(Paper) Fernandez Costales

Translation 2.0.
The localization of institutional websites

under the scope of functionalist approaches
Alberto FERNNDEZ COSTALES
University of Oviedo
Abstract
The current paper addresses the importance of localization and its role within
Translation Studies. Besides explaining the concept of localization, we will focus on the
benefits of localizing for both companies and users. The possible advantages for
institutions will also be suggested in a different level.
Since localization is a purpose-driven process, we propose applying the Skopostheorie
in order to provide a theoretical ground to the particular case of website localization. In
addition we will briefly comment on the eternal question of whether localization and
translation are the same discipline or not, focusing on the concept of traditional
translation used in the localization industry.
As it is exposed in this article, there are a number of paradoxes that need to be solved in
the case of localization of institutional web pages. The impact of adapting websites for
higher education institutions and its possible influence on students mobility constitute
the foothold for the authors PhD, centred in the internationalization of websites in the
case of European Union universities.
1. Introduction
In the last decades the concepts of localization and internationalization have broken into
the international panorama involving quite an important number of areas and
disciplines, including Translation Studies. The ongoing effects of globalization have
reached areas far-distant from economy and have affected practically all spheres in our
society (Schffner 2000: 1). In addition to the new global configuration, we have
witnessed the explosion of the Internet and its development as an informative source
and a communication device used by millions of people every day. In this scenario,
translation is not only the basic tool for intercultural communication and a vehicle for
understanding among nations (Wiersema 2004), but it has turned into an essential
element for the economy of every company seeking an international presence beyond
the borders of its home country (Thibodeau 2000: 127, Corte 2002).
2009. Dries DE CROM (ed.). Translation and the (Trans)formation of Identities. Selected Papers of the
CETRA Research Seminar in Translation Studies 2008. http://www.kuleuven.be/cetra/papers/papers.html
Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0
2. Localization
In order to promote localization, and to foster its industry and best practices the
Localization Industry Standards Association (also known as LISA) was created in 1990.
This institution offers an official definition of the concept in its Localization Primer:
Localization is the process of modifying products or services to account for
differences in distinct markets. While this definition sounds simple, it actually
impacts many business and technical issues and requires a good deal of expertise
to implement successfully. Localization involves the adaptation of any aspect of
a product or service that is needed for a product to be sold or used in another
market. This process significantly impacts both technical and business functions
within organizations. This includes how sales are made; how products and
services are designed, built and supported; how financial reporting systems are
implemented; and so on. (LISA 2007: 11)
Localization has been widely discussed by multiple scholars and researches (Corte
2000; Esselink 2000; Austermhl 2001; OHagan & Ashworth 2002; Yunker 2002;
Pym 2005) and it is commonly accepted that this process aims to adapt a product into a
particular locale1 so that the final user does not perceive that it has been created in
another language under the umbrella of a different culture (Corte 2002). In order to
achieve this objective, localization involves not only translating the text into the target
language but also dealing with all semiotic and non-textual elements that the product
may convey: colours, images and icons, currencies, date formats, and so on (Esselink
2000: 33; Yunker 2002: 477).
One of the main premises of localization is to meet the requirements or standards
established in the target locale, thus the necessary modifications have to be done in
order to satisfy the final user of the product. Sprung illustrated all this with a very
didactic example of how localization works:
Localization is commonly defined as the process of taking a product hopefully

one that has been well internationalized- and adapting it to a specific locale or
target market or language group (translation is thus a subset of localization). An
example may help illustrate the point: designing an automobile chassis so that
the steering wheel could be installed on either the right or left would be a case of
The term locale is understood here in the sense defined by Anthony Pym: Those features of the
customers environment that are dependent upon language, country/region and cultural conventions
(Pym 1999).
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internationalization. The decision to actually make a given bath of cars leftsteering would be a case of localization. (Sprung 2000: xvii)
2.1. Why localizing? Benefits for companies & users
The world has shrunk due to the effects of globalization (Wiersema 2004), and in this
new situation localization is intended to cover the increasing demand for the adaptation
of contents. But why do companies really want to localize their products? Is it a must
to release a videogame or a software application in several languages at the same time?
Localization offers a wide range of benefits for companies that can be easily
understood by having a look at some figures. According to LISA, the global investment
in localization accounts for $ 5 billion per year, although if all the vertical markets were
included this amount could be as high as $15 billion (LISA 2007: 8). Similarly,
Thibodeau states that American software companies obtain 50% of their incomes from
international sales, and the translation of the products from English into other languages
increments the total sales of a vendor about 25%
(Thibodeau 2000: 127). It is
expectable that any company that localises its products will gain market share by
breaking into new markets and having more comparative advantages over its
competitors.
Moreover, legal restrictions and barriers can also be lifted if localization is
carried out in an appropriate way. To illustrate this with an example, we can take the
sector of transport and logistics, where time actually is money: the more time a ship is
in a dock, the more taxes and duties will have to be paid by the carrier (and by the final
consignee). In this case, the correct localization of products, software applications or
manuals to the destination locale will have a crucial importance in the performance of
workers and employees. Wagner Covos underlines the importance of localization for
economical and legal purposes in this descriptive example:
When a nylon shoulder for v-shear ram block screw is imported by a

