Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Review

Concentrated photovoltaic thermal systems: A component-by-component T

view on the developments in the design, heat transfer medium and
applications
⁎ ⁎
Mathew Georgea, A.K. Pandeyb, , Nasrudin Abd Rahima, , V.V. Tyagic, Syed Shahabuddinb,
R. Saidurb,d
a
Higher Institution Center of Excellence (HICoE), UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC), Wisma R&D, Level 4, Jalan Pantai Murni, University of
Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 59990, Malaysia
b
Research Centre for Nano-Materials and Energy Technology (RCNMET), School of Science and Technology, Sunway University, No. 5, Jalan Universiti, Bandar Sunway,
Petaling Jaya, 47500 Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
c
School of Energy Management, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra 182320, Jammu & Kashmir, India
d
Department of Engineering, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA14YW, UK

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The need of the hour in present world scenario is to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases and environmental
CPVT pollution whilst satisfying the world energy demands. The most promising and readily available source of energy
Heat transfer components over the whole world is solar energy. One of the ways of taping this energy into useful energy is using
Heat transfer fluid Concentrated Photovoltaic Thermal systems. The paper presents the advanced comprehensive review on the
Photovoltaic
design components of Concentrated Photovoltaic Thermal, heat transfer medium, recent application area such as
Solar energy
Tissue Dyeing, domestic hot water, Organic Rankine Cycle, and the economic aspect of the Concentrated
Photovoltaic Thermal system. Furthermore, the review paper simplifies the classification into two systems
namely thermally coupled and thermally decoupled systems. Concentrated Photovoltaic Thermal shows po-
tential to deliver better gains compared to Concentrated Photovoltaic, Photovoltaic and Photovoltaic Thermal.
But matching the different components like the heat transfer component and the medium for specific use is an
area that requires research. Therefore, this review concentrates more on the advantages and limitations of using
different heat transfer components and heat transfer medium. The benefits of this paper would be the under-
standing of the components of the heat transport system like fins, microchannel, storage tank and underground
heat exchangers and the fluid used in the Concentrated Photovoltaic Thermal integrated system like water, air,
nanofluids, Phase Change Materials. It is found that the heat transfer device performance is limited due to its
large area, thermal losses, mirror effect on the thermal and electrical efficiencies, and the temperature difference
between the sink and device. Likewise, the performance of the heat transfer fluid is dependent on the mass flow
rate, thermal mass, viscosity, density, time and the required temperature. Finally, for economic feasibility of the
Concentrated Photovoltaic Thermal system requires the need for a grid connected system with properly sized
system with feed-in-tariff and carbon incentives. Furthermore, the recommendation for heat transfer device,
medium and economic aspect is also presented. However, more experimental research is required to further
understand the compatibility of each components with Concentrating Photovoltaic Thermal System as presented
in way forward.

1. Introduction
The seventh Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) put forward by
the United nation is to provide access to affordable, reliable, sustainable
and modern energy source for all. One of the ways to provide sustain-
able energy is by improving the energy efficiency which decreases the
carbon emissions. In 2015, the Paris Agreement (PA) for climate
change, targeted a 1.5 °C temperature rise for the period 2011–2100. To
achieve this target, a carbon budget is around 365 GtCO2 for the above-
mentioned period. That translates to the usage of only 20% of the ex-
isting fossil fuel [1]. Since, the global energy demand is not going to
reduce, one way to compensate this energy deficiency in a sustainable

⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: adarsh.889@gmail.com (A.K. Pandey), nasrudin@um.edu.my (N. Abd Rahim).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2019.02.052
Received 21 November 2018; Accepted 13 February 2019
0196-8904/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
M. George, et al.
Nomenclature
List of abbreviations
A cross-sectional area (m2)
ANCI annual net cash inflow
cp specific heat capacity (kJ/kg K)
DH hydraulic diameter (m)
f Fanning friction factor, dimensionless number
h convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
H height (m)
L length (m)
m mass (kg)
N number, dimensionless number
P perimeter of the fin (m)
p pressure (Pa)
q heat transfer (W/m)
Q thermal capacity (kJ)
Rconv convective thermal resistance (K/W)
manner is through renewable energy. As stated in the Paris Agreement,
a carbon reduction is required and the SDG 7 points out improving the
energy efficiency decreases the carbon emissions. To achieve the SDG 7,
an energy efficient and a renewable energy source is required. Solar is
one of the promising renewable energy sources capable of replacing
fossil fuel and also becoming an energy efficient supplier.
The electrical energy and thermal energy of the solar spectrum is
tapped using two types of system, concentrating and non-concentrating
system. Non-concentrating system are termed as Photovoltaic Thermal
Systems (PVT). The progress and advances in the field of solar photo-
voltaic, building integrated photovoltaics, photovoltaics thermal and
concentrated photovoltaic system are presented by Pandey et al. [2].
PVT performance dependence on the climate, design and operational
parameters was comprehensively reviewed by Elbreki et al. [3]. Ali
et al. [4] reviewed the current status and future prospects of PVT sys-
tems. The review paper analyzed the solar thermal system and system
application. The need for more research regarding thermal side of PVT
was discussed. The cooling advancements in PVT was discussed by
Hasanuzzaman et al. [5] and the progresses in PVT using phase material
was discussed by Islam et al. [6]. New approaches and developments of
phase change material in all fields of solar energy was reviewed by
Pandey et al. [7]. Slimani et al. [8] modelled an indirect solar dryer
with thermal efficiencies reaching 70%. Boumaaraf et al. [9] simulated
the comparison of a PV generator and a water glazed hybrid PVT system
for climatic conditions of Algeria. A thermo-electrical model of PVT was
developed by Slimani et al. [10] to compare with photovoltaic model
under Algiers climatic conditions. Hossain et al. [11] conducted energy,
exergy and economic analysis of PVT system with phase change ma-
terial. The electrical and thermal performance with and without fins
was theoretically modelled by Zohri et al. [12].
In Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV) systems differs from PV system
is the solar radiation is concentrated on the PV cells to generate addi-
tional electricity than a normal flat panel [13]. The advantages of CPV
systems is the lower capital cost [14] due to low cost optical devices
[15] compared to expensive multijunction cell. The CPV system is
conducive for the use of multijunction cell [16] and the area required
for multijunction cell is less due to the concentration ability of the
optical system [17]. As with all photovoltaic system, CPV has no
emission of greenhouse gases [18] during its operation. The dis-
advantages of CPV system is as the intensity of the radiation increases,
so does the temperature and hence decreases the electrical efficiency of
the cell [19]. The other limitations of the CPV system includes limited
application scope [20], requirement of efficient cooling of the PV cells
[21], additional optical elements for uniformity of radiation [22],
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Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41
S Seebeck effect (V/K)
TDI total depreciable investment
TLL Thermal Load Leveling
T temperature (K)
U flow velocity (m/s)
VOC open circuit voltage (V)
W width (m)
Greek
ρ density (kg/m3)
η efficiency
Subscripts
gh greenhouse
max maximum
min minimum
additional energy for tracking [23], and only direct radiation utilization
[24]. To overcome a few of the above limitations the CPV systems were
modified to utilize the thermal energy and are termed as Concentrated
Photovoltaic Thermal (CPVT) systems. Like CPV system, CPVT also uses
low cost optical elements and compatible with multijunction cells. The
area of the PV cell is reduced due to the concentration of the optical
element. The heat generated on the PV cell due to the concentration of
radiation is utilized for a thermal process. The utilized thermal energy
in CPVT system can increase the overall system (electrical and thermal)
efficiency to around 60–80% [25]. The application area is broader due
to the availability of both electrical and thermal energy [26]. As the
thermal energy is utilized, the efficient cooling of the PV cells are taken
care [27] and hence increasing the electrical efficiency of the system.
The disadvantages mentioned above for CPV remains for the CPVT
systems like only direct radiation utilization, additional optical ele-
ments for uniform radiation, and tracking requirement. Other dis-
advantage for CPVT systems is the additional cost for the thermal
management system [28]. This will increase the capital cost of the
system as heat has to be removed from a concentrated area, thereby
increasing the complexity of the system.
Authors Youssef et al. [29] used CPVT system for tissue dyeing in-
dustrial process. The system was capable of a maximum fluid tem-
perature of 220 °C and maintained 200 °C for 5 h a day. Yang et al. [25]
produced hot water using CPVT system at low cost. The benefit of using
active circulation against passive circulation was also investigated. Han
et al. [30] obtained results of solar to electricity conversion of 44% at
200 suns using CPVT combined with Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC). The
output temperature of the CPVT was recorded at 120 °C. Lazova et al.
[28] studied the performance enhancement of the CPVT and ORC
system when operated in supercritical region. Authors Akrami et al.
[31] investigated the exergy destruction of each component in a CPVT
system combined with Absorption Chiller. Out of the total exergy de-
struction 15% occurs in the Absorption Chiller component. Elsafi et al.
[32] used humidification and dehumidification cycle for desalination
with a CPVT system. A modular design was considered to easily alter
the component to match for different size capacities. Ceylan et al. [33]
used CPVT system in a greenhouse application for drying spinach leaves
with the maximum temperature reaching 37 °C. Sharaf et al. [34] in-
vestigated the segmented Thermoelectric Generators on a CPVT system.
The semiconductor dimensions were altered to understand the variation
of performance of the segmented thermoelectric generator.
The fundamentals, the design considerations and performance as-
sessments was compiled in a review on CPVT in two parts by Sharaf
et al. [35]. The first part discussed the fundamentals and design
M. George, et al.
considerations, while the second part covers the summary of the studies
in the field of CPVT. The review analyzed the requirement for relia-
bility, robustness, spectral filters, component improvement focused
studies and real-world experimentation [36]. The theory, performance
assessment and the application of CPVT is reviewed by Daneshazarian
et al. [37]. The review article addresses the design of optics, perfor-
mance of different photovoltaic (PV) cells, temperature range and
thermal energy for various concentration ratios and the cost of the
CPVT collectors. The solar collectors and the thermal energy applica-
tion were discussed in the review by Ju et al. [38]. The authors further
elaborated the need to understand application areas for thermal energy
utilization, system design and its optimization using dynamic models
and development of novel waste heat recovery system with CPVT. Ju
et al. [39] conducted a review on thermally decoupled CPVT system.
The paper elaborated the need for system integration and its optimi-
zation, improvements in spectral splitting, year-round performance
assessment for reliability and robustness, and classes of cooling system
needed for spectral beam splitting system. As briefed in the above re-
view papers, a requirement for system integration and the component-
based improvements are lacking in the field of CPVT. Therefore, an
understanding regarding design of heat transfer components, the heat
transfer medium and its limitations for the successful integration of the
components with CPVT is necessary, which the previous authors have
not covered. As no review article is present in the authors’ knowledge
on the components of heat transport and medium, and their limitations
in a CPVT system. The objective of the paper is to understand the
various heat transfer component, heat transfer fluid and their limita-
tions so that the readers may utilize the information while integrating
the thermal component of the CPVT system. The authors have at-
tempted to review the components of heat transport like the fins, mi-
crochannels, storage tanks, underground heat exchangers, etc. used in
CPVT along with the medium of heat transfer like water, air, industrial
grade fluid, Phase Change Material (PCM), nanofluids. The limitations,
recent applications and economic feasibility of the CPVT systems have
also been covered. The data source for the review article was obtained
from “Scoupus Data Base” and “Science Direct Data Source” using the
keywords “CPVT, Concentrating” and “CPV/T, Concentrating”. The
search produced more than 40 for the former keywords and more than
70 for the later keyword. More than 90 documents were selected and
analyzed for review as per their suitability and relevance to the topic
presented in the paper. From the literature survey it is found that the
economic feasibility of the CPVT system depends whether it is grid-
connected, and subsidies are provided. The heat transfer device per-
formance is limited due to its large area, thermal losses, mirror effect on
the thermal and electrical efficiencies, and the temperature difference
between the sink and device. The performance of the heat transfer fluid
is dependent on the mass flow rate, thermal mass, viscosity, density,
time and the required temperature.
The paper introduces the classification in Section 2 that can be
broadly used for CPVT systems namely, thermally coupled and ther-
mally decoupled system. The heat transfer device performance is de-
scribed in Section 3 and 4. The Section 5 details the performance of the
heat transfer fluid. All these parameters influence the thermal and
electrical performance of the CPVT system. The application area can be
found in Section 6. The economic aspect is reviewed in Section 7. The
conclusion, summary and recommendations are detailed in Section 8
and way forward in Section 9.
2. Solar concentrating photovoltaic/thermal systems and its
classifications
Initially, the Photovoltaic Cell (PV) were used for the generation of
electrical energy. Extracting the heat generated from the PV cell defined
the Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) systems. To reduce the area of the PV
cell, concentrating elements were used to develop the Concentrating
Photovoltaic (CPV) systems [40]. On the same trajectory as PV to PVT,
17
Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41
Fig. 1. Classification of CPVT system based on the thermal aspect.
the heat generated by CPV was used to develop a hybrid collector CPVT
[37]. Due to the higher grade of thermal energy produced more multi-
generation energy system can be realized [31]. In simplified terms,
CPVT is an extension of PVT with a Concentrating element [41]. As
with all solar energy, CPVT also suffers from the stochastic nature of
solar energy [42].
2.1. Classification
The design of the CPV/T can be classified broadly into two cate-
gories, namely, thermally coupled and thermally decoupled systems as
shown in Fig. 1. The classification is based on how the thermal energy is
collected and its effect on the PV panel. This classification is not specific
to CPVT system, they can be applied to other solar technologies like PV
and PVT technologies. The scope of this paper is limited to CPVT
technologies.
2.2. Thermally coupled
A system is thermally coupled if the temperature of the PV cell or
the thermal collector increase or decrease simultaneously. In other
words, as the temperature of the PV cell rises so does the temperature of
the thermal receiver, provided the solar radiation and the flow rate of
the cooling fluid is constant. The thermally coupled schematic ar-
rangement is shown in Fig. 2 as described by Otanicer et al. [43].
Thermally coupled system has incoming solar radiation concentrated
on to PV panel. The working fluid takes the heat away directly from the
PV panel. The two types of these configuration using concentrator op-
tics and parabolic concentrator are shown in Fig. 2.
Combined Heat and Power System (CHAPS) for a concentration
ratio of 25–35× reported a thermal efficiency of 50% by Coventry et al.
[44]. Further study on CHAPS to determine the performance was con-
ducted by the same author and communicated an overall efficiency of
69% with thermal efficiency 58% and electrical efficiency 11% [45]. A
low concentration PVT design in which the thermal conduction occurs
between the PV cells and the absorber was designed by Rosell et al.
[46]. In the study an overall efficiency of 60% was achieved for a
concentration ratio of more than six. Li et al. [47] developed a low-cost
concentrator arrangement to study the performance of a silicon cell and
GaAs cell. The thermal efficiency of the GaAs was 49.84% and that of
silicon cell at 42.4%. A further study by the same authors reported that
increasing the reflectivity of the mirror from 0.69 to 0.92 decreased the
area of the mirror and the increased the power output of the cell array
[48].
A low concentrating photovoltaic thermal (LCPVT) system in-
tegrated with a heat pump to produce hot water is shown in Fig. 3 was
studied by Xu et al. [49]. LCPVT system performed 1.36 times better
than Low Concentrated Photovoltaic system in terms of electrical effi-
ciency. Ji et al. [50] used a trough concentrating PVT, with the heat
from the PV cell taken away by the fluid duct. The study was performed
to analyze factors affecting the performance of the system. It was de-
termined that the mirror reflectivity, width of the focal spot, thermal
absorptivity of the plate and solar direct radiation all affect the
M. George, et al. Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41

