software applications after they have been
translated into foreign languages. Using PCTest proprietary technology,
engineers are able to test multiple languages concurrently, providing real-time
test results through your online portal.
Lecture 3. Winning in the Global Market - The Critical Role of Culture

The view of Danielle Walker

Consider the following Working with Cultural Differences scenario:

Based on your success at the U.S.A. headquarters as a sales manager, you are
sent to China to oversee the creation of a new department. You are fluent in
both Mandarin and Cantonese, so verbal and written communication is not a
problem. During your first meeting with the new department, you discuss in
detail and in Mandarin your motivation and interest in making this department
one of your organization's top business units. You tell them about an incentive
program you created that will allow each member to excel and be rewarded for
individual contributions. You make decisions and implement changes you feel
will help achieve this goal. After a few days, it becomes apparent that your
Chinese subordinates are not enthusiastic about your plans.

Reasons: (A) They would prefer to be treated as a group and not receive
individual recognition for contributions.

(B) You did not consult them regarding your decisions.

(C) They feel insulted that you addressed them in Chinese instead of in
English.

(Correct answer found at the end of this article.)

Despite nearly two decades of corporate globalization efforts, many

organizations still struggle to find managers who are comfortable and effective
in the increasingly global economy. Most suffer from a lack of cultural
awareness when dealing with employees and overseas partners, and from a
lack of experience managing increasingly complex processes over long
distances.

But why is it so difficult to develop effective global managers? The answers are
as complex as the world's geographies. Each company has its own specific
needs and challenges, and every country presents a unique and rapidly
changing landscape in which work must be accomplished.
But even so, there are steps that companies and managers can take to better
prepare for the challenges of managing globally.

Why build Cultural Competence?

We believe that the Culturally Competent organization has a deep

understanding of culture that:

• Serves the understanding of markets,

• Improves communication with shareholders, partners, and customers,

• Drives process and efficiency improvements, and

• Creates opportunity for creativity and innovation.

What are the specific outcomes?

Culturally Competent organizations are responsive, agile, and adaptable at

many levels:

• Organization level - enabling the organization to strategically adapt and

develop its culture to the changing performance and talent requirements of the
global marketplace.

• Business unit/functional level - enabling the bridging of cultural gaps, the

effective exchange of knowledge, creating compatible business processes and
practices, and developing synergies between functional business cultures as
well as customers and suppliers.

• Team level - enabling a team or work group to effectively integrate new

talent, leverage knowledge and skill resources, engage its stakeholders,
develop and sustain effective and inclusive operating practices, and adapt to
change.

• Individual level - enabling individual employees, managers, and leaders to

operate effectively in the ambiguity, uncertainty, and complexity of a culturally
diverse employee, customer and supplier base, and geographically dispersed
matrix relationships.
Building Cultural Competence

Cultural Competence is an increasingly important aspect of a successful

manager and leader. Whether one is relocating to a different country, on a
temporary assignment, part of a regional or global team, or leading a regional
or global project, the ability to transcend cultural differences in the pursuit of
business objectives is a critical skill set. So how does one build Cultural
Competence?

Five discreet personal aspects can be isolated when looking at the learning
process that leads to Cultural Competence. These aspects are integral to a
cumulative learning process that yields specific behavioral skills and practices.

Open Attitude

• Receptive to cross-cultural learning and maintains an open and productive

attitude toward differences.

• Continuously challenges assumptions about other cultures.

Self-Awareness

•   Is aware of, and knowledgeable about, one's own cultural preferences.

•   Can articulate one's own cultural values, beliefs, attitudes, and how they
are reflected in behavior.

•   Can identify how differences between one's own culture and another's
culture could lead to misunderstandings.

•   Is aware of how interaction with another culture makes one uncomfortable.

•   Can identify ways to adapt that will support cross-cultural interactions.

Other-Awareness

•   Recognizes the cultural values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of others in

order to develop new cross-cultural business skills.

•   Correctly identifies the cultural preferences of one's counterparts and how

these preferences are expressed in their behavior.

•   Observes and articulates areas of shared cultural perspectives to find

common ground.

•   Gauges one's counterpart's willingness to learn about one's own cultural

preferences.

•   Identifies ways to build stronger cross-cultural relationships.

Cultural Knowledge

•   Has acquired, or can acquire as necessary, a comprehensive knowledge of

other specific social and business cultures.

•   Correctly identifies the general knowledge needed about a culture.

•   Gathers specific business or industry knowledge to conduct business in this

context.

Cultural Skills

• Has the necessary skills to work effectively across cultures in many different
business contexts.
• Can translate cultural awareness and knowledge into skills. Improves one's
own ability to work in multicultural situations.

• Continues to refine and improve skills.

• Adapts own business practices or management skills appropriately to

particular cultures and situations.