company located in Brazil, the item is generally described on the invoice as a
simple screw. In order for the part to comply with the strict criteria of the
customs examination, the invoice translation must specify that it is part of a
blowout preventer (BOP), a piece of oilfield exploration equipment. Therefore,
if the term is translated into Portuguese and classified as parafuso de nylon de
ressalto para bloco de gaveta de corte, the customer will be able to benefit from
the associated tax exemption. On the other hand, if the word is not localized
and translated simply as parafuso, the inspectors will not be able to determine
whether the item is intended for the target activity or if they are dealing with a
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screw for a washing machine. Hence, the inspectors will not be able to apply the
usual tax exemption rules, which would otherwise benefit the importer of the
item. (Covos 2005)
Regarding the final users of the product, if this has been localized, they will have
immediate access to the information in their own native language, what makes them
more efficient and competent (Wallis 2006: 3). In the case of websites, localization
helps to implement factors such as usability and accessibility that will allow millions of
people to exchange information in the web in an efficient manner. This statement is
supported by research in the context of web pages, where users perceive a company
more favourably when they see a version of its website in their mother tongue,
regardless of their English proficiency (Tong and Hayward 2001: 4).
3. Translation vs. localization
Whether translation and localization are the same concept or not is a rather complex and
controversial issue that has been discussed in several research articles and debates.
From the point of view of the localization industry, one of the most accepted ideas is
that localization is a wider process than translation and that it involves a number of
additional tasks. This has been summarized by Bert Esselink, who provides a quite clear
definition of the position of the sector on this matter: Translation is only one of the
activities in localization; in addition to translation, a localization project includes many
other tasks such as project management, software engineering, and desktop publishing
(Esselink 2000: 4). This is an official view supported by many professionals (Dohler
1997; Donoso 2002; Scholand 2002; Arevalillo 2004).
Localization can provide new insights into translation practice, but there are
certain weaknesses to be spotted. Even though there is a whole industry supported by
institutions like LISA or GALA, there is a certain lack of theoretical framework
underpinning localization that can be effectively supplied by Translation Studies. As
Anthony Pym suggests in one of his articles addressing this topic:
Translation theory has a lot to learn from localization. Efficiency, teamwork,