Fig.2. Thermally coupled system description [43].

thermal energy spectrum is transferred to the working fluid. A few

Fig. 3. The Low CPVT system designed by [49].
performance of the system [50]. Calise et al. [51] used a parabolic
trough design with a triangular receiver and a longitudinal fluid
channel. As the longitudinal direction increased the thermodynamic
parameters linearly increased. The radiation and convection losses
contributed to the majority of the exergy losses [51]. The low-cost V-
trough concentrator to increase the electrical yield from PV cell is
shown in Fig. 4. The design includes active cooling [52]. Applying
active cooling for V-trough design increased the electrical power by
31.5% [53].
designs are shown in Fig. 5.
A thermally decoupled CPVT system with a heliostat arrangement is
shown in Fig. 6 with a hyperboloidal mirror for splitting the spectrum
produce electrical and thermal energy. The 600–900 nm is transferred
to the monocrystalline cell for electrical energy production. Optical
losses were considered for the reported overall efficiency of 32% [54].
A spectral performance was analyzed by a new strategy as show in
Fig. 7 where only a certain region of heliostat field is selected for
spectrum splitting. The study focused on the cost of the additional
optical accessories, filter performance and the challenges for filtering
[55]. Jiang et al. [57] modelled a two stage parabolic trough CPVT
system with spectral splitting. It was reported, a reduction of heat load
on the PV cell by 20.7% with spectral filters compared to without a
spectral filter. It was communicated that better heat transfer occurs
with the environment when the aperture of the concentrator is placed
above the solar cell.
As shown in Fig. 8. Jing et al. [58] used nanofluids of high trans-
mittance and high thermal conductivity to separate the PV system and
the thermal system. The nanofluid absorbs some of the infrared spec-
trum but allows most of the other spectrum to pass through. When the
nanofluid is in contact with the PV cell, due to its high thermal

2.3. Thermally decoupled

A system is termed thermally decoupled if the temperature increases

in PV cell and decreases in the thermal receiver or vice versa. In other
words, the thermal output temperature can achieve higher tempera-
tures than the PV cell in this arrangement. Fig. 5 shows the general idea
behind thermally decoupled arrangement. In general, thermally de-
coupled system requires a spectral filter but another arrangement to
achieve same is to have a high transmittance and high thermal con-
ductivity fluid as shown in Fig. 8. In the thermally decoupled system, a
spectrum filter/splitter is available to separate the spectrum of solar
radiation to useful electrical and thermal energy. The spectrum useful
for electrical energy production is transferred to the PV panel while the Fig. 4. Water cooled V-trough designed CPVT [42].

18
M. George, et al. Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41

Fig. 5. Thermally decoupled system description [43].

Fig. 6. The spectrum splitting approach for CPVT [54].

conductivity, the heat is transferred from the PV cell to the nanofluid at
a faster rate. The high thermal conductivity of the fluid makes the
system thermally decoupled. An exergetic efficiency enhancement of
9.5% was reported. Crisostomo et al. [59] split the spectrum between
the range 732 nm to 1067 nm and directed to the PV cell and the rest to
the thermal receiver. An increase of 47% output was realized compared
to standalone CPV systems. The splitting process was achieved by using
high and low refractive materials. From the simulation, an optical ef-
ficiency of 65% for an angle of incidence 65° in transverse and 60° for
longitudinal was reported. A thermally decoupled system for dense
array PV cell was communicated by Han et al. [30]. The system was
simulated for 500 suns and 2000 suns. The beam splitting option is less
attractive when multi-junction cell is used due to its wider spectrum
utilization.
3. Design of components of heat transport in concentrated
photovoltaic thermal systems
Heat transport is one of the most important components of the CPV/
T system. Without an efficient transport system, thermal energy utili-
zation and the overall efficiency of the system would decrease. The
following passages describes the findings of the researchers in the field
of CPVT in the design of the components of the heat transport system.
The heat extraction solution for a concentrated system should be
designed in such a way that it has the least sun-facing area, least
thermal resistance and least pressure drop in case of active cooling
[34]. A heat transfer model as shown in Fig. 9 shows a typical active
method for heat extraction. The effectiveness of the heat exchanging
process increases as the temperature difference between the hot side
and cold side is minimal [60]. Design employing honeycomb structure

19
M. George, et al. Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41

Fig. 7. Thermally Decoupled using spectrum splitting approach [55,56].

(Tfin, base − Tamb)

qfin = h·P·A ·
4 (1)
Straight channel heat sinks provide uniform temperature distribu-
tion whereas the temperature difference can be increased with one-way
double channel [29]. Rectangular heat carrier with 10 mm height with
a spectrally absorptive media, provided a thermal efficiency of 61.2%
and electrical efficiency of 6.2% [66]. Fins can be attached to the rear
part of the PV cell to improve uniformity of the temperature distribu-
tion in the water cooled V-trough system as shown in Fig. 10 [52].

3.1.1. Micro/mini channels

Micro-channels were solution for the high heat dissipation re-
quirement in microelectronics industry such as processors and high-
Fig. 8. Schematic of the thermally decoupled system using nanofluids [58].
power light emitting diodes. They are widely used in the field of micro-
electronics, aerospace, nuclear industry [67] and now in the field of
CPVT due to the high dissipation requirement.
In the design of microchannels, two consideration are of im-
portance, one reducing the thermal resistance and the other reducing
the pressure drop in the micro-channel. The convective thermal re-
sistance for microchannel depends on the fin efficiency, length, height
and width of the channel and overall convective heat transfer

Fig. 9. The model of the conjugate heat transfer that occurs in a CPV-T system
[65].

increases the surface area of contact with the heat transfer medium,
reduces the pressure drop and increases the structural strength of the
component [61]. The thermal efficiency increases as the ambient tem-
perature rises due to the reduction in thermal losses [62]. A low re-
fractive and a high refractive material combination can reduce the
thermal losses [63]. A lower heat transfer coefficient increases the
outlet temperature [64]. For optimal design of cooling channel the inlet
of the channel should be near to the top of the PV and the outlet near
the bottom glass [65]. Thermal losses can be reduced if the area of the
heat dissipation is reduced [45]. The design of components of heat
transport in CPVT and its specific advantages are discussed as below:

3.1. Fins/heat sinks

Heat transfer through an infinite fin depends on the convection heat

transfer (h), the perimeter of the fin (P), cross-sectional area (A) and the
temperature difference between the base of the fin and the ambient
[62] as given below in Eq. (1):
Fig. 10. Design of water cooled V-Trough system [52].

20
M. George, et al.
coefficient [68] as given below in Eq. (2):
1
R conv =
h¯ [N (2ηfin Hch + Wch ) L] (2)
The pressure drop associated with micro-channel depends on the
fluid density, length of the entrance region, mean flow velocity and the
hydraulic diameter of the micro-channel [68] as expressed in Eq. (3):
2ρfLD Um 2
Δp =
DH (3)
Micro-channels provides a reliable, lightweight and leak-proof op-
eration [69]. Minichannel heat exchangers has the capability to remove
high amount of heat from a very small area, like densely packed array
of solar cells. This type of heat exchangers can be used for high con-
centration applications [34].
Fig. 11 shows the design of the two micro-channel used for heat
removal by Karathanassis et al. [69]. The design (a) has low thermal
conductance and (b) was designed to reduce the pressure drop asso-
ciated with micro-channels. The lower pressure drop design (b), de-
creased the power for pumping from 0.2 W to 0.04 W and provided a
uniform temperature distribution. Karathanassis et al. [68] used genetic
algorithm to show that the optimized microchannel geometric dimen-
sion leaned towards small hydraulic diameter and thin walls. This de-
sign resulted in low thermal resistance and high pumping power. The 1-
D simulation also reported that the microchannel can be integrated at
the end of the flow direction, where the maximum temperature is at-
tained. The convective heat transfer is higher at the entrance compared
to conductive heat transfer of the microchannel as the flow is not fully
developed. Multiple channels provide higher thermal performance
compared to single channel due to the large surface-to-volume ratio.
The length of the plate and the fluid diameter is an important design
parameter of the microchannel according to Calise et al. [70]. The
temperature of the receiver was increased by reducing the length of the
plate as the radiative and convective losses decreased. The fluid dia-
meter has to be reduced to increase the heat exchanger area. This al-
lows for the fluid to collect more heat and improve the thermal effi-
ciency.
For ultra-high concentration of 1800 suns, optimized design of the
heat sink was determined by Tan et al. [71] as shown in Fig. 12. With
2 mm fin thickness, the number of fins reduced to 106. For the
Fig. 11. Two designs (a) and (b) for plate fins [69].
21
Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41
optimization, two different thickness of fins viz. 1 mm and 2 mm were
studied. The best performance i.e. lowest temperature on the PV cell
(90.1–91.4 °C) and the lowest maximum temperature difference
(24.1–25.4 °C) between the fluid and the PV cell was found to be for
1 mm thickness with dimensions of 1 mm by 20 mm (fin height) having
159 fins. While, with 2 mm fin thickness, the number of fins were re-
duced to 106 but the highest maximum temperature difference
(32–36.9 °C) between the fluid and the PV cell was found for fins with
height 5 mm.
The mini channel heat exchanger as shown in Fig. 13 under constant
heat transfer fluid velocity was designed to improve the thermal and
hydraulic performance. If the heat exchanger has large aspect ratio,
then the thermal and hydraulic performance can be improved by in-
creasing the number of channels. Reduction in channel width improves
the thermal performance [34].
3.1.2. Aluminum heat sinks
Col et al. [72] used a roll bond heat exchanger with a pumping
network for an active cooling of triple junction cell. The thermal per-
formance loss due to increase in fluid temperature was reduced due to
the small area of the heat sink. Three prototypes were designed by Col
et al. [73]. The first prototype glues the roll-bond to the back side of the
PV panel and insulation layer is added to reduce heat losses. The
channels are arranged in a serpentine character. In the second proto-
type, roll-bond is attached mechanically using springs with parallel
channels while the third uses a unique lamination process with ser-
pentine arrangement. The roll-bond arrangement has better heat
transfer rate and a uniform temperature distribution over a PV panel.
The laminated process of attaching the roll-bond to the PV panel
achieved the highest thermal efficiency and lowest temperature output
[73]. Aluminum is widely used for heat transfer due to its high thermal
conductivity.
3.2. Tanks
The capacity of the tank is determined by realizing the amount of
energy to be stored. It is dependent of the fluids specific heat and the
temperature difference between the heat transfer medium and the heat
exchanger [72] as expressed in Eq. (4):
Q = mcp ΔT (4)
M. George, et al.
Fig. 12. Multi-channel heat sink used for Ultra High Concentration Photovoltaic [71].
Fig. 13. Schematic of the mini-channel heat exchanger for CPVT [34].
Compared to smaller storage capacities, larger storage had lower
heat loss which is due to its ability to have a higher heat storage ca-
pacity. Imtiaz et al. [74] varied the storage capacity from 300 L to 500 L
for greenhouse application. A 25 L water tank capacity was used by
Tripathi et al. [75] to study the annual performance of a water heater.
Two storage tanks of capacity 54 L per square meter of PVT area to
provide the heat supply for absorption chiller by Calise et al. [76].
Gholami et al. [77] used a tank of 300 L with a radius of 0.4 m and
height 0.596 m to satisfy the need of domestic hot water supply for a
family of four. The tank was able to supply a stable energy of 15.5 GJ
per year. The storage tank can reduce the temperature of the PV cell by
absorbing the solar radiation absorbed by the absorber tube, which
usually houses the PV cells. This reduces the PV cells temperature and
hence leading to better electrical efficiency [77]. The storage tanks of
volume 0.865 m3 was used in the study by Sanaye et al. [78]. The
storage tank supplied heat for space heating, domestic hot water and for
22
Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41
generator in an absorption chiller. For a remote area, the tank size in-
creased to 1.97 m3 due to the lack of reliable energy source. Under
complete utilization of the thermal energy produced, smaller tank
storage size are better from an economic point of view in the study
conducted by Buonomano et al. [79]. The cooling capacity of the
system increased with increase in storages tank capacity [79]. A 8 m3
thermal storage tank was used by Calise et al. [61] for desiccant wheel
regeneration and domestic hot water. A fraction of 60% of the energy
stored in the storage tank is supplied for the Desiccant wheel re-
generation. In the simulation the tank was stratified, and its governing
equation are shown in Fig. 14 with a two-layer storage tank shown in
Fig. 15.
Buonomano et al. [81] conducted a sensitivity analysis on the pri-
mary energy consumption with the variation of tank capacity. The tank
capacity was determined to be between 120 L/m2 and 150 L/m2 of
collector area for minimum primary energy consumption. The solar
M. George, et al. Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41