• Negotiations are conducted and people are led.

•    Knows where to get necessary information and builds networks of contacts
who can offer insight into other cultures.

We have identified four interrelated skills that define the critical skill set of
culturally competent managers and leaders.

1. Cultural Due Diligence is the practice of assessing and preparing for the
possible impact of culture and doing preparatory activities that involve (1)
investigating and determining the cultural backgrounds and orientations of
one's colleagues, counterparts, partners, clients, etc; (2) evaluating potential
and actual gaps; and (3) developing a strategy for minimizing any resulting
negative effects.

2. Style Switching is the ability to use a broad and flexible behavioral

repertoire in order to accomplish one's goals. It may be the result of Cultural
Due Diligence.

3. Cultural Dialogue is the ability to elicit cultural information through

conversation, and thereby illuminate cultural underpinnings of behavior and
performance, close cultural gaps, and create cultural synergy.

4. Cultural Mentoring is the ability to facilitate cultural understanding and

integration to a new and different cultural environment. Whether it is assisting
a new colleague in decoding the cultural norms of a new organization or team,
helping two groups integrate practices, or coaching an international assignee in
managing the difficulties of culture shock, this skill amounts to utilizing one's
awareness and knowledge to bring about cultural integration and effectiveness
in one's sphere of influence.
About Culture

AtTMC, we believe that most approaches to culture awareness fall short and
are not well matched to the types of cultural challenges typically faced by
globalizing organizations and by global managers and leaders. To be useful, a
perspective on culture needs to be of practical value in helping us to (1)

navigate a broad spectrum of differences; (2) understand the fundamentals of

various cultures and cross-cultural interactions; and (3) translate this
understanding into personal behaviors and organizational expectations. To
guide us in our endeavor, we have developed several axioms about culture:

Axiom 1: Cultural Boundaries are Not National Boundaries

In the field of cross-cultural communication, the concept of cultural boundaries

is often used interchangeably with those of geographical and political
boundaries (i.e., the nation). This perspective delineates different values and
belief systems largely on the basis of national boundaries and nicely matches
the contemporary understanding of the world, in which we have
institutionalized the boundaries of sovereign nation-states as the universally
recognized boundaries between peoples.

This notion has served well those businesses that divided the world into neat
geographic regions and serviced them with a multinational organizational
structure. However, with the dynamic expansion of globalization, using
geographical/political worldviews to represent cultural differences is no longer
useful and in fact carries with it rather dangerous baggage.

The habit of atrributing characteristics to nationally defined groups is both

unrealistic and unproductive in the global work environment. First, less than 10
percent of the world's nation-states can be considered homogeneous. In only
half of these nation-states is there a single ethnic group that makes up more
than 75 percent the population. Multiculturalism is surely the norm and cultural
homogeneity the exception.

Axiom 2: Culture is a Shared Pattern of Ideas, Emotions and Behaviors

Culture operates on both a conscious and unconscious level; it is both a
characteristic of groups and is carried by individuals. Many of the commonly
used definitions of culture highlight these features.

We suggest that it is useful, in attempting to understand the programming

language of culture, to think of it as an iceberg. The proverbial "tip of the
iceberg" symbolizes the level of behavior and other observables/tangibles (i.e.,
the world of manifestations). Beneath the level of our daily awareness, this
behavior is linked to a world of values and meaning that is shared by a group.
This internal world, which consists of ideas and their emotional value, is
symbolically expressed as the "bottom of the iceberg."

In simplistic terms, the shared linkage between a behavioral expression (a

handshake or a bow) and an idea or notion constitutes a norm. If we observe,
for example, that a particular group of people tends to shake hands upon
meeting, we may call this behavior the social norm for this group. The shared
linkage between an idea/notion and an emotion can be considered a value.

The Cultural Orientations Approach recognizes the connection between norms

and values by defining culture as the complex pattern of ideas, emotions, and
observable/symbolic manifestations (including behaviors, practices,
institutions, and artifacts) that tends to be expected, reinforced, and rewarded
by and within a particular group.

Axiom 3: Cultures Reflect Distinctive Value Orientations at Various

Levels
We may describe culture as holographic. Holographic images are built in such a
way that the smallest part contains the entirety of the image. The
magnificence of the entire three-dimensional image that we behold is the
result of the amplification and magnification of the totality of the smallest
parts. Culture seems to work in much the same way in that its smallest part,
namely the individual, contains within it the deep structure of values and
norms. Both are amplified and reinforced in interpersonal interactions. The
small group - or, in a business context, the team - further magnifies and
reinforces cultural configurations. The same thing happens again at the larger
societal level, or, in a business context, at the organizational level.

