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What influences vaccine acceptance: A model of determinants of vaccine hesitancy
Definition of vaccine hesitancy
Vaccine hesitancy is a behavior, influenced by a number of factors including issues of confidence (do not trust vaccine or provider), complacency (do not perceive
a need for a vaccine, do not value the vaccine), and convenience (access). Vaccine hesitant individuals are a heterogeneous group who hold varying degrees of
indecision about specific vaccines or vaccination in general. Vaccine hesitant individuals may accept all vaccines but remain concerned about vaccines, some may
refuse or delay some vaccines, but accept others; some individuals may refuse all vaccines.
Definition of vaccination confidence
Trust in the effectiveness and safety of vaccines and in the system that delivers them, including the reliability and competence of the health services and health
professionals and having trust in the motivations of the policy‐makers who decide which vaccines are needed and when they are needed. Vaccination confidence
exists on a continuum, ranging from zero‐to‐100% confidence. Vaccination confidence is only one of a number of factors that affect an individual’s decision to
accept a vaccine.
Definition of vaccine complacency
Vaccine complacency exists where perceived risks of vaccine‐preventable diseases are low and vaccination is not deemed a necessary preventive action. Besides
perceptions of the threat of disease severity and/or transmission, complacency about a particular vaccine or about vaccination in general can be influenced by
under‐appreciation of the value of vaccine (effectiveness and/or safety profile) or lack of knowledge. Immunization program success may result in complacency
and ultimately, hesitancy, as individuals weigh risks of vaccines against risks of diseases that are no longer common as a result of immunization.
Definition of vaccination convenience
The quality of the service (real and/or perceived) and the degree to which vaccination services are delivered at a time and place and in a way that is considered
appealing, affordable, convenient and comfortable, also affects the decision to vaccinate. Vaccination convenience and complacency are also determined by the
priority that an individual places on vaccination.
Vaccine decision making by a caregiver or patient is a complex process with many factors influencing this both directly and indirectly. Some factors may
be more important in certain contexts than in others. Experience and circumstances may change the weight of a factor(s) in different settings.
The SAGE Vaccine Hesitancy Working Group 18 March 2013
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CONTEXTUAL a.Communication b. Influential c.Historical influences d.Religion/culture/ge e. Politics/policies f.Geographic barriers g.Pharmaceutical industry
INFLUENCES and media leaders, nder/socio‐economic (Mandates)
environment gatekeepers and Historic influences such A population can have Industry may be distrusted
Influences anti‐ or pro‐ as the negative A few examples of the Vaccine mandates general confidence in a and influence vaccine
arising due Media and social vaccination experience of the interplay of can provoke vaccine vaccine and health hesitancy when perceived as
media can create lobbies Trovan trial in Nigeria hesitancy not service, and be driven only by financial
to historic, religious/cultural
a negative or can undermine public influences include: necessarily because motivated to receive a motives and not in public
socio- positive vaccine Community trust and influence of safety or other vaccine but hesitate as health interest; This can
cultural, sentiment and leaders and vaccine acceptance, as concerns, but due to the health center is too extend to distrust in
Some religious
environment can provide a influencers, it did for polio, leaders prohibit resistance to the far away or access is government when perceived
al, health platform for including religious especially when vaccines notion of forced difficult. that they are also being
system/instit lobbies and key leaders in some combined with vaccination pushed by industry and not
opinion leaders to settings, pressures of influential transparent.
utional, Some cultures do not
influence others; celebrities in leaders and media. A want men vaccinating
economic or social media others, can all community’s experience children
political allows users to have a significant isn’t necessarily limited
factors freely voice influence on to vaccination but may Some cultures value
opinions and vaccine affect it. boys over girls and
experiences and it acceptance or fathers don’t allow
can facilitate the hesitancy. children to be
organization of vaccinated),
social networks
for or against
vaccines .
The SAGE Vaccine Hesitancy Working Group 18 March 2013
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INDIVIDUAL and a. Experience b.Beliefs, attitudes c.Knowledge/awareness d. Health system and e. Risk/benefit (perceived, f. Immunisation as a social
GROUP with past about health and providers‐trust and heuristic) norm vs. not
vaccination prevention Decisions to vaccinate or personal experience. needed/harmful
INFLUENCES
not are influenced by a Perceptions of risk as well as
Influences arising Trust or distrust in
Vaccine hesitancy number of the factors perceptions of lack of risk can affect Vaccine acceptance or
from personal Past negative or can result from 1) addressed here, government or vaccine acceptance. Complacency hesitancy is influenced by
perception of the positive beliefs that vaccine including level of authorities in general, sets in when the perception of peer group and social norms
vaccine or experience with preventable diseases knowledge and can affect trust in disease risk is low and little felt need
influences of the a particular (VPD) are needed to awareness. Vaccine vaccines and for vaccination. E.g. Patient’s or
vaccination can build immunity (and acceptance or hesitancy vaccination caregiver’s perceptions of their own
social/peer
influence that vaccines destroy can be affected by programmes delivered or their children’s risk of the natural
environment or mandated by the
hesitancy or important natural whether an individual or disease or caregivers’ perceptions of
willingness to immunity) or 2) group has accurate government. Past how serious or life threatening the
vaccinate. beliefs that other knowledge, a lack of experiences that VPD is.