Fig. 14. Stratified Tank and its governing equations [61].

fraction reaches an optimal point with increasing volume. Beyond this

optimal value the time taken for thermal storage is more which results
in more thermal losses.

3.3. Tubes/pipes

The tubes are integral part of the heat exchanger and hence the
thermal component. It transfers the fluid from the heat extraction (solar
cell) zone to the heat utilization (application) as well the other parts of
the system (components of the application).
The absorber pipe can be used to transfer the heat from the solar cell
to the heat transfer fluid [74]. Hussain et al. [82] designed a U-Shaped
tube as shown in Fig. 16 to absorb heat and transfer it to water. The
collector was made of copper with an area of 0.457 m2. The flow rate
inside the tube was varied and an optimum value for overall output was
determined at 2 L/min. Yazdanifard et al. [83] in his study increased
the pipe length from 0.5 m to 5 m and the total (thermal and electrical)
exergy efficiency increased by 33.65% for laminar and 10.37% for
turbulent. The increase in exergy for both regimes of flow was due to an
increase in thermal exergy. The thermal exergy was dependent on the
water outlet temperature. As the pipe length increased so did the re-
ceiver area, resulting in the increase in the quantity of radiation. This
increased radiation increased the water outlet temperature. Pipe dia-
meter had negligible effect on the performance of the system for a given Fig. 16. U-Shaped design of absorber tube [82].
flow rate of nanofluid [83]. A higher outlet temperature can be reached
using a one-way double channel [84]. Multi-port aluminum tube design efficiency greater than 60% [46]. The simulation fluid temperature as a
was utilized for heat pump application by Xu et al. [49]. In the multi- function of cell temperature was carried out by Renno et al. [26]. The
port aluminum tube, the refrigerant is used to transfer the heat from the design needs 47 rounds for module length of 17.6 m in winter to reach
collector to the heat pump. Tubes in rectangular in shape were used to 50 °C and 61 rounds to reach a temperature of 80 °C in summer. The
transport in a low concentration arrangement can increase the thermal grooved tube design was utilized by Xu et al. [85] as shown in Fig. 17

Fig. 15. Two layer model of the storage tank [80].

23
M. George, et al. Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41

Fig. 17. Schematic of the grooved heat exchanger tube for a HCPVT system [85].

for a high CPVT system. proportional to the heat loss coefficient. That is, as the heat loss coef-
ficient is reduced, lower thermal losses occur which in turn leads to
3.3.1. Helical coil higher thermal energy [29]. Providing glass cover decreases the exergy
Helical coils are compact, simple construction and low production efficiency at low (4×) and high concentration (greater than12×) due
cost. They also have higher heat transfer coefficients due to the sec- to the lower amount of radiation reaching the surface of the PV cell
ondary flow induced by the centrifugal force. They are used as a heat [83]. At 3 suns, the CPV temperature reached 416.36 °C without any
exchanger in air conditioning, thermal power plants, chemical, food, heat exchanger device [91]. The cooling efficiency decreases with in-
and chemical industries [86–88]. It is suitable for high pressures crease in solar radiation as the temperature difference between the
(42 bar) and temperature (200 °C). In the study conducted by Lazova CPVT receiver and the environment air decreases [65]. A minimum
et al. [28], helical coil was used for the transfer of heat for a small scale module height of 100 mm to be maintained if it is air cooled [92].
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) of 3 kW. The heat exchanger was de- Material used as PV cells also affects the output temperature as shown
signed as a counter flow heat exchanger. The high temperature fluid in Fig. 18. The super cell achieves better temperature output as the
flowing from top to bottom, while the R-404A, the working fluid for radiation increases compared to GaAs cell [50].
ORC, flowed from bottom to top. The total heat transfer area was
around ∼7 m2. To reduce heat loss to the environment, an insulation 4.1. Fins/heat sinks
with a material thermal conductivity of 0.04 W/mK was provided. At
constant mass flow rate, the heat transfer rate increased as the pressure The limitations of fins/heat sinks are provided in the following
increased. The optimal flow rate was determined to be 0.25 kg/s and passage. In general, smaller area of heat sink hinders fluid flow path.
the working fluid attained a temperature of 95 °C [89,28]. The heat dissipation is highly dependent on the fluid flow rate. With
smaller sizes, manufacturing complexity increases [93].
3.3.2. Underground heat exchangers
Underground Heat Exchanger are used when the ambient tem-
4.1.1. Micro channels
perature is high. They are also called as geothermal condensers. The
The pressure drop while a fluid passes through the micro-channel is
temperature is constant beyond a certain depth under the earth’s sur-
considerably high [69]. In the study conducted by Karathanasis et al.
face. Due to the thermal inertia of the soil, the temperature of the soil is
[68], when the thermal resistance was reduced, the pumping power
lower than the ambient temperature during summer and higher than
increased. Similarly, when the pumping power was reduced the thermal
the ambient temperature during winter [90]. This lower temperature
resistance increased as shown in the Fig. 19.
condition is used as the heat sink unit in the Organic Rankine Cycle. The
The thermal efficiency, concentration ratio and temperature
tubes of the heat exchanger are buried under earth to use it as a con-
denser in Organic Rankine Cycle by Al-Nimr et al. [62,91]. The tem-
perature distribution remains unchanged throughout the year. The heat
transfer rate is higher with rocks rich in quartz. Soil rich in quartz can
be used when the heat flow is not constant. Under constant heat flow
larger geothermal gradient is preferred. In that case, soil with low
thermal conductivity like soil rich in clay or shale is better [90]. Un-
derground heat exchanger are used for enhancing the performance of
power cycle by using it as power cycle condensers. It is also used as heat
pump evaporator and condenser [62].

4. Limitations of the design of heat transfer component

The thermal resistance between the PV cell and the heat transfer
mediums when ignored [34] can lead to simulation results differing
from experimental values. For removal of large amount of heat, large
dissipating area is required, which in turn will obstruct the sun ex-
posure for reflective concentrators [34]. As the concentration increases,
so does the thermal energy input which in turn increases the thermal
losses. This thermal loss decreases the exergy efficiency of the CPVT
system [78]. Increasing the insulation of the receiver of the con-
centrated radiative flux, reduces the heat absorbed by the heat ex-
changer fluid [70]. The thermal power produced is inversely Fig. 18. Effect of solar radiation on the output temperature [50].