client-liaison and technology-know-how are just a few examples. So why would
localization have nothing to learn from translation theory? (Pym 2006)
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In fact, Translation Studies can offer a whole background to explain some of the most
common problems and hurdles localizers have to tackle every day. In this article we
support the hypothesis that functionalist approaches can be used to analyse and explain
the basics of localization, as several researchers have already pointed (Maroto 2005;
Sandrini 2005; Nauert 2007). To the previous question what has localization to learn
from translation theory? we propose a very concise answer here, viz. Skopostheorie.
The Skopostheorie was enunciated by Hans Vermeer in 1978 and later
developed into a more general theory together with Katherina Reiss in the classical
Grundlegung einer allgemeinen Translationstheorie (1984). In the 90s, this translation
theory was enriched by the contributions made by Christiane Nord (1991; 1997). Since
this is a functionalist theory, the communicative and socio-cultural aspects of translation
will be highlighted as a point of differentiation from other, more linguistically driven
approaches to translation (Schffner 2001: 235).
The main ideas to be drawn from the Skopostheorie establish that translation is a
human action determined by the purpose (the skopos in Greek) it has to fulfil. Hence,
the function to be accomplished by the target text and the effect it aims to produce in the
final receivers are the elements that will determine the translation strategies to be
followed by the translator. This conclusion is expressed by the formula IA (Trl) = f(Sk)
(Vermeer 1978: 100) that states that translation is a human action determined by its
purpose. In other words, translation is a function of its skopos.
This theory places an enormous emphasis on the importance of the target text
(with the source text loosing some of its traditional importance) and also awards the
translator a relevant role in the process of transferring the message between cultures. In
this regard, the translator becomes an expert and the cultural mediator (or cultural
worker, quoting Gentzler 2001: 71) that has to overcome all the difficulties and
challenges of conveying the message to the final receiver. In this context, the
instructions provided by the commissioner or initiator of the process the translation
brief according to Christiane Nord (1997: 30) do have something to say, as we will
state later on in this paper.
A key element to bear in mind when talking about the Skopostheorie (and for the
purpose of this paper) is the concept of loyalty coined by Christiane Nord in 1991.
The translator is committed bilaterally to the source and the target situations
and is responsible to both the ST sender (or the initiator, if he is the one who
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takes the senders part) and the TT recipient. This responsibility is what I
call loyalty. Loyalty is a moral principle indispensable in the relationships
between human beings who are partners in a communication process. (Nord
1991: 94)
Since translation is a human action according to Vermeer (1978), loyalty is a necessary
and indispensable element for this process to be considered truly functional. In addition,
this particular notion stands for a valuable tool in the case of website localization, as we
will try to explain in the following paragraphs.
The aim of this paper is not to give a comprehensive description of the
functionalist approaches in translation but to outline how Skopostheorie can be applied
to website localization, as well as how it can give a theoretical answer to certain
questions. In fact, a functionalist approach has already been used in the analysis of
promotional texts (Valds 2004; Maroto 2005), and even web localization (Sandrini
2005). Some of the main criticisms on this theory like the difficulty of applying the
scopos to literary texts (Snell-Hornby 1990: 84) are not commented on this article
since we are dealing with more technical texts.
So, what exactly can Skopostheorie contribute to the study of localization? As
we have already mentioned, localization is a target-oriented process in which the final
product has to fulfil a precise function. This is in accordance with the functional
approach of Vermeer: localization is determined by the particular skopos of every
singular project. In addition, the role of the commissioner and the translation brief are
major concerns in the case of localization since it is a market-driven process that
follows the constraints of practices such as simultaneous shipment or simship, where
several versions of the same product are released in different markets at the same time
(Esselink 2000: 111).
Arguably, the single most interesting point for research is the role of the
translator or localizer within the process. Localization industry professionals and even
some translation scholars claim localizers have a tremendous freedom when modifying
and adapting the products to suit the final audience expectations, with the coinage of
transcreation (Mangiron & OHagan 2006) to refer to this kind of liberty. However,
some voices have already contradicted the creation of a neologism that has nothing new
to offer to the concept of translation, where creativity and translators freedom are
already included (Bernal 2006). In this context, we suggest Christiane Nords notion of
loyalty to be explored and applied to the particular case of localization. As a moral
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principle, loyalty should be used in order to guarantee translators responsibility and to

settle a kind of firewall towards an excessive freedom of choice. This is the case
particularly with website localization, where the translator should keep in mind his/her
role as cultural expert in a communicative action.
So far we have exposed how functionalist approaches can be applied to
localization in order to explain some of the features of this process. However, we should
address the wider issue of the status of localization regarding Translation Studies. One
of the problems we are facing when dealing with this question is the concept of
translation that is commonly used in the localization industry:
Software localisation is different from the traditional concept of translation in