It is useful for our purposes to distinguish four interrelated levels of culture:

1. The individual, interpersonal level. This level is the primary building block of
culture. It is at this level that we most significandy experience and create
culture, specifically through, and in, interactions with others. We may think of
ourselves as reflections of a societal pattern of values and norms, a reflection
that we exhibit through our actions and interactions. Through ourselves, we
can both become aware of the larger societal patterns and also effect cultural
changes through active shifts and changes in these patterns.

2. The group or team level. This level refers to social groupings of varying sizes
as well as to functional/professional groups and teams. Each such group
requires a set of values and norms if it is to be cohesive. As our interactions
shape the dynamics of the group or team of which we are members, we as
individuals directly affect the pattern of values and norms that define that
group or team.

3. The organizational level. This level is a further amplification of basic cultural

themes and configurations. It represents the deep patterns of values and
norms that define societal institutions, including business organizations.

4. The societal level. This level involves the distinctive set of values, norms,
practices, and institutions that define what it means to be a member of the
society. It is the largest frame in which we feel membership, such as the
nation or modern society.
Summary

When organizations globalize, the skill base of every manager changes and the
importance of cultural awareness becomes increasingly important. Every
cultural group is characterized by a distinct set of behavioral norms, practices
and institutions. An effective training and awareness program will embrace
these differences and improve the ability of individuals, teams, and
organizations to perform across a broad cultural spectrum. Most importantly, it
will also enable individuals and groups to contribute to their fullest potential by
leveraging their unique experiences, perspectives, and viewpoints for the
collective benefit of all

Correct Answer to Working with Cultural Differences:

(A) You have inaccurately assumed that the competitiveness used as

motivation and an incentive to sales forces in the U.S.A. will have the same
impact with members of a Chinese sales force. Such an approach may be
unpopular with the Chinese for at least two reasons: The culture is much more
cooperative in nature than in the U.S.A., using established networks to
accomplish goals; and the Chinese would prefer group recognition to having
individuals excel.

The Future of Translation and Localization

by Laurel Wagers

Translators and localizers work, like all of us, in an environment where

demands are changing and the tools with which to meet those demands are
changing as well. In this book, Lingo Systems team members have described
the state of their art, shared their experiences and generously given the kind
of advice that will help clients plan, conduct and evaluate projects. This solid
information can remove hesitation, clear up uncertainty and provide a
foundation for successful business efforts.

Language technology has changed enormously in recent years. Users of major

operating systems select their language from a menu; fonts are available that
include all the characters in the Unicode encoding scheme; and the PDF format
with embedded fonts has made multilingual documents and websites not only
possible but practicable. Windows, Macintosh, and Linux users all have the
tools to work in the world's major languages and scripts as well as many that
are less commonly used. Developers around the world have the means and
motivation to create software in their languages of choice for use, not just on
desktops but on mobile devices. Translation tools are developing to keep up
with the constantly increasing flood of information being shipped around the
world in ever-more-varied formats.

Internationalization and support of multiple languages are no longer "nice to

have" software options but necessities. Many clients require these
technologies, and if the major software companies don't provide versions for
their languages, independent developers will. Multilingualism is rapidly
becoming a "given," a quality that is assumed, and a product will be
considered deficient without it.

Translation

The fundamentals of transferring information and ideas from one language to

another are simple. Speaker or writer in language A reaches listener or reader
in language B, C, or M through the work of an interpreter or translator who
knows both the source (A) and target (B/C/M) language. This much stays the
same, whether the tools are pen and paper, or digital displays. How that
translation takes place, however, is changing rapidly, as this guide has made
clear.

Wherever the source-language speech, book, or electronic file (input) comes

from, a translator works with dictionaries, writing instrument - pen, typewriter,
computer - and a readable medium - papyrus, vellum, paper, electronic file -
the output method. Working with electronic tools introduces a number of new
elements in the workflow. Translation memory (TM) allows the translator to
look back at a database of previous work. Now, using web-based tools and
exchange formats, translators collaborate on global projects without leaving
their offices or buying new software. The translator is often called on to work
with machine translation software that "pre-translates" text before it reaches
him or her, and the translator's role sometimes becomes that of post-editor.
All this changes the specific steps in the process and may increase a
translator's speed, but does not alter the time-honored flow: source-language
text > expert translator + currently available tools target-language text.

Given that the basic equation remains the same, what trends are affecting
translation and localization today?

Here are a few: commodification; collaboration; and some interesting

developments in niches, reverses, and "blowback."

Commodities

One trend at present is the commodification of translation - considering

translation, a product or a standardized component of a project. Translation
and localization typically require a fraction of 1% of a project budget for even
the most complex software products and websites.