24
M. George, et al.
Fig. 19. Relationship of width and height of the microchannel on thermal resistance and pumping power [68]
decrease as the length of the microchannel plate increases. As the
length of the fins/heat sink is increased, the area of heat dissipation is
also increased. This in turn increases the convective and radiative
losses. The increase in the length of the fin also affect the concentration
ratio. With increase in length, the concentration ratio decrease, there-
fore, reduces the heat input per unit area on the receiver. The increase
in thermal losses, larger heat dissipation area, and reduction in con-
centration ratio reduces the temperature. As the fluid diameter in-
creases, the fluid velocity decreases. The reduction in fluid velocity
reduces the heat transfer coefficient which in turn reduces the heat
exchangers effectiveness [70]. Increasing the number of fins in the
multi-channel also increases the flow resistance. The manufacturing
capability gets complex as the fin thickness reduces beyond 1 mm [71].
Increasing the channel width of a mini-heat exchanger is detrimental to
the hydraulic performance [34].
4.1.2. Aluminum heat sink
As aluminum is a high thermal conductive material and low cost,
most of the heat sinks uses aluminum material. The same issues re-
garding heat sinks in general plague aluminum heat sinks. As the area
of the heat transfer decreases, the complexity of the manufacturing
increases followed by fluid flow resistance Fluid flow resistance leads to
pressure drop. To maintain fluid flow a higher pumping power is re-
quired [93].
4.2. Tanks
Under the absence of solar radiation, the tanks temperature reduces
due to thermal losses [76]. As the energy input increased, the energy
loss from the tank also increased. As found in the study conducted by
[77], where the storage tank lost 15% of the input energy which totaled
to 14 MJ per year. As storage tanks size increases the thermal losses
from the storage tank also increases under steady state conditions. In-
creasing the size of the storage tank is also detrimental in economic
terms [79]. The temperature difference between the storage tank and
the ambient conditions plays an important factor in the thermal losses.
25
Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41
Coventry et al. [44] showed that as the water temperature increased
from 20 °C to 40 °C, the thermal efficiency decreased from 50% to 40%
due to the increased thermal losses from the storage tank.
4.3. Tubes/pipes
At higher temperatures, the contact area between absorber and the
solar cell plays an important role. If the area of contact is low, then the
absorber pipe cannot take away all the heat. Longer lengths of tubes
and pipes causes heat loss through convection to the surroundings [74].
Increasing the pipe length from 0.5 m to 5 m decreased the energy ef-
ficiency by 9.33% for laminar flow and 1.09% for turbulent flow. For
turbulent flow the energy and exergy efficiency decreases with increase
in pipe diameter [83]. The plate heat exchanger is limited by the op-
erating pressure and the geometry makes cleaning difficult [28]. The
maximum outlet temperature is limited by U-turn geometry as the re-
turn path transfer heat to the cold water resulting in decrease of the
fluid temperature. A one way double channel increases the difference in
temperature and a possibility of affecting the operation of the PV cell
due to high temperature [84].
4.3.1. Helical coils
Increasing the mass flow rate of the fluid increased the pressure
drop and hence requires higher pumping power. This is due to the in-
crease in frictional pressure drop. The increased frictional pressure drop
changes the thermophysical properties of the working fluid by resulting
in a temperature difference between the wall temperature and the bulk
temperature of the working fluid. The heat exchanger was oversized by
20% due to heat transfer correlation uncertainties [28].
4.3.2. Underground heat exchangers
The temperatures under the soil is different from ambient from a
depth of 5 m and below. The heat exchanger material must be made of
extremely durable material with heat transfer properties. Boring and
digging creates disturbances to the surrounding areas like driveways,
buildings, wildlife, etc. The heat transfer occurs at a lower rate when
M. George, et al.
Table 1
Diathermic oil properties [70].
Property Value Unit
Specific heat, cp 2980 J/(kg K)
Viscosity, μ 4558 × 10−6 Pa s
Conductivity, k 0.113 W/(m k)
Density, ρ 870 kg/m3
employed in soil rich in clay or coal [90].
5. Heat transfer mediums in concentrated photovoltaic thermal
systems
Heat transfer medium plays a vital role in improving the efficiencies
of the CPVT system. The medium transfers the heat from the PV cell. Its
ability to carry and retain the thermal energy in the heat transport
system (Discussed in Section 3 and 4) and its ability to efficiently be
used for a thermal application (Section 7) is vital for CPVT system. It is,
therefore, vital to know what are the factors affecting the heat transfer
medium used in CPVT.
In general, lower the flow rate of the heat transfer fluid, higher
would be the thermal efficiency. The reason behind this being, longer
residence time allows for better heat collection [74]. Low flow rates
provide greater control of the electrical and thermal efficiencies. In-
creased absorption of useful heat increases the electrical efficiencies
[29]. A mass flow rate of 0.022 kg/s achieved a CPV temperature of
85.28 °C at 3 suns [91]. A fluid velocity of 0.38 m/s and module length
of 17.6 m reported 50 °C in winter and 80 °C in summer [26]. De-
creasing the fluid inlet temperature increases the electrical efficiency
and thermal efficiency [70]. The heat transfer medium can acts as
spectrally selective medium thereby absorbing the radiation not re-
quired by the PV cell [94]. Liquid immersion of PV cell improves the
light collection and reduces the losses due to cell surface recombina-
tion. Low and uniform temperatures are maintained through liquid
immersion [21].
5.1. Water
Water is a resource that is harmless to human beings, non-flam-
mable, low cost, high availability, high specific heat and that can be
used for both thermal transport and thermal energy storage [95]. It can
be used as an optical filter in front of the PV panel, thereby reducing the
thermal stress cycle of the PV panel and hence enhancing the life and
efficiency of the system [96]. The optimum flow rate of water for
concentration ratio of 1800 suns was determined to be 0.06 m/s by Tan
et al. [71]. The cell temperature was maintained at 91.4 °C and elec-
trical efficiency of 31.8%. An outlet temperature of 220 °C was used for
Tissue Dying application in a textile industry by Youssef et al. [29]. For
a low concentration system (50 suns) a thermal efficiency of 64% was
reported for U-turn geometry for the water channel [84]. A self-sus-
tained water cooling increased the electrical power by 2.5 times com-
pared to flat plate PV system with direct normal irradiance greater than
300 W/m2 [65]. Water absorbs 33% of the solar radiation and can be
used as a Direct Absorption Collector [84]. A working fluid temperature
of 196 °C with thermal efficiency of 40% was reported for the direct
absorption collector system. The direct absorption collector achieved a
thermal efficiency of 66% with an increase in solar radiation from
640 W/m2 to 3200 W/m2. The increase in radiation reduced the elec-
trical efficiency only by 1.4%. The increased radiation also increased
the exergetic efficiency [96,97].
5.2. Air
Air saves the need of water and requires lower space requirement
26
Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41
compared to water based system. As the speed of the air increases the
heat transfer coefficient increases and helps in taking away more heat
from the thermal source [31]. When the thermal energy is transferred to
air through convection or radiation, the process is known as ventilation.
It can be categorized into, active and passive ventilation, depending on
thermal energy utilization [77]. A system without thermal utilization is
termed as CPV. Passive ventilation is used in CPV systems. Therefore,
all cooling system that transmits the heat to air with no further utili-
zation of the thermal energy is termed as passive ventilation [77].
When the heat produced by either convection or radiation is used for
heating or cooling application, it is termed active ventilation [77]. This
converts a CPV system into a CPVT system due to its ability to utilize
thermal energy. Gholami et al. [77] used Frog Leap Algorithm opti-
mization technique to state that active ventilation has an economic
collector value of 13.4 $/m2 and an increase in the efficiency compared
to passive ventilation. Amanlou et al. [98] studied different diffuser
configuration to achieve uniform air flow. A concave side wall diffuser
with three inner deflector eliminated hot spot problems on the photo-
voltaic panel.
5.3. Diathermic oil
The diathermic oil is considered as a heat transfer fluid because of
its high boiling point, low vapor pressure and low pour point. The oil
can be heated beyond 300 °C and cooled without condensation till
−60 °C [99].
The diathermic oil was used for the trigeneration using CPVT by
Calise et al. [70]. The diathermic oil was selected as the system required
to operate at a temperature of 180 °C. The properties of diathermic oil
are listed in Table 1. Due to the high temperature application of the of
the diathermic oil as coolant, the triple junction PV cell achieved
electrical efficiency in the range of 19–25% while the thermal efficiency
reported was slightly less than 60% [70]. The diathermic oils are heat
carrying fluids used for downstream energy conversion of thermo-
electric plant. SYLTHERM-800 is a stable, silicone diathermic fluid
designed for high temperature liquid operation. The fluid was used for
the transfer of the heat from the collector unit of CPVT to the eva-
porator unit of the ORC system [62]. Therminol VP-1 is a diathermic oil
that can reach temperatures of 350 °C in liquid phase. The energy from
the liquid can be transferred to working fluid to produce steam [100].
5.4. Nanofluids
Nanofluids are fluids dispersed with nanoparticles. They are widely
used in industrial and bio-medical applications. The dispersed nano-
particles can act as energy converters, energy savers, or energy storage
[101]. Heat transfer can be increased by increasing the volume fraction
while keeping the nanoparticle size fixed or by decreasing the nano-
particle size while keeping the volume fraction constant [58]. The
Al2O3/Synthetic oils nanofluids one-phase outlet temperature was high.
For low to moderate temperature the nanofluid Al2O3/Water and for
moderate to high Al2O3/Synthetic oils were used as heat transfer fluid
by Sharaf et al. [34]. Li et al. [63] simulated using TRNSYS and CFD to
understand the behavior of fluid inlet velocity of nanofluid on the
performance parameters. The temperature of the PV cell is constant
with increase in solar radiation if the inlet velocity is high. Under
constant concentration the electrical efficiency increased with increase
in fluid velocity but decreased the thermal efficiency beyond a certain
point. At inlet velocity of 0.08 m/s, an overall efficiency of 77.51%
simulation- results was reported. Yazdanifard et al. [83] investigated
the effect of using nanofluid in laminar and turbulent region by varying
the concentration ratio, pipe length and pipe diameter. As CR increases
the energy efficiency increases in the turbulent region whereas in the
laminar region the energy efficiency increases to a point and then de-
creases. The opposite occurs in terms of exergy efficiency. The turbulent
region shows exergy efficiency increasing and then decreasing whereas
M. George, et al.
in the laminar region the exergy efficiency increases with increase in
concentration ratio. Exergy and energy efficiency increases with in-
crease in nanofluid concentration in the laminar region. TiO2/Water
nanofluid has better electrical efficiency and ZnO/water provides better
thermal efficiency. SiC/water 100.9% better thermal efficiency com-
pared to water cooling. An increase in the volume fraction of nano-
particle in the nanofluid Al2O3 and a decrease in the inlet temperature
increases the efficiency of the PV cell. Multiwalled carbon nanotubes
increased the thermal conductivity by 150% when a small amount of
nanoparticles were added [58]. Silica/water nanofluid particle size
5 nm and volume fraction 2% increased the thermal conductivity by
20% compared to water and a transmittance of 97% was reported by
Jing et al. [58]. The key findings and their composition have been ta-
bulated in Table 2. The list only comprises of the nanofluids used in
CPVT applications.
5.5. Metal foam
Metal foams are lightweight structures with high thermal con-
ductivity. They have large number of pores [102]. Polonsky et al. [103]
used metal foam in between the triple junction substrate and the back
plate in a dense array application. The metal foam increased the surface
area to improve the convective heat transfer [103]. Metal foams en-
hance the heat transfer by utilizing the fin like structure of the metal
and the twisting fluid path in and around the metal foam. The twisting
path allows mixing of fluid. The mixing of fluid enhances the heat
transfer more than the metal structure in the foam. The heat transfer
rate can be further enhanced if the foam is compressed and the thermal
contact resistance is lowered. The compressed foam lowers porosity and
increases heat conduction through the metal structure. Metal foam was
used for transferring heat from a triple junction cell under concentrated
light. Comparison with and without the metal foam was conducted by
Flitsanov et al. [19]. An improvement of 0.5% in electrical efficiency
and 1.5% in electrical power output was determined. Metal foams are
used as lightweight structural and architectural material, acoustic at-
tenuators, electro-chemical reactors and more [19].
5.6. Phase change materials
Phase Change Materials is a passive form of cooling. Even at lower
solar irradiance the PCM provides efficiency enhancement. Phase
Change Materials are lighter than compared to metal fins hence redu-
cing the tracking power consumption. Power output was enhanced
more than water cooling for solar irradiance between 50 W/m2 and
300 W/m2. The PCM spheres used in the experimental setup show in
Fig. 20 was compared with water cooling in the performance study. An
electrical, thermal and overall efficiency improvement compared to
water cooling was 10%, 5% and 15% respectively. A 20 kWh/m2 in-
crement in power annually was reported by using PCM by Su et al. [27].
The collector efficiency compared for PCM based cooling and water
Table 2
List of Nanofluids used in CPVT application.
Nanofluid Volume fraction Particle size
SiO2/Water 2% 5 nm
Al2O3/Water NA NA
Al2O3/Synthetic Oil NA NA
TiO2/Water 4% 21 nm
27
Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41
Fig. 20. Experimental setup for PCM cooled CPVT system [27].
cooling is shown in Fig. 21.
PCM maintained stable operating temperatures between the PV cell
and thermoelectric module. It improved the efficiency by suppressing
the temperature fluctuations. The selection of PCM in the integration of
PV cell and thermoelectric module depended on the maximum effi-
ciency of the integrated system. For temperature less than 375 K
Paraffin wax was chosen and for temperatures greater than 420 K
NaOH-KOH PCM was selected in the study conducted by Cui et al.
[104]. The properties of the PCM are listed down in Table 3.
5.7. Dielectric liquid
As with any fluid acting as a heat transfer medium in high con-
centration application, the medium is required to be thermally stable.
Dielectric liquid, paraffin and silicone oils were used for liquid im-
mersion CPV application. The liquid immersion improved the silicone
cell’s efficiency by 40–60%. This was attributed to the lower surface
recombination velocity and lower light reflection [105]. In the study by
Xin et al. [105], the electrical performance enhancement of triple
junction cell immersed in dimethyl silicone is around ∼40%. Four di-
electric liquids were tested for the thermal performance for PV cells
immersed in a dielectric liquid by Han et al. [106]. All the four di-
electric liquid showed good light absorption capabilities. Due to the
reduction of Fresnel reflection losses, higher current density is pro-
duced. For direct liquid immersion, the liquid should possess high
thermal conductivity, low viscosity, low optical absorptivity, long-term
chemical stability and optical stability. Deionized water showed the
Key Takeaways Ref
• Transmittance 97% [58]
• Thermal conductivity enhancement of 20%
• Maximum Temperature: 307 K [34]
• Pumping Power: 10 W
−2
• Maximum Temperature: 323 K [34]
• Pumping Power: 10 W
−1
Laminar [83]
• Heat transfer Coefficient: 173.077 W/m K
Turbulent
2
• Heat transfer Coefficient: 944.348 W/m K
2
M. George, et al. Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41

Fig. 21. Comparison of collector efficiency between water cooling and PCM based cooling [27].

least temperature difference of 4 °C across the length of the solar array

and an increase of 6 °C from the inlet temperature. Isopropyl alcohol
(IPA) improved the efficiency by 6.5% [106].

5.8. Limitations of the heat transfer medium in concentrated photovoltaic

thermal systems

The thermal output can be increased by increasing the residue time

and temperature during the heat transfer. Increased fluid inlet tem-
perature decreases the electrical power output and thermal output and
subsequently reduces the electrical and thermal efficiency [70]. The
reduction in electrical efficiency with increase in fluid temperature is
shown in Fig. 22. The heat transfer coefficient and pressure both drops
with increase in mass flow rate [28]. With average cell temperature of
63 °C, it took the fluid around 4 h to reach 55 °C. For a fluid temperature
of 90 °C, a cell temperature of 105 °C was needed [26]. The temperature Fig. 22. The variation of electrical efficiency with fluid temperature [45].
of the fluid is usually 10 °C less than the PV cell temperature [96,97].
Higher density and viscosity of the fluid would require stronger hy-
possibility in the future [108]. Water when used in cooling tower ap-
draulic system [94]. The thermal mass of the system affects tempera-
plication for domestic purposes, there is a possibility of legionnaire’s
ture fluctuations [107]. Propylene glycol cannot be released to the
disease [31]. Scale formation is another drawback of water flowing
environment because of its high mobility in soil and may present
through closed surface [32]. The upper limit of water as a heat transfer
danger for aquatic organisms [94].
medium is limited to 100 °C in the primary energy consumption study
by [81]. The heat transfer rates reduced with higher flow rates [29].
5.8.1. Water Water cooling is not effective for temperature difference less than 4 °C
Due to rapid economic development and population growth, an as more heat is lost due to surface radiation and convection [65]. The
ever-increasing demand for water is present. A scarcity of water is a

Table 3
List of PCM used in CPVT application.
Phase change material Solid Liquid Melting temperature (K) Ref.

