7.

EMERGING TELECOM NETWORKS

1. Wireless Sensor Networks:

Application Layer Sensor

Communication
SubSystem Sensor Node CPU

Network Layer

Slow Serial Link

MAC Layer
Physical Layer Radio Board

Forward Packet Path

Wireless Channel

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Sensing unit is used to sense the data which it is assigned .The sensing data may be pressure,
temperature, light, speed etc.Once the data is gathered it will be processed into suitable form that
can be used by a microcontroller or microprocessor.

The microcontroller will process the data in a suitable format in such a way that it can be
transmitted to the base station. On the other hand sensor can receive the data from the base
station and this data will be send to the microcontroller. This data will be processed by the micro
controller and send to the sensing unit for sensing or tracking the destined object.

The power unit supplies power to the sensing unit, microcontroller & transceiver. The power unit
is a battery backup mostly.

Wireless sensor works on 3 layers in OSI model. Physical layer & MAC layer, Network Layer &
Application layer. Physical layer, MAC layer & Network Layer these layers collectively called
as Communication subsystem. The physical layer output is connected to the transceiver. The
application layer provides 2 main functions .It will convert the data from the sensor in a suitable
format that can be processed by microcontroller and microcontroller data will be processed in a
format that can be used by the sensor.

Layered Architecture:

• A few hundred sensor nodes (half/full duplex)

• A single powerful base-station

• Network nodes are organized into concentric Layers

• Layer: Set of nodes that have the same hop-count to the base-station

• Additional Mobile Nodes traversing the network

• Wireless Multi-Hop Infrastructure Network Architecture (MINA)

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Layered architecture has nodes that are placed in the different layers. These layers are called hop
layers. The nodes present in distant hop layer will have to transmit signal to the base station
through a large distance, so that the distant hop layer node will transmit signal to the before hop
layer node and that node will transmit the signal to the next hop layer node that is nearer to the
base station.

Clustered Architecture:

• Sensor nodes autonomously form a group called clusters.

• The clustering process is applied recursively to form a hierarchy of clusters.

• It uses two-tier hierarchy clustering architecture.

• It uses distributed algorithm to organize the sensor nodes into clusters.

• The cluster-head nodes create TDMA schedules.

• Nodes transmit data during their assigned slots.

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 • All the nodes in the cluster will be communicated only to the cluster head and cluster
head will be transmitting the information collected from the nodes to the base station.

• Cluster head architecture provides very good energy saving efficiency compared with
layered architecture because all the nodes in the cluster will be communicating only with
the cluster head which is located near to the nodes.

2. Sensor Information Forwarding:

Sensor information forwarding is classified into 4 types

i) Single hop without clustering

ii) Multiple hop without clustering

iii) Single hop with clustering

iv) Multiple hop with clustering

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i) Single hop without clustering:

In this communication method the nodes in the cluster will not have cluster head. The node itself
will be acting as a cluster head and it will be transmitting the information directly to the base
station. The node needs more power and power backup to transmit to the base station. Since each
node is acting as a cluster head, node present far away from the base station should have more
power to transmit to the base station.

ii) Multiple hop without clustering:

In this communication method the nodes in the cluster will not have cluster head. The node itself
will be acting as a cluster head and it will be transmitting the information directly to the next
immediate node. The information received node will transmit to next immediate node. Here each
nodes will be acting as a cluster head and transmission path will be based on traffic. Each time
path will be established based on node availability in the cluster. Multiple hop will not have
fixed path and path will be selected based on node availability.

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iii) Single hop with clustering:

In this method the area is divided into small areas. Each small area will have group of nodes and
these group of nodes will have the cluster head. This cluster head will be communicating directly
with the base station. One cluster head will not communicate directly with another cluster head
but it will communicate with the base station from the base station it will communicate with
other cluster head. Since all the nodes in a cluster is communicating with the cluster head, nodes
power is used efficiently.

iv) Multiple hop with clustering

In this method the area is divided into small areas. Each small area will have group of nodes and
these group of nodes will have the cluster head. This cluster head will be communicating with
the next cluster head and this cluster will communicate with another cluster head and this cluster
head to the base station. One cluster head will communicate directly with another cluster head
this cluster head will communicate with the base station. Since all the nodes in a cluster is

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communicating with the cluster head, nodes power is used efficiently and cluster head is
communicating with the another cluster, so cluster head use the power efficiently.

3. WSN Model:

• Simple and robust – ad hoc, self-configuring and distributed algorithm

– Routes must converge quickly

• Minimum overhead – Resources used must be minimal – must be energy efficient

• Communication – Effectively use limited bandwidth

• Ease of deployment – reasonably good performance even in harsh environments

• Application mission aware – Flexible to be used in a wide variety of applications, yet use
concepts like data fusion, if necessary and possible

• In WSN, other traffic models are possible:

– Data Collection Model

– Data Diffusion Model

• Data Collection Model: Source sends data to a collection entity (e.g. gateway):
periodically or on-demand

• Data Diffusion Model:

– Source: A sensor node