Decision makers who understand language issues know that language quality
is worth the investment; good localization typically results in revenue increases
many times greater than the cost of the work. But some clients emphasize
price above other factors. If language is a commodity and if quality is
irrelevant or actually can be standardized, then perhaps price is a major factor.
But short-term savings from using free online translation engines or dictionary
lookup may be offset by long-term losses if products or services are poorly
represented in the second language. And while outsourcing and offshoring are
sometimes seen as ways to save money, skilled translators must be paid fairly
wherever they are. Good translation software requires an investment in
"training" with specialized dictionaries, rales, and databases to produce
translations that people then can post-edit.

One aspect of translation that has positive potential as a commodity, however,

is the material in TMs, previously translated text that could be licensed
somewhat like a specialized dictionary.

Technologies
The devices people carry with them are shrinking, and more of them combine
functions - making phone calls, surfing the internet, taking pictures, watching
videos, and listening to music, for example. At least one 2006 camera model
includes a program to translate photographed words. Standards and exchange
formats such as HTML, XML, SGML, and TMX reduce the friction between
operating systems. The development of the Semantic Web is expected to help
computers read and write to one another, creating an electronic "global mind"
that analyzes, sifts, and recombines information on its own - in any language.

Handheld personal phrase translators are in use in military and medical

situations - not replacing interpreters, but filling in for them in emergencies.
The Star Trek universal translator is not just science fiction: it is in
development.

Only a few years into the cell-phone/pager/SMS evolution, increasingly

sophisticated language technology is embedded in our lives. Multilingual
instant multimedia messaging is launching through several wireless phone
companies. A few years ago that was a goal; in 2006 it's a new feature; and by
2008 it will be a basic part of phone and text message service. Text a note to
the Tokyo office in your language of choice, say, English; your counterpart
reads it in Japanese or Russian or Hindi and replies in that language; and you
read the reply in English. The Star Trek universal communicator draws closer
to reality.

Another factor in this changing workscape is enormous volumes of material to

be translated. As countries have joined the European Union (EU), keeping up
with translation of official documents has created some new ways of working.
In some cases, translators work through pivot languages - Estonian > French
or English > Greek, for example - rather than directly between Estonian and
Greek.

An important aspect of dealing with massive amounts of documentation to be

translated is writing with translation in mind. This begins with clear, concise,
well-written source-language text. Documentation that is hard to understand in
one language is not likely to be improved by a faithful translation into another.
Strategies include use of controlled language, collaboration, use of TMs and the
use of ever-more-sophisticated translation tools to process the source-
language content.

Business

How will the translation-localization-internationalization-globalization industry

change and develop? First, individual translators will always have a place. They
will work independently, in teams, through agencies, or directly with clients.
They will continue to work with all the tools available, such as TM, which
reduces repetitive work; content management and workflow technologies,
which help organize large projects; and speech-to-text, which helps its user to
produce documents with less physical effort.

Second, while mergers, acquisition and consolidation will undoubtedly

continue, "bigness" has its own limitations. Innovative and specialized
companies and individuals will find niches in which they can build careers,
serving what has been called the "long tail" - the relatively small number of
customers who need particular languages for specific businesses. Again, the
internet allows specialists and their potential clients to find each other, which
means that even microbusinesses can have major exposure.

Collaboration

One of the most important recent developments, thanks to the internet, has
been the rapid increase in collaborative business and development efforts.
Open-source software development is a well-known example that has produced
all kinds of software from the Linux operating system down to time-card
programs. Other forms include networked translation projects, web seminars,
web-based meeting applications, wikis such as Wikipedia, multiplayer games,
movies, terminology databases, preservation of endangered languages, an
open subtitling application, and all manner of file-sharing networks. The
possibilities are limited only by the imagination and bandwidth of potential co-
creators.

Reverses
Another trend that's probably as old as trade is what Reinhard Schaler of the
Localisation Research Centre in Ireland calls "reverse localization" selling
products with an appeal to customers' desire for the exotic and strange:
French perfume, Scotch whisky, German cars, Chinese silk, Australian
sunscreen, Brazilian bikinis, and Hawaiian sport shirts. When the marketplace
seems to be full of goods that are all the same, that foreign label (Australians
know harsh sun, so the sunscreen should be excellent) is a differentiator. But if
you are in Portland, Oregon, making Australian-style sunscreen, you need to
get your Aussie lingo right - especially if you want to sell it in Australia. Time
to call in the translation/localization team!

For a number of years localization seemed to be in one direction: United

States/Europe to the rest of the world (ROW). But as a result of open-source
development, new training and business opportunities, widespread wireless
access, and other factors, a counter-trend, or what Schaler calls "blowback"
localization, has developed. People in ROW are building the applications they
need at the cost they can afford and with the capabilities they desire. Some of
their products may well be localized for U.S. or European customers and will be
popular there for the same reasons they are successful at home. They'll need
translators and localizers, too.