Density (kg/m3) Specific Heat (kJ/kgK) Density (kg/m3) Specific heat (kJ/kgK)

Paraffin Wax 0.9f × 103 2.2 0.7 × 103 1.7 323 [27]
Paraffin 880 2 760 2 320 [104]
Paraffin 880 2 780 2 330, 335 [104]
Paraffin 880 2 770 2 345 [104]
Paraffin 950 2 850 2 365–375 [104]
NaOH(24%)- KOH(76%) 2100 Cpa 2050 Cp 420 [104]
NaOH(24%)- KOH(76%) 2100 Cp 2050 Cp 425 [104]

a
Cp = 0.435 + 2.451 * 10−3 * T (K).

28
M. George, et al. Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41

cost involved in setting up a water cooling system is higher compared to
air [97,96].
5.8.2. Air
Air has lower heat absorption coefficient due to its lower density so
requires larger flow rates to acquire the same cooling effect. Due to its
lower specific heat the rise in temperature of the air will be greater.
Releasing the air into the atmosphere creates pollution and heat build-
up of the surrounding space [25]. The convection heat loss coefficient is
dependent on the wind speed. The thermal performance decreased
when wind speed increased from 0 m/s to 3.5 m/s in the multi-linear
performance model of [109] simulation study. This was attributed to
increased convection heat loss coefficient. The volume averaged
thermal conductivity is lower than water [27]. Temperature distribu-
tion over the PV panel is affected due to the non-uniformity of air flow
[98].
5.8.3. Diathermic oil
The diathermic oil has high thermal inertia and rate of heating is
considerably slow. The thermal stability of the oil is poor [99]. The oils
are pollutants and unsafe, and not compatible with standard materials
[110].
5.8.4. Nanofluids
Nanofluids are not recommended for turbulent region. With in-
crease in nanofluid concentration in turbulent region the energy and
exergy efficiencies decreases [83]. Al2O3/Synthetic oil nanofluid pro-
vide lower thermal and hydraulic performance [34]. The exergy of the
system decreased with increase in inlet velocity [63].
5.8.5. Metal foam
The metal foams mode of heat transfer is through mixing of fluid
but, this leads to considerable pressure drop. High pressure drop needs
to be compensated with higher pumping power, which is a parasitic loss
to concentrated photovoltaic system [19].
5.8.6. Phase change material
The optimum operating condition of PV-PCM-TE design was de-
pendent on the melting temperature of the PCM [104]. Due to the low
thermal conductivity of PCM, heat is not removed from the solar ra-
diation receiver at a fast rate [111]. Therefore, PCM alone does not
have the capability to restrict the temperature of the solar cell below a
certain. As mentioned in the study by Su et al., PCM required to be
augmented with water cooling to keep the cells under 65 °C [27].
5.8.7. Dielectric
The temperature distribution is non-uniform for laminar flow for
dimethyl silicon oil. Deionized Water showed very little change in
electrical performance compared to Isopropyl Alcohol. The cell tem-
perature immersed in Isopropyl Alcohol was 20 °C more than the cell
temperature immersed in deionized water. Deionized water results in
5% loss in power compared dimethyl silicon oil [106].
6. Application of concentrated photovoltaic thermal systems
In general, increasing the area of the solar field would increase the
solar insolation and hence increase the thermal energy collected. The
useful energy tends to negative if the beam radiation is less than 50 W/
m2. As the beam radiation increases, the electrical and thermal effi-
ciency decreases [70]. A primary energy saving of 160% for a CPVT
system used for heating, cooling and hot water production was reported
[81]. The challenges and benefits faced while setting up the compo-
nents in a CPVT system is shown in Table 4.
6.1. Thermoelectric generator
It is a solid-state device that works on Seebeck effect to convert
thermal energy to electrical energy. The operation of the device is
noise-free, involves no moving part and minimal maintenance cost. The
open circuit voltage generated by the thermoelectric generators (TEG)
can be represented as in Eq. (5) [34]:
VOC = SΔT (5)
Segmented TEG can be developed by removing the semiconductor
material joining the legs of the n-type and p-type legs and replacing it
with copper interconnectors [34]. Segmented TEG have higher heat
input and power output but lower conversion efficiency compared to
conventional TEG. The effect of heat sink and source temperature,

Table 4
Advantages and disadvantages of several components of CPVT system [112].
Components and specification Selection Advantages Disadvantages

Concentration Factor High (600–800) High electrical power High cost

High thermal power Manufacturing complexity
Low cell area High Temperature
High efficiency with high temperature

Optics Refractive (Fresnel lens) Low cost Low optical efficiency

Low weight and size Two lenses
High Temperature Low concentration factor
High modularity Low powers
High acceptance Chromatic aberration
Reflective (parabolic concentrators) Compactness High cost
High optical efficiency Low acceptance
High Concentration
High Temperature
Modularity

Cell Type Cell multijunction (InGaP/InGaAs/Ge) High efficiency High cost

Low useful area
High performance with high Temperature and Concentration

Tracking system Dual axis tracker High energy capture High cost
Lightness
Robustness