Knowledge of behaviors awareness due to no influence hesitancy can
someone who (breastfeeding, information, or includes system
suffered from a traditional/alternativ misperceptions due to procedures that were
VPD due to non‐ e medicine or misinformation. too long or complex, or
vaccination may naturopathy) are as Accurate knowledge personal interactions
enhance vaccine or more important alone is not enough to were difficult.
acceptance. than vaccination to ensure vaccine
Personal maintain health and acceptance, and
experience or prevent VPDs. misperceptions may
knowledge of cause hesitancy, but still
someone who result in vaccine
experienced an acceptance.
AEFI can also
influence
hesitancy.
The SAGE Vaccine Hesitancy Working Group 18 March 2013
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VACCINE/ a. Risk/ Benefit b. Introduction of c. Mode of d. Design of e. Reliability f. Vaccination g. Costs h. Role of healthcare
VACCINATION (scientific a new vaccine or administrati vaccination and/or source of schedule professionals
evidence) new formulation on program/Mode vaccine supply An individual
-specific
of delivery Although there may may have
issues
Scientific Individuals may Mode of Individuals may be an appreciation confidence in a Health care professionals
evidence of hesitate to accept administratio hesitate if they do for the importance vaccine’s safety (HCP)are important role
Directly risk/benefit and a new vaccine n can Delivery mode not have of preventing and the system models for their patients; if
related to history of safety when they feel it influence can affect vaccine confidence in the individual vaccine that delivers it, HCPs hesitate for any reason
vaccine or issues can has not been vaccine hesitancy in system’s ability to preventable be motivated to (e.g. due to lack of confidence
vaccination prompt used/tested for hesitancy for multiple ways. provide vaccine(s) diseases, there may vaccinate, but in a vaccine’s safety or need)
individuals to long enough or different Some parents or might not have be reluctance to not be able to it can influence their clients’
hesitate, even feel that the new reasons. E.g. may not have confidence in the comply with the afford the willingness to vaccinate
when safety vaccine is not oral or nasal confidence in a source of the recommended vaccine or the
issues have needed, or do not administratio vaccinator supply (e.g. if schedule (e.g. costs associated
been clarified see the direct ns are more coming house‐to‐ produced in a multiple vaccines or with getting
and/or impact of the convenient house; or a country/culture the age of vaccination). themselves and
addressed vaccine (e.g. HPV and may be campaign individual is their child(ren)
e.g. suspension vaccine preventing accepted by approach driven suspicious of) ; Vaccination to the
of rotavirus cervical cancer). those who by the health workers may schedules have immunization
vaccine due to Individuals may be find government. also be hesitant to some flexibility that point.
intussusception; more willing (i.e. injections Alternatively if a administer a may allow for slight Alternatively,
Guillain‐Barre not complacent) fearful or health centre is vaccine (especially adjustment to meet the value of the
syndrome to accept a new they do not too far or the a new one) if they individual needs vaccine might
following swine vaccine if have hours are do not have and preferences. be diminished if
flu vaccine perception of the confidence in inconvenient confidence that the While this may provided for
(1976) or VPD risk is high. the health supply will continue alleviate hesitancy free.
narcolepsy workers skills as it affects their issues,
(2011) following or devices clients trust in accommodating
(A)H1N1 used. them. individual demands
vaccination; Caregivers may not are not feasible at
milder, local have confidence a population level.
adverse events that a needed
can also vaccine and or
provoke health staff will be
hesitancy. at the health
facility if they go
there.
The SAGE Vaccine Hesitancy Working Group 18 March 2013
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While some of the factors presented in this matrix could easily be understood as mostly convenience issues (e.g. costs, geographic distance to vaccination
clinic), to some extent all of these factors can affect confidence (e.g. if I have to pay for the vaccine it can make me hesitate to accept it, because “if it was
really important, it would be included in the publicly funded program”). Some factors could also be included in the three Cs, depending on the context. For
instance, “vaccination schedule” could be understood as a confidence issue (e.g. if parents lack confidence in it – “too many vaccines, too early”), as a
convenience issue (e.g. if parents have transport problems to come for all visits needed to fully immunize their child) or as complacency issue (e.g. if parents
don’t think that it is important for their child to receive booster doses). Indeed, confidence, complacency and convenience issues can all result in vaccine
hesitancy.
Understanding how barriers to vaccine uptake belong to one or many of the Cs is important in the design of activities and strategies that could have a positive
impact on vaccine hesitancy. The varied drivers of hesitancy require different type of interventions (convenience issues call for activities and strategies such
as reducing costs or enhancing geographic access to vaccination services, etc. whereas issues around low confidence may require trust building strategies
such as improved dialogue).
The SAGE Vaccine Hesitancy Working Group 18 March 2013