the sense that the former calls for the linguistic transfer to be combined with
software engineering, as the translated strings (lines of text) need to be compiled
back into the given software environment. (Mangiron & OHagan 2006)
The concept of traditional translation is frequently used in localization handbooks and
articles (Esselink 2000: 2; Arevalillo 2004). However, from a critical point of view it is
not clear or specified what is understood as traditional translation (maybe word-forword transfer?) but it seems the progress achieved the last 20 years in the field of
Translation Studies is being ignored (Pym 2006). In this sense, localization could be
compared to more recent trends in translation like Audiovisual Translation where
more technical processes are also required (dubbing, subtitling) and several tasks are
performed simultaneously, as in the case of the film industry. The comparison with
Audiovisual Translation is also useful since this field or specialization has of late been
included in research topics and academic life.
In this paper we defend the hypothesis that translation and localization share the
common objective of transferring a text to a specific culture. If we assume a
multidimensional vision of translation as suggested by Nauert (2007) or just reject the
use of the concept traditional translation we can reach a meeting point where
adaptation is a broader term covering both items. It does not mean that we are ignoring
the claims that localization goes beyond translation (since the former incorporates more
tasks), but such differences do not make translation and localization mutually exclusive.
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4. The basics of localization
Many of the core features of localization have already been suggested in this paper (e.g.
adaptation of images, number formats and cultural elements, in addition to the
translation of text strings), but some of these factors need to be reviewed in order to
understand how this process works. Due to market constraints, localization is a
simultaneous process that goes along with the development of the product (Arevalillo
2004). In addition, localization involves a series of tasks and activities that have to be
tackled in order to consider a product to be successfully adapted. The following is a
checklist with some of the most common points to bear in mind:
Text: Although localization is primarily carried out in the so-called FIGS
languages French, Italian, German and Spanish plus Japanese (Esselink 2000: 8),
Chinese and other languages have gained a notorious importance in the last decades,
especially on the Web (as explained in section 5). Directionality of the text is an issue to
be addressed since some languages like Arabic are written from right to left (Yunker
2002: 395). Also, encoding and language character sets need to be reviewed in order to
make sure the application or website will display certain characters (e.g. ideographs) in
the right way.
Colours: They need to be adapted since some tonalities could constitute a
cultural pitfall when shown in some countries. White is used in funeral pyres in China
and green is a sacred colour in many Arabian countries (Yunker 2002: 485). These are
just some samples of the subtle complexities that colours can provoke when dealing
with different cultures.
Images: The use of images constitutes a potential danger when adapting the text
to a different locale. Special attention should be paid to the use of animals (e.g. cows are
sacred in India) or any religious symbol (e.g. crucifixes) that could constitute a problem
in the destination country (Corte 2002). Also, the typical bitmaps used in computer
programs (e.g. the mailbox to indicate you have an e-mail) have to be studied and
analyzed since not all the countries and cultures are familiarized with certain Western
conventions (Esselink 2000: 112; Yunker 2002: 307). Illustration 1 shows a very simple
example of the problems that the use of images can generate in a software application2.
The term run is used in English when we want to execute an application or perform an
2
The example is taken from the authors dissertation on software localization. The icons have been
modified with the permission of the developers of the application HOM 3.0.
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action in a specific programme. Then, the association of the concept with the icon of a
runner would be understandable in any English-speaking context. However, if the
application is to be localized into Spanish, this bitmap has to be modified since the term
correr (Spanish translation for run) is not valid for this context and the button would
be absolutely meaningless.
Illustration 1. Bitmaps adapted from English into Spanish in the localization of the
application HOM 3.0.
Date formats and calendar: The Gregorian calendar has to be switched to any
different format used in other cultures (e.g. Chinese calendar, Muslim calendar).
Besides, dates are expressed differently according to diverse countries and regions. For
instance, the date is expressed using the format mm-dd-yyyy in the United States and
with the format dd-mm-yyyy in Spain (12-25-2008 vs. 25-12-2008).
Currency and numeric formats: Besides the appropriate currency used in each
country, the way it is expressed in the target locale should be altered: In some languages
like English, the currency symbol precedes the number, while in others like Spanish the
symbol goes after it (Donoso 2002). Also, the way in which numbers are written
changes depending of the locale: the number 1,650 in the UK would turn into 1.650 in
Spain.
Legal issues: When localizing a software application, a videogame or a web
page, a thorough knowledge of any possible legal restrictions in the target locale is
required. For instance, blood must be removed (or given a green colour) in Germany in
order to meet legal regulations (Chandler 2005: 10). Another example can be found in
France, where due to the Toubon Law3, commercial contracts or advertisements have to
be translated into French with no exception.
Size of menus, dialogues and boxes: Space restrictions constitute one of the
most important hurdles that localizers have to solve in order to have a neat final product.
When we are translating from English into other languages, the resulting text usually
expands. For instance, if we are working with English as the source text, we have to
realise that the final version when translating to other languages will be about 20% to
3
The text of the Toubon Law is accessible at http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/.
9
10
30% longer than the original (Esselink 2000: 33; Chandler 2005: 5). It means that we
will have to resize the GUI (Graphic User Interface) in the case of software
applications, or the structure of the web page we are localizing.
Illustration 2. Example of space restrictions in the localization of a toolbar from