Cooling System Active High thermal power Manufacturing complexity

Sanitary hot water
Solar Cooling

29
M. George, et al.
electrical resistance, thermal impedance, the width of the semi-
conductor leg and the depth of the TEG was analyzed on the conversion
efficiency and power output of the TEG by Sharaf et al. [34]. A large
temperature difference between source and sink temperature, a thermal
impedance of 2 × 10−6 K m2 W−1 for maximum power output and a
thermal impedance of 1 × 10−5 K m2 W−1 for optimum conversion
efficiency and the corresponding electrical resistance values were
3 × 10−10 Ωm and 5 × 10−11 Ωm for power output and conversion
efficiency. Keeping the depth of the leg constant and reducing the width
of the semiconductor leg increased the conversion efficiency of TEG
[34].
6.2. Building integrated
The general requirements of thermal loads in a building are space
heating, space cooling, hot water supply [78]. When the system was
connected to the electricity grid, the requirements of the auxiliary
systems like gas boiler, batteries, evacuated tube, PV collector was non-
existent. But when then same requirements had to be met in a remote
area, the number of CPVT collectors increased, so did the PV collectors
and the storage tank capacity increased in the optimization study
conducted by Sanaye et al. [78]. Buonomano et al. [79] simulated the
effect of a solar trigeneration system assumed to be employed in Uni-
versity District Hospital in Naples. The system provided domestic hot
water, electrical energy and thermal energy for absorption chiller. The
thermal energy provided for absorption chiller is from a storage tank set
at a temperature of 90 °C. The domestic hot water is supplied at 55 °C
from another storage tank. The best combination for the optimized
simple payback period was for system with highest CPVT area, lowest
tank storage capacity and the lowest flow rate of the heat transfer fluid.
Calise et al. [61] designed a novel system integrating CPVT with De-
siccant wheel and AHU to provide domestic hot water, electrical energy
and cooling to a classroom. The thermal efficiency with respect to the
beam radiation was reported at 55.32%.
6.3. Desalination
Mittelman et al. [80] used a Multi-Effect Evaporation desalination
plant using CPVT for water production. The economic aspect of the
system was compared with other conventional and non-conventional
water production. It was reported that as the top brine temperature
increased, the cost of the water reduced. Water cost also depended on
the capital cost of the CPVT system and the grid electricity cost. The
authors mentioned Thermal Vapor Compression and Absorption Vapor
Compression desalination process are more efficient. Wiesenfarth et al.
[113] used the CPVT system integrated with Reverse Osmosis and
Membrane Distillation to produce desalinated water from brackish
water. As the salinity of the water increases the power consumption of
RO increases. To reduce this power consumption, the higher con-
centration saline water is passed through membrane distillation pro-
cess. The membrane distillation process has two cycles and the heat
produced from CPVT is fed into the high temperature side of the two
cycles. In the Reverse Osmosis process, high pressure flow of water is
required. This is provided by the electrical energy produced by the
CPVT system. Salinity was varied from 10 g/kg to 122.5 g/kg and the
system achieved a recovery ratio of 92%. The maximum thermal effi-
ciency of the system was reported at 79.2%. The Membrane Distillation
process requires lower hydrostatic pressure compared to Reverse os-
mosis. Spiral design allows for more surface area of membrane. The
temperature variation affects the quantity and quality of the distillate
water. The maximum distillate flux of 3.4 L/m2 h was reported by
Hughes et al. [107] for desalination.
6.3.1. Humidification-dehumidification
The humidification and dehumidification cycle with the modifica-
tion of air being heated after the humidifier provides an efficiency 25%
30
Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41
greater than water heater desalination plant. The simulated study in-
volved the production of freshwater for a small scale. The design was
modular and hence easy to manufacture and modify the capacity of the
setup. The heat generated heat from the CPVT system was removed by
air. The air pre-heats the saline water through indirect contact, which
allows the water vapor present in the air to condense. The condensed
water is the freshwater. This air recirculated to remove further heat
from the CPVT system [32]. Francesco et al. [60] used Multi-Effect
Distillation to produce freshwater from seawater. The freshwater gen-
erated was used to supply the demands of the island in Italy. The supply
only covered a small part of the demand.
6.4. Greenhouse
A double tunnel type greenhouse system was developed by Imtiaz
et al. [74]. The purpose of greenhouse is to provide an optimum con-
dition for the growth of plants. This is determined by the thermal load
leveling expressed as shown in Eq. (6):
Tgh, max − Tgh, min
TLL =
Tgh, max + Tgh, min (6)
A lower value of TLL represents an ideal condition for smooth
plants. To provide the thermal conditions, the heating load has to be
provided by the CPVT system. And the heating load is directly pro-
portional to the difference in the temperature between the ambient
condition and the inside design temperature of the greenhouse.
Sonneveld et al. [92] studied the performance of a CPVT energy system
integrated with a greenhouse of size 6 m × 6 m. In this application the
direct and diffuse radiation are both utilized. The diffuse radiation
transferred to the greenhouse and the direct radiation utilized by the
CPVT system. The removal of the direct radiation led to a reduction of
cooling capacity of the greenhouse by a factor of 4. The heat generated
in the CPVT system was further utilized for hot water generation. A
thermal efficiency of 56%, electrical efficiency of 11% and an overall
efficiency of 67% was reported for the system. Ceylan et al. [33] used
an arrangement for drying spinach leaves and processed further for
spinach dust. A concentration of 2× was used in conjunction with
spherical shaped Paraffin wax. The heat absorbed by the paraffin wax
was transferred for drying the spinach through fans attached to the
greenhouse. The maximum temperature reported was 37 °C.
6.5. Desiccant based systems
A desiccant wheel removes moisture from the air and the process
increases the temperature of the air. To use the desiccant wheel again,
dry recirculated air is heated using the CPVT system and passed
through the Desiccant wheel to remove the moisture adsorbed. Calise
et al. [61] used TRNSYS to simulate a novel system integrating CPVT
with an Air Handling Unit working using Desiccant Evaporative Cooling
method. The thermal energy from the CPVT system is used for re-
generating the Desiccant Wheel. The wheel was designed to handle air
with a flow rate of 800 m3/h. The dry air is cooled by the chiller system
and supplied to the room at constant humidity in the summer. During
winters, as dehumidification is not required, the desiccant wheel is
bypassed.
6.6. Heating load
Li et al. [48] investigated the thermal performance of three types of
solar cells namely, super cell array, Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) and con-
centrated silicon. A reduced area of mirror was required when the re-
flectivity increased from 0.62 to 0.92 and an increase in power of the
cell array was also reported. The thermal efficiency of super cell, GaAs
and concentrated silicon was reported at 45.17%, 41.69%, and 34.53%
respectively. In the study conducted by Renno et al. [114] the fluid
M. George, et al.
temperature is determined for various cell temperature and the possi-
bility of solar heating application is assessed. Initially the minimum
concentration ratio is calculated, and fluid temperature is determined.
A fluid temperature greater than 80 °C is needed for solar heating. Tan
et al. [115] used a two-stage heating cycle to report a thermal efficiency
of 68.2% for 15 m2 heating stage and a thermal efficiency of 47.26% for
a 30 m2 heating stage. The effect of the metal cavity was studied. Single
stage with long metal cavity reduced the thermal efficiency while
multiple stages with closed cycle increased the output temperature and
the thermal efficiency. [81] used CPVT to provide space heating. Out of
the total thermal energy produced 16% was utilized for space heating.
6.6.1. Hot water
Hot water can be produced through active water circulation and
passive water circulation. Yang et al. [25] designed a low cost con-
centrator photovoltaic thermal system which reported that active water
circulation offered better thermal efficiency than passive water circu-
lation. Tripathi et al. [75] also used active water circulation to produce
hot water of a maximum temperature of 38 °C. Hussain et al. [82]
conducted a numerical study for efficiency of the system by varying the
flow rate of the heat transfer fluid. The maximum efficiency of 74% was
obtained for a flow rate of 2 L/min and the maximum temperature rise
approximately 46 °C for a flow rate of 0.5 L/min. The temperature rise
decreased as the flow rate increased. The efficiency first increased and
after reaching the optimum value started to decrease as the flow rate
increased. Gholami et al. [77] used active ventilation and storage tank
to take away the heat generated by the solar concentration on the PV
cell for heating and cooling application. The simulation results reported
an average annual thermal efficiency of 47.8% and an overall efficiency
of 85%. Polonsky et al. [103] used water to cool a dense array of CPVT
system. Karathanassis et al. [68] used a microchannel device to esti-
mate water temperature of 60 °C for domestic hot water. In the poly-
generation study by Buonomano [81] domestic hot water was only
produced when the demands for space heating and cooling was not
required. For production of DHW 64% of the solar fraction was re-
quired. Tan et al. [71] investigated the performance of water cooled
ultrahigh CPVT system. At concentration ratio on 1800 suns with
average fluid velocity at 0.6 m/s the maximum cell temperature was
restricted 91.4 °C with the efficiency reported at 31.8%.
Hangweirer et al. [66] used spectrally selective absorptive media.
The media absorbs 38% of the wavelength from 500 to 1100 nm. The
rest of the spectrum is incident on the solar cells. The thermal efficiency
and electrical efficiency of the system was reported at 61.2% and 6.2%
respectively. Renno et al. [26] used variable concentration ratio to
study the thermal system of CPVT system. A temperature difference of
10–15 °C was noted between the cell temperature and the fluid tem-
perature. In other words, for a cell temperature of 105 °C, a fluid
temperature of 90 °C can be attained. Jaffre et al. [116] conducted real
world testing of a CPVT system. The system is used to produce domestic
hot water. A thermally decoupled system using direct absorption fluids
which act as spectral filters was developed by Looser et al. [94]. The
heat generated by absorbing the initial solar radiation and then trans-
ferred to the back of the PV cell to further take away the heat. After the
whole cycle a fluid outlet temperature of 135 °C was reported with
overall conversion efficiency exceeding 70% [94]. Coventry et al. [44]
utilized an experimental setup for the production of hot water. A con-
centration ratio on 25–35× was achieved in the system. A thermal
efficiency of 50% was reported in this study. Xu et al. [49] transferred
R-134a fluid through a multi-port aluminum tube for transferring the
heat from the PV panel to the condenser section, where the heat was
rejected to heat the water. R-134a fluid was used in a heat pump
system. For production of hot water in the range of 30–70 °C the heat
pump operated at a COP of 4.8. Xu et al. [85] designed a HCPVT system
with grooved tube as shown in Fig. 17 to report a thermal efficiency of
30%. The thermal efficiency decreased with water heating and depen-
dent on the water and the irradiation levels.
31
Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41
6.7. Cooling load
In general, the cooling load is needed for summer season [76]. The
cooling load is distributed by the air handling unit and the heat ex-
traction capability is produced by the Absorption chiller. The studies
involving the CPVT, air handling unit and absorption chiller are de-
scribed in the next section.
6.7.1. Air handling unit
It is the unit that absorbs the sensible and latent load of the space in
consideration. In the simulation study conducted by Calise et al. [61],
the latent heat was removed by coupling the system with a desiccant
wheel in the summer. But in the case of winter, humidification is re-
quired which was done through an air-to-water heat exchanger. The Air
handling unit was designed to handle 800 m3/h rate of air flow.
6.7.2. Absorption chiller
The absorption chiller (ACH) works on low grade energy heat. As
cooling is generally needed under hot conditions, the heat from the
surroundings can be used for the cooling effect. The CPVT and fuel cell
system simulated by Francesco et al. [76] used absorption chiller of
cooling capacity of 375 kW to provide space cooling. Heat source with
higher temperature increases the COP of the ACH. Akrami et al. [31]
integrated CPVT with a single-effect Lithium Bromide- Water (LiBr-
H2O) absorption chiller and a Proton Exchange Membrane electrolyser
for the production of hydrogen. The study mainly comprised of exergy
analysis of all the components involved in a CPVT system. Out of the
total exergy destruction 15% is from the single-effect absorption chiller.
From total exergy destruction in the single-effect absorption chiller 34%
is due to the generator. The absorption chiller heat requirement is
mainly needed at the generator [78]. Buonomano et al. [79] and Calise
et al. [60] used absorption chiller to provide space cooling for a Uni-
versity Hospital and an Island respectively. In the case of the University
Hospital the thermal energy was provided at a temperature of 90 °C
whereas in the case of the Island, the thermal energy was provided at a
temperature of 100 °C. Solar fraction of 52% was required for running
the ACH. Coefficient of Performance of ACH was improved by in-
creasing the inlet fluid temperature in the solar heating and cooling
system developed by Buonomano et al. [81].
6.8. Organic Rankine cycle
Al-Nimr et al. [62] simulated the a CPVT and Organic Rankine Cycle
(ORC) combined to produce energy. The effect of maximum tempera-
ture of ORC was analyzed for various parameters. With increase in
maximum temperature of ORC, the power produced, the thermal effi-
ciency and the PV cell temperature increased. But the collector effi-
ciency decreased due to increased thermal losses. The maximum overall
efficiency of the combined system was reported at 61% when the sto-
rage system was not in use. In the simulation the thermal efficiency was
kept constant by varying the length of the collector and mass flow rate
of the R134a. Lazova et al. [28] experimentally assessed a helical coil
heat exchanger in Organic Rankine Cycle. R404A was used as the Or-
ganic Rankine Cycle fluid with a mass flow rate of 0.20–0.33 kg/s. ORC
produced a power of 3 kW of electrical energy. It was reported that
mass flow rate had significant impact on the heat transfer rate. The
performance of the system improved by 10% in supercritical region
compared to subcritical region. The author recommends the use ORC in
supercritical region. Lazova et al. [89] states that in the supercritical
region, the thermo-physical properties like specific heat capacity,
density, viscosity and thermal conductivity of the fluid changes. The
heat transfer is also affected by the fluid flow direction, tube diameter,
heat and mass flux, buoyancy and type of fluid. Kosmadakis et al. [117]
simulated a CPVT system integrated with ORC to study its performance.
An improvement of efficiency from 9.81% to 11.83% was reported for
CPV-ORC compared with the absence of ORC. Annual efficiency of CPV-
M. George, et al.
ORC was reported at 10.52%. Segal et al. [54] simulated a hybrid CPVT
system with monocrystalline cell receiving 600–900 nm and the rest of
the spectrum for Rankine- Brayton or chemical process. The thermal
power output was 11.1 MW and that of the PV cell was 6.5 MW under
an input of 55.6 MW. Xue Han et al. [30] used spectrum splitting ap-
proach to produce high temperature output of 120 °C to run a ORC
cycle. The solar to electricity efficiency was reported at 44% for the
hybrid cycle, an improvement from 28.4% for CPV only system at 500
suns. At 2000suns the hybrid system simulated overall efficiency was
36.8%.
6.9. Textile industry
Youssef et al. [29] used CPVT for Tissue dyeing application in
Textile industry. The system was coupled with an auxiliary burner in
case the CPVT was not able to provide the required thermal output. The
maximum outlet temperature of the water was 220 °C and 200 °C was
achieved for at least 5 h a day.
7. Economic aspect
The monthly saving or the cost reduction is achieved due to the
partial or complete use of the required energy from solar energy. In case
of heating cost, if the heating load is greater, as in the case of winter
conditions, then an auxiliary energy source is required resulting in in-
creased cost [74]. The cost of producing a liter of water using air heater
humidification-dehumidification cycle in a desalination plant using a
CPVT system was $0.01 [32]. An electric energy saving of 7795 kWh/
year, thermal energy saving of 5474 kWh/year and cooling energy
saving of 2885 kWh/year for the point focus modular CPVT system was
reported [118]. To make an investment to buy batteries depends on the
difference of buying and selling electricity, in the study conducted by
Sanaye et al. [78]. It is economically viable only if a difference greater
than 0.18 $/kWh exists. The relative net annual benefit for the CPVT
system connected with the electricity grid was 905 $/year and for re-
mote area was 6279 $/year [78]. But it has to be considered that CPVT
system connected to the electricity required considerably lower in-
vestment cost when compared to the CPVT system in a remote area. In
the dynamic simulation of a trigeneration system using CPVT by Calise
et al. [70], the cost of Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) was 3067.16 $/m2 and
that of silicon cell was131.34 $/m2. The cost difference determined the
trigeneration system not economically feasible for the production of
high temperature output.
A 20-year period combined with discount rate of 5% and a feed-in
tariff of 0.15–0.60 €/kWh was considered for the economic analysis of
the CPVT system by Buonomano et al. [81]. The system was econom-
ically profitable only if the capital cost of CPVT system reduced to
€900/m2. Mittelman et al. [80] designed a desalination plant using
CPVT system. The cost of the water was related to the top brine tem-
perature. As the top brine temperature increased, the cost of the water
decreased. Considering a carbon incentive of $30/ton of CO2 avoided
Table 5
Parameters used for the calculation of Levelized Cost of Heat [119].
Technical
Collector size [m2]
Optical Efficiency
Cell Area Coverage [%]
Optical properties [Abs./Trans./Refl.]
Module wiring losses [%]
Power Conditioning Losses [%]
Full Spectrum Cell efficiency [%]
Cell bandgap [eV]
CPV Degradation [%/year]
Thermal Efficiency [%]
CST Degradation [%/year]
Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41
and feed-in tariff of €15/kWh, the optimal capital cost for CPVT system
was $3.7/kWp. Capital cost less than $3.7/kWp would make the system
economically profitable even if the water was provided for free.
Riggs et al. [119] added the cost of thermal energy and the cost of
electrical energy to find the Levelized Cost of Heat (LCOH). The tech-
nical parameters considered for LCOH are shown Table 5 in which no
storage system was considered, and the system was resized according to
the demands. LCOH was affected by the Direct Normal Irradiance, local
electricity cost and the efficiency of the overall CPV system. If subsidy
and more electricity is produced, the competitiveness of the system
increases. Considering all these factors a LCOH for a system with nat-
ural gas was reported at −1.4 €/kWh of thermal energy. The heat ex-
changers consume 90% of the capital cost [28]. Kosmadakis et al. [117]
studied the economic feasibility of CPVT coupled with ORC considering
a life cycle at 20 years. The annualized cost of production is 0.113
€/kWh for CPV-ORC and 0.147 €/kWh for CPV.
7.1. Net present value
Calise et al. [60] determined the net present value as 10.1 M€ for
the polygeneration system with the capability to desalinate water,
provide space heating and cooling, domestic hot water and electricity.
The Net Present Value increased to 20.7 M€ when the feed-in tariffs
were considered. When the net present value is compared with the
capital cost of 3.95 M€, the system is showing good economic profit-
ability even in the absence feed-in tariff. Youssef et al. [29] reported
that for CPVT system with a capital investment of 34 k€ for Tissue
Dyeing in a Textile Industry, a net present value of 33 k€ after a period
of 20 years with internal rate of return at 19%. Renno et al. [120] in-
tegrated a CPVT system with Absorption Heat Pump. The capital in-
vestment and life time was 11 k€ and 20 years respectively. The net
present value was valued at 10 k€.
7.2. Payback period
The payback period generally is represented by Eq. (7) in terms of
total depreciable investment (TDI) and annual net cash inflow (ANCI)
[31]:
TDI
Payback Period =
ANCI (7)
The payback period decreases as the CPVT area increases. The
payback period for a system equipped with CPVT, single effect ab-
sorption chiller and Proton Exchange Membrane electrolyser was
10.3 years [31]. The simple payback period for a CPVT system in-
tegrated with fuel cell and gas boiler was 12.5 years in the study con-
ducted by Calise et al. [76] when no subsidy was considered. In the
same study, limiting the size of the CPVT field to 25 collectors (with one
collector of size 12 m2) reported a simple payback period of 10 years
without subsidy and 9 years with subsidy of 50% for a collector size
from (25–75). Renno et al. [118] developed a choice model for CPVT
Financial Installation site
Thermal Cost [$/m2] CST Nameplae [MWth]
PV Cost [$/m2] Average DNI [kWh/m2 day]
Indirect Mark-up [%] Cost of electricity [$/kWh]
Debt to equity [%] Operation lifetime
Interest Rate [%]
Loan Term [years]
Effective tax rates [%]
Nominal Discount rate [%]
CPV O&M [$/Welect.]
Thermal O&M [[$/kWth]
O&M Escalation [%/year]
32
M. George, et al. Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41

application which fulfilled the electrical energy, thermal energy and
cooling demands of the user. Considering a certain user demand with an
electrical load of 3000 kWh/year, a payback period of 8 years was re-
ported. A payback period of 10 years for a system can be considered as
attractive if a life span of the whole system is 25 years. Then for the next
15 years the co-generation system can provide its application for free of
cost. Buonomano et al. [79] estimated a capital cost of 3.4 M€/year for
the solar trigeneration system to provide a part of the electrical energy,
domestic hot water supply and the cooling demands to a hospital in
Italy. The yearly saving without feed-in tariff was reported to be 0.24 M
€/year which accounted to a simple payback period of 15 years. The
payback period reduced to 4.1 years if a feed-in tariff of 0.30 €/kWh
and 0.10 €/kWh was used for electrical and thermal energy. Calise et al.
[60] assuming the mass commercialization of CPVT system, the capital
cost of the polygeneration system was reported to be 3.95 M€/year.
Under no feed-in tariff, an annual income of 1.14 M€/year was com-
municated for the production of electricity, water, space cooling and
heating. The simple payback period for this system was determined to
be 3.45 years which is very attractive.
CPVT followed by a brief conclusion.
8.1. Summary and recommendation of heat transfer components
The ideal heat transfer device for a CPVT application should have
the least sun facing area and the least thermal resistance when trans-
ferring heat from the PV cell to the thermal storage/sink. To improve
the effectiveness of the heat exchanging process the temperature dif-
ference between the heat taken to heat supplied must be minimal. The
structural strength of the device should be high. Thermal losses should
be as low as possible followed by the requirement of high temperature
output. When the thermal energy is stored the heat transfer coefficient
should be as low as possible.
The heat transfer device requires a large surface for dissipating large
amount of heat. As the concentration ratio increases the temperature of
the device also increase which in turn leads to increased thermal losses.
The cooling efficiency decreases as the temperature difference between
the heat to be taken from and the heat to be supplied is reduced. The
device specific advantages and limitations are tabulated in Table 6.

7.3. Discounted payback period 8.1.1. Recommendations of heat transfer component

Discounted payback period is known as the time period required by
the CPVT system to generate power savings equivalent to its present
cost within its average service life [74]. Renno et al. [120] used a
system with CPVT and heat absorption pump with lifetime of 20 years
and capital investment of 11 k€, the discounted payback period was
8 years.
8. Conclusions, summary and recommendations
The use of heat extraction depends on the objective that needs to be
achieved. The objectives vary depending on the application the system.
It can vary from getting a uniform temperature distribution, higher
outlet temperature, reduction of thermal losses, reducing the cost of the
system, or increasing the cooling capacity. The objective and the cor-
responding recommendation of the devices to be used are listed out in
Table 7.
The objectives a heat transfer component based on the literature
are:

The following section provides the summary and recommendation 1. Uniform Temperature Distribution
heat transfer component, heat transfer fluid and economic aspect of 2. High Heat Dissipation

Table 6
Main features of the design of heat transport system and its limitations.
Type of design Advantages Disadvantages/Limitations

Fins/Heat Sinks a. Mature technology a. Thermal losses, thermal efficiency and temperature decreases as
b. Widely used in many applications the area increases
b. Manufacturing complexity increases as size decreases

Microchannels a. Improved thermal performance by increasing the number of a. Thermal losses, thermal efficiency and temperature decreases as
channels and decreasing the channel width length increases
b. Large surface-to-volume ratio b. High pressure drops
c. Reliable, lightweight and leak proof c. High pumping power
d. High heat dissipation from small area d. Increasing channel width reduces hydraulic performance
e. Decreasing the fluid diameter, increased the thermal efficiency
f. Thermal losses reduced from reducing the length

Aluminum Heat sinks a. Easy manufacturing a. Thermal losses, thermal efficiency and temperature decreases as
b. Low cost the area increases
c. High thermal conductivity b. Manufacturing complexity increases as size decreases

Tanks a. Lower heat loss a. Even in the absence of solar radiation thermal losses are present
b. High thermal storage capacity b. Energy losses increased with increased energy input
c. Stable supply of energy c. Increase in size, increased the thermal losses.
d. Reduces the temperature of the PV cell due to its ability to store d. Increase in size, increased the cost
energy.
e. Better electrical efficiency

Tubes/Pipes a. Increasing the pipe length increased the efficiency and outlet a. Low area of contact
temperature b. Higher heat loss due to convection as pipe length increases
b. Easy cleaning and manufacturability c. Energy efficiency decreases with pipe length
d. Operating pressure affects the design selection
e. U-turn geometry decreases the outlet fluid temperature

Helical Coils a. Compact, simple construction and low cost. a. Frictional pressure drop is high at high mass flowrate
b. Higher heat transfer coefficient b. Thermophysical properties of the fluid change due to the
temperature change from frictional pressure drop

Underground Heat a. Temperature distribution underground remain unchanged over the a. Boring and digging creates disturbance to the surroundings
Exchanger year b. Heat transfer rate dependent on the soil type.
b. Constant sink temperature c. Extremely durable material required

33
M. George, et al. Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41

Table 7 Table 9
Objectives and Recommendation for Heat Transfer Component. Objectives and Recommendation of Heat Transfer Medium.
Objectives Recommendations Objectives Recommendations

Uniform Temperature Distribution a. Straight Channels High Thermal efficiency 1. Lower flow rate of the fluid
2. U-Turn Geometry with water for 64%
High Heat Dissipation a. Microchannels
efficiency
b. Large tanks
3. Diathermic Oil- 60%
High Outlet Temperature a. Reducing/Increasing the pipe length
High Electrical Efficiency 1. Decrease fluid inlet temperature
b. One-way double channel
2. Increase fluid flow rate
Reduction in Thermal losses a. Smaller area 3. Diathermic Oil
b. Large storage tanks 4. TiO2/Water

Economics a. Small tank size Lower PV cell temperature 1. Liquid Immersion

2. Dielectric Fluid
3. Al2O3/Water
3. High Outlet Temperature Uniform PV cell temperature 1. Liquid Immersion
4. Reduction in Thermal Losses 2. Deionized Water
5. Economics 3. Phase Change Material

Reduction in Thermal Stress Cycle 1. Liquid Immersion

High Outlet Temperature 1. Water – (220 °C)
8.2. Summary of heat transfer medium and recommendations
2. Diathermic Oil – (180 °C)
3. Al2O3/Synthetic Oil Nanofluids
The heat transfer medium requires a low residence time for quick
heat collection. When used for thermally decoupled system, the spectral
filtering should be optimized according to the cell used. The electrical Temperature stabilization is dependent on the thermal mass. Lower
and thermal efficiencies can be controlled without altering the mass thermal mass leads to higher temperature fluctuations. The heat
flow rate. When the PV cell is immersed in liquid, it should not affect transfer mediums advantages and limitations are tabulated in Table 8.
the electrical performance of the cell and have stability under thermal
stress. 8.2.1. Recommendations
The heat transfer medium’s thermal output is dependent on the The selection of the heat transfer fluids affects several performance
residence time and the temperature. Higher the time and temperature, factors in a CPVT system. Based on the literature, the objectives a heat
higher the thermal output. Increasing the mass flow rate decreases the transfer fluid wants to achieve is/are:
heat transfer coefficient and the pressure. A difference of temperature is
always noted between the PV cell temperature and the fluid tempera- 1. Higher Thermal efficiency
ture, with the fluid achieving lower temperature. Hydraulic system is 2. Higher Electrical efficiency
dependent on the viscosity and the density of the fluid. Stronger hy- 3. Lower PV cell temperature
draulic systems are required for more viscous and denser fluids. 4. Uniform PV Cell Temperature

Table 8
Main features of the heat transfer medium and its limitations.
Heat transfer fluid Advantages Limitations

Water • Optical filter if placed in front of the PV cell • Legionnaires Disease

• Increases the electrical output due to its cooling capabilities • Scale Formation
• 33% of the incoming radiations are absorbed • Upper limit of temperature is 100 °C
• Not effective for temperature less than 4 °C
• Cost is more compared to air
Air • Lower space requirements • Low heat absorption Coefficient
• AsNon-uniform
fluid velocity increases the heat transfer coefficient increases • Lower specific heat
• air distribution • Rise in temperature is greater
• Creates pollution and heat build-up in the surroundings
• Hot spots
Diathermic oil • Operating temperature of 180 °C • Low thermal conductivity
• Thermal inertia
Phase Change Materials • Passive cooling • Performance depends on the melting temperature
• Efficiency improvement at lower solar irradiation • Inability to solely provide the dissipation requirement
• Lighter than metal fins
• Lower tracking power
• Stable operating temperature
• Temperature stabilizer
Nanofluids • Improved thermal conductivity • Poor performance in turbulent region
• Atmaintained
high inlet velocity uniform PV cell temperature can be • Exergy of the system decreased with increase in velocity of the fluid
• Lower thermal and hydraulic performance
• Better thermal efficiency compared to water
• Higher outlet temperature
Metal Foam • Increase in heat transfer rate
• Higher surface area
Dielectric Liquid • Deionized water least temperature difference across the length • Propylene Glycol is highly dangerous for aquatic organism
• Isopropyl alcohol improved the efficiency • flow
Temperature distribution is non-uniform for dielectric fluid in laminar

34
M. George, et al.
5. Reduction in Thermal Stress Cycle
6. High Outlet Temperature
The recommendation and the type of heat transfer medium is pro-
vided in Table 9 for each objective.
8.3. Summary and recommendations on economic aspects
The economic aspect of the CPVT from the literature review points
out that the viability of the batteries depends on the difference of selling
and buying of electricity. The cost of CPVT system in remote area is
higher than grid connected systems. CPVT systems becomes more at-
tractive option compared to conventional energy form if, feed-in-tariff
and carbon incentives are provided. The capital cost of the CPVT system
with majority expense on the heat exchanger device.
8.3.1. Recommendations
The objective from the economic point of view is to reduce the time
for invested cost to return back to the investor. The return of the in-
vestment can be in terms of thermal energy saving, electrical energy
saving or selling electricity back to the grid. Therefore, the objective a
CPVT system in terms of economic terms it requires to achieve is/are:
1. Electrical energy savings
2. Thermal energy savings
3. Reduction in payback period
The recommendation for each objective is listed in Table 10.
8.4. Conclusion
The seventh sustainable development goal put forward by United
Nation as well as the need for reduction in carbon emissions as stated by
Paris Agreement requires a renewable and sustainable energy source.
The CPVT system promises to be a key technology in the achievement of
the goals. As can be seen in Table 11, the systems compatibility for
variety of application areas like space heating and cooling, desalina-
tion, augmented electrical energy generation, greenhouse, etc. These
applications are possible because of the technologies ability to produce
both electrical and high-grade thermal energy. To improve the effi-
ciency of the CPVT and hence reduce the carbon emissions, the paper
discusses the various thermal components which play an important part
in the overall efficiency improvement of the CPVT system. The paper
introduces the classification that can be broadly used for CPVT systems
namely, thermally coupled and thermally decoupled system. The re-
view presents a thorough description of the heat transfer components
medium with the limitation and their recommendation. The paper also
details the recent studies of the CPVT system and their economic aspect.
Some of the key findings can be listed as follows:
• Heat transfer components performance is limited due to its large
area, thermal losses, mirror effect on the thermal and electrical ef-
ficiencies, and the temperature difference between the sink and
device.
• For uniform and high heat dissipation, heat sinks with straight
channels with microchannels integrated at the end of the fluid outlet
can be considered.
• The performance of the heat transfer medium system is dependent
on the mass flow rate, thermal mass, viscosity, density, time and
required temperature.
• For improving the thermal efficiency, low fluid flow rate with U-
turn geometry can be utilized. The fluid used can be either water or
diathermic oil.
• To produce uniform, stable and efficiency enhancement at low in-
solation phase change material can be utilized.
• To improve the economics of the CPVT system presently, a reduction
35
Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41
in capital cost, a feed-in-tariff, incentives for reduction in CO2
emissions and subsidies are to be provided.
• Overall efficiency of as high as 85% is reported.
On the whole, CPVT has potential to contribute in the field of re-
newable energy. The future research prospects for the technology in
presented in the Section 9.
9. Way forward
From this literature survey the authors would like to recommend the
following for future studies:
1. Thermal vapor compression and absorption vapor compression
desalination process are more efficient. CPVT system with the in-
tegration with the above two processes as these two processes re-
quire a temperature input greater than 100 °C
2. Flow rate of the fluid, type of and fluid properties play an important
role in the performance of the CPVT system. Further analysis re-
garding the optimization of the properties is needed.
3. Liquid immersion promises uniform temperature distribution but
its long-term performance on the overall efficiency, the ability to
transport heat and its spectral response is an area for further re-
search.
4. The integrated system with the CPVT is oversized or undersized due
to uncertainties. More research on the sizing of different equipment
is needed to avoid the uncertainties.
5. Reliability and durability of the CPVT system depends on the least
reliable and durable component. Identification of the component
lifecycle requires extensive long-term experimental studies in real
world conditions.
6. Identification of more heat transfer fluids and the economic ana-
lysis of the existing and yet to be tested fluids need to be conducted.
7. As the solar radiation is intermittent, the behavior of the CPVT
system will also be dynamic. Hence more dynamic study on time
required for the system to achieve a certain temperature or varia-
tion of thermal performance with time needs to be conducted.
8. Compatibility test of the integrated system with the CPVT.
9. Use of optical devices to improve spectral splitting performance.
10. As temperature of the body rises so does the radiative and con-
vective losses. Studies on ways to reduce the thermal losses can be
effective in improving the thermal efficiency.
11. Many of the studies are simulations. It is therefore, very important
experimental setup of the simulation studies are conducted for
validation purpose and to understand its real world performance.
Declaration of interests
The authors declared that there is no conflict of interest.
Table 10
Objectives and Recommendations for the economic aspects of CPVT system.
Objective Recommendations
Electrical energy savings 1. Improve electrical efficiency
2. Reduction in the cost of PV material
Thermal energy savings 1. Improve thermal efficiency
2. Cost reduction in heat exchanger device
3. Proper sizing of the components
Reduction in Payback period 1. Reduction in capital cost
2.
3.
Provide Feed-in-tariff
Incentives for reduction in CO2 emissions
4. Subsidy
 Table 11
Summary of studies in CPVT system.
Type of work System Design Heat Transport Components Heat Transfer medium Electrical Thermal Overall Key Findings Ref.
efficiency Efficiency Efficiency
M. George, et al.