English into Spanish using Passolo 6.0.
These are some of the most common points to bear in mind in any localization project.
If we use a global perspective it seems quite clear that all the efforts of localization are
put into achieving a certain goal in the final destination or locale (i.e. preserve the user
experience). This is akin to what functionalist scholars defend in their theories, as we
have previously outlined in this paper. In fact, not only Skopostheorie can be useful to
explain how localization woks. In a quite interesting paradox, Anthony Pym (2006) uses
a more traditional translation source to explain some of the features here mentioned:
Nidas concept of dynamic equivalence covers different aspects of cultural adaptation.
This could also be used in order to explain and support the previous checklist from a
theoretical point of view.
5. The World Wide Web
In the last decades Internet has become the real information highway of our lives. We
are able to obtain precise data in real-time from any part of the world. With the growing
importance of the Web and the improvement in infrastructures, more and more people
have gained access to the Internet, and subsequently more and more users are looking
for information in their own language (see illustration 3). As it has been expounded in
this paper, localizing contents is an important tool in order to adapt any text to a specific
locale. Moreover, English has been losing power on the Web with the emergence of
other languages that are growing at a faster pace in the case of information technologies
(Corte 2000: 9; Corte 2002; Yunker 2002: 23-24). According to Internet World Stats,
29.4% of web users are native speakers of English (430 million users); that means that
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70.6% of the total users do not have English as their mother tongue4. This is a thoughtprovoking figure that comes to underline the importance translation can have on the
World Wide Web. In fact, the analysis of web localization and translation has turned
into a fertile field for the study of promotional discourse (Pierini 2007; Valds 2008).
Illustration 3. Top ten languages used in the web according to the number of
native speakers. Source: Internet World Stats.
As shown in the table, English has a lower growth rate than many other languages in the
Internet top ten (Arabic, Chinese or Spanish are growing much faster). Considering this
information and thinking about the increasing number of users accessing the web from
non-English speaking countries, we could expect that there is an established golden rule
for websites by which all the pages are translated into several different languages.
Even though companies have understood the profits that can be obtained from
the localization of their websites, it looks as if in the case of institutions the situation is
not so clear. If we compare the website of a well-known company like IKEA
(www.ikea.com/) with another world-famous institution as the White House
(www.whitehouse.gov) we will be shocked by the fact that in the case of the Swedish
furniture retailer the web has been adapted to 37 locales (see illustration 4), while in the
case of the American political symbol, we can only find a (partial) translation into
Spanish. Obviously, this is just a random sample and it cannot be used as a general rule.
However, it looks quite clear that the company is motivated by the important revenues it
is going to get in those 37 different locations (that will pay off any investment in
4
Source: Internet World Stats (http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm accessed: June 2009)
11
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translating the site), and the White House is addressing the 45 million Spanish speakers
(more than the total population in Spain) currently living and many of them voting
in the USA5.
The idea of this paper is that in the case of institutions, English is still the lingua
franca used in order to become global.
Illustration 4: Splash page of IKEA with the locale selector (accessed: June 2009).
6. Institutions go global: The case of university web pages
Localization has been studied in the case of videogames (Chandler 2005; Bernal 2006),
software (Dohler 1997; Esselink 2000) and also websites (Yunker 2002; Nauert 2007),
although attention has been drawn primarily towards private companies. That is why
there is a necessity to verify which is the situation with institutional websites.
In the case of universities, having an international site is not only important with
regard to quality standards and other factors like usability and accessibility of the
contents. The hypothesis of the research being carried out is that website
internationalization could also have some influence on the number of foreign students
that institutions receive every year. The figures related to the amount of research
Source: El Pas 23 June 2009. On line at:

http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/speak/spanish/Espana/elpepucul/20081006elpepicul_1/Tes
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activities and scholar exchange among institutions could also be affected by the
adaptation of university websites.
There are several questions to be formulated here. The first one would be to
determine if it is strictly necessary that all university websites should be translated into
English. In addition, what kind of English is being used in the websites? Are we
confronting International English or McLanguage as a standard in the Internet due
to the effects of globalization (Snell-Hornby 2000: 12)?
The other big issue to be addressed here would be the question of language
policy and multilingualism in higher education institutions. For this matter it could be
interesting to find out about the decision makers in the case of website translations:
Who does what? Are translations being made by professional translators? Who decides
which languages a certain website should contain?
As regards student mobility, research is needed to assess the impact of
translating websites into more than one language. Do websites in English attract more
international students? This point is closely linked to other elements such as usability
and accessibility. An Erasmus student looking for study plans in any Business School in
Spain would prefer attending a university which provides translated contents in its
website (subjects, language courses, information for international students, etc). This
could contribute to the analysis of discursive aspects in university websites, taking into
account all the textual, intertextual and semiotic components.
All these questions are being tackled in an on-going research project in which
the authors PhD is based. Having gathered an extensive corpus of university websites,
a thorough analysis is being performed in order to obtain some answers to the problems
presented in this article. The role of the translator in the adaptation of university web
sites is being studied, trying to apply the postulates of the Skopostheory and analyzing
how the concept of loyalty is respected (or not). Besides, the question of
multilingualism in higher education is to be addressed with a special focus on the kind
of language used in university websites (International English) as a consequence of
globalization effects in institutions.
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7. Conclusions
This paper aims to shed some light to the basics of localization from the point of view
of Translation Studies. Some of the main features of this process have been expounded,
as well as a brief explanation of the importance of adapting contents to the different
locales or target markets where the products are going to be published.
One of the fields in which research into localization can be more productive in
the short term is related to institutional websites. If we assume multilingualism is a
major concern for European institutions, it is a must to improve the way these
institutions are present on the World Wide Web and to ensure the quality of web content
adaptation into different cultures.
As has been stated, Translation Studies has many things to offer to localization.
The insights and perspectives of translation theories such as the Skopostheorie can offer
valuable foundations for a process that is also constrained by the speed of the markets.
On the other hand, Translation Studies can benefit from research into localization, and
collaboration with the industry would be mutually profitable.
As a concluding remark, it is important to repeat that translation is far away from
the traditional concept handled in some debates. As the concept evolves and more
scholars are working in new research lines, the horizons have been enlarged. Hence, a
label such as Translation 2.0 could be meaningful in order to express the interaction of
translation and its professionals with other areas and fields of knowledge.
Interdisciplinarity is a key element that will bring important benefits for both scholars
and professionals, and it has to be supported by the scientific community.
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About the author
Alberto Fernndez Costales (1978) graduated in English Philology in 2002 at the

University of Oviedo, where he is at present working on a PhD in Translation Studies.
From 2003 to 2008 he coordinated the English training program that the University of
Oviedo developed for the steel company ArcelorMittal in Spain. He continues teaching
technical English courses at the Master of Transport & Logistics Management as well as
other modules regarding international relations in the university. In addition, he works
as a freelance translator and interpreter. Apart from his dissertation topic on
internationalization of websites, his current research interests include audiovisual
translation, translation technology and videogame localization.
Address:
Email:
Jovellanos Business School

University of Oviedo
Laboral Ciudad de la Cultura
Luis Moya 261
33203 Gijn
Asturias, Spain
albertofernandez.fuo@uniovi.es
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Translation 2.0.

The localization of institutional websites

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

Localization is commonly defined as the process of taking a product hopefully

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

(Thibodeau 2000: 127). It is

When a nylon shoulder for v-shear ram block screw is imported by a

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

3. Translation vs. localization

Translation theory has a lot to learn from localization. Efficiency, teamwork,

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

principle, loyalty should be used in order to guarantee translators responsibility and to

Software localisation is different from the traditional concept of translation in

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

4. The basics of localization

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

The text of the Toubon Law is accessible at http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/.

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

Illustration 2. Example of space restrictions in the localization of a toolbar from

5. The World Wide Web

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

Source: Internet World Stats (http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm accessed: June 2009)

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

6. Institutions go global: The case of university web pages

Source: El Pas 23 June 2009. On line at:

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

Arevalillo Doval, Juan Jos. 2004. Introduccin a la localizacin, su presencia en el

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

Chandler, Heather M. 2005. The Game Localization Handbook. Massachusetts: Charles

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

Scholand, Michael. 2002. Localizacin de videojuegos. Tradumtica 1. Retrieved 24

Alberto FERNNDEZ. Translation 2.0

Wallis, Julian. 2006. Interactive Translation vs. Pre-translation in the Context of

About the author

Alberto Fernndez Costales (1978) graduated in English Philology in 2002 at the

Jovellanos Business School

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