Simulation Thermally Decoupled Fins Water 6.2% 48.6% 54.8% • Media absorption of 38% spectrum [66]
Simulation and Thermally Coupled NA Water 16.6–20% 39% 55.6–59% • Low cost [25]
Experimental • Active circulation increased the thermal efficiency
compared to passive circulation
Simulation Thermally Coupled Storage Tank Water 21% 62% NA • Maximum temperature of fluid was 220 °C [29]
• Maintained 200 °C for 5 h a day.
Experimental Thermally Coupled NA Phase Change NA NA NA • 15% performance enhancement compared to water [27]
Material + Water cooling
Simulation Thermally Coupled Tube Nanofluid 8.64% 56.37% 65.01% • Total Exergy efficiency increases in laminar flow. [83]
Simulation Thermally Coupled Micro-channel Water 31.8% NA NA • CR = 1800 suns [71]
• Maximum Cell temperature of 91.4 °C
Simulation Thermally Coupled Generator Water Li-Br Solution NA NA NA • Exergy analysis [31]
• 15% of exergy destruction occurs in ACH
Simulation Thermally Coupled Heat Exchanger Organic Fluid 21.96% NA NA • Increase in maximum temperature increased the [62]
power produced, thermal efficiency and PV cell
temperature.
Simulation Thermally Coupled Heat Exchanger + Storage Tank NA 35% 43.4% 80%a • Cooling capacity of 375 kW [76]
• Higher temperature input increased the COP of the
ACH
Simulation Thermally Decoupled Heat Exchanger Refrigerants 44% NA 44% • The system performs better than conventional CPV [121]
system.
Simulation Thermally Coupled Storage Tank Water NA NA NA • The model predicted the electrical performance of [122]
the system with a mean error in the range of 2–14%.
• The thermal model of the storage tank predicted the

36
temperature less than 2 °C from the observed value.
Simulation Thermally Coupled U-shaped Flow Channel SiO2 Nanofluid NA NA NA • At low velocities the energy efficiencies are lower [63]
than exergy efficiency.
• Maximum energy efficiency attained at low
concentrations
Simulation Thermally decoupled NA NA NA NA NA • Levelized cost of heat generation [119]
• Optimum value depends on the amount of spectrum
allocated for PV conversion.
Simulation Thermally Coupled Heat Exchanger Air NA NA NA • Desalination process 25% greater that water heated [32,123]
desalination plant.
• Modular design
• Cost of water at 0.01 $/L
Simulation Thermally Coupled Earth Water Heat Exchanger Water NA NA NA • An optimized the flow rate at 0.022 kg/s to [91]
minimize the temperature
Experimental and Thermally Coupled Microchannel Water 6% 44% 50% • Wide solar cell was less sensitive to increase in [69]
Simulation temperature
• Thermal loss coefficient of 0.5–1.0 W/m2 K.
Experimental Thermally Coupled Helical Coil Heat Exchanger R-404a NA NA NA • Heat exchanging process increased by 10% when [28]
operated in supercritical region.
• Increase in mass flow rate of fluid increases the heat
transfer.
Experimental Thermally Coupled Heat Exchanger Water 3.8% 37% NA • Maximum power point tracking offers better [75]
thermal performance than fixed.
• Validation between the theoretical and experimental
output.
Simulation Thermally Coupled Heat Exchanger Nanofluids 8.6% 57% 65% • PVT achieve higher energy and exergy efficiency [83]
compared to CPVT
• Increase the heat exchanger pipe length decreases
energy efficiency but increases exergy efficiency
(continued on next page)
Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41
 Table 11 (continued)

Type of work System Design Heat Transport Components Heat Transfer medium Electrical Thermal Overall Key Findings Ref.
efficiency Efficiency Efficiency
M. George, et al.

Experimental Thermally Decoupled Optical Filter Water NA NA NA • Transmittance efficiency decreases with increase in [96]
optical water layer thickness.
• Thermal stress cycle is avoided in PV cells
Experimental Thermally Coupled Aluminum Heat Exchanger Paraffin wax 11% NA 80%b • Latent heat storage capabilities of Paraffin wax [33]
• Maximum back panel temperature of 37 °C at
2000 W/m2.
Theoretical Thermally Coupled NA Phase Change Material NA NA 27% • Conversion efficiency decreases with increase in [104]
thermal contact resistance
• Higher concentration leads to optimal working
conditions
Experimental and Thermally Coupled Channel Water 18% 45% 55% • Hazy weather affects electrical performance more [124]
Simulation than thermal performance
• 80% sunlight incident at a tracking error of 0.7°.
Experimental and Thermally Coupled U-shaped Collector Water NA 65% NA • As volumetric flow rate of fluid increases the [74]
Simulation temperature decreases and electrical power output
increases
• Optimal condition through numerical and
experimental analysis.
Experimental Thermally Coupled Helical Coil Heat Exchanger R-404a NA NA NA • 3 kW of electrical energy [89]
• Higher mass flow rate of organic fluid higher the
heat transfer rate
Experimental and Thermally Coupled U-Tube Copper Tube NA 30% NA NA • Cell temperature of 105 °C and fluid temperature of [26]
Simulation 90 °C.
Simulation Thermally Coupled Finned Mini-channels NA NA NA NA • Maximum conversion between 300 and 600× [34]
• Thermal resistance within sTEG must be kept to a

37
minimum
• Optimum geometrical parameter of minichannel
heat exchanger for minimum pumping power and
maximum heat transfer coefficient.
Experimental Thermally Coupled Heat Exchanger Water NA 79.2% NA • Recovery Ratio of 92% [113]
Simulation Thermally Coupled NA NA NA NA NA • Optical performance increased by eliminating [125]
multiple reflection
• Optical efficiency of 80%.
Experimental Thermally Coupled Thin Walled Aluminum Channel Water NA NA 71% • Eliminating multiple reflection compound parabolic [126]
concentrator requires the least support material
consumption
• Optical efficiency of 80%
Experimental and Thermally Coupled Heat Exchanger + Storage Tank Water NA NA NA • Cooling improved the power output of V-trough by [53]
Simulation 31.5%
Experimental and Thermally Coupled U-turn Channel Water NA 64% NA • One-way double channel to increase the output [84]
simulation temperature
Experimental and Thermally Decoupled Stainless steel pipe NA NA NA NA • 732 nm to 1067 nm the optimal wavelength region [59]
for Si cell
• Optical efficiency of 65%
Simulation Thermally Coupled Active Ventilation + Storage Tank Water NA NA 85% • Cost of collector at 13.4$/m2 [77]
• Storage tank helps reducing the temperature of the
solar collector.
Experimental and Thermally De-coupled NA Silica/Water Nanofluid NA NA NA • Thermal conductivity enhancement of 20% with [58]
Simulation respect to deionized water
• 97% optical transmittance
Experimental and Thermally Coupled Square Pipe Water 9–10.5% 50% NA • Static miniature concentrator has lower heat [64]
Simulation transfer coefficients.
(continued on next page)
Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41
 Table 11 (continued)

Type of work System Design Heat Transport Components Heat Transfer medium Electrical Thermal Overall Key Findings Ref.
efficiency Efficiency Efficiency
M. George, et al.

Simulation Thermally Decoupled/ NA NA NA NA NA • Thermally coupled operated at lower concentration [43]

Thermally Coupled • Thermally decoupled system operated the PV cell at
lower temperatures.
Simulation Thermally Coupled NA NA NA NA NA • Model to evaluate the thermal and electric [118]
performance of a CPVT system
Simulation Thermally Coupled Storage Tank NA NA NA NA • Optimum values for grid connected and stand-alone [78]
system.
• Batteries were avoided as the selling and buying
price difference was small.
Experimental Thermally Coupled Grooved Tube + Storage Tank Water 30% 30% 60% • The photovoltaic efficiency remains constant for [85]
direct radiations above 580 W/m2.
• An exergetic efficiency of 35.4%.
Simulation Thermally Coupled Absorption Chiller + Storage Tank Li-Br and Water 20% 50% NA • Saving of 1 GWh, 1.5 GWh and 1.2 GWh of [79]
electrical, cooling and thermal energy respectively.
Simulation Thermally Coupled Circular Channel + Desiccant NA 21.15% 55.32% NA • Primary energy savings of 81% and 85% emissions [61]
Wheel + Storage tank avoided
Simulation Thermally Coupled Heat Exchanger + Storage Tank NA 20% 45% NA • A simple payback period of 10 years [60]
• Economically more viable if feed-in-tariff.
Experimental and Thermally Coupled Flow Channels Water 20% 55% 70% • Lower heat dissipation due to lower surface area of [72]
Simulation CPVT
Experimental Thermally Coupled Heat Exchanger + Storage Tank NA NA NA NA • Thermal mass affected the performance of the [107]
desalination plant
Experimental Thermally Coupled Single Flow Heat Exchanger Water 11% 50% NA • Optical performance varies significantly with [116]
incident angle.
Simulation Thermally Decoupled NA Water 10.5% 66% NA • An increase in solar radiation did not decrease the [97]

38
electrical efficiency of the PV module.
• Water absorbs 33% of the infrared region.
Experimental and Thermally Coupled Storage Tank Water 15% Na 30% • Self-shading of the concentrator led to reduced [52]
Theoretical power output.
• Stainless steel provided 25% more radiation
compared to aluminum.
Simulation Thermally Decoupled NA NA 36.3% NA 26.5% • Higher conversion efficiency than Concentrated [127]
Photovoltaic Systems
Simulation Thermally Decoupled NA 18 fluids considered NA NA NA • Industrial grade propylene glycol performed the [94]
best.
Simulation Thermally Coupled NA NA 22% 69% NA • Optimized configuration of CPV/T components [120]
• Fluid temperature of 90 °C for operation of
absorption heat pump
Simulation Thermally Coupled NA Refrigerant Fluid NA NA NA • Direct Normal irradiance profile generated trough [114]
Gordon
Experimental and Thermally Coupled NA Water 25 – 30% NA NA • Self sustained water cooled CPVT has an [65]
Simulation enhancement ratio of 2.5 compared to PV system.
• Cooling efficiency decreases with irradiance.
Experimental Thermally Coupled Pipe + Storage Tank Water 5.21% 68.2% NA • Closed cycle obtained a temperature output of [115]
62.8 °C.
Simulation Thermally Coupled Heat Exchanger + Storage NA NA NA NA • Economic feasibility obtained through subsidies [81]

a
Calculated with respect to beam radiation.
b
Maximum value.
Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41
M. George, et al. Energy Conversion and Management 186 (2019) 15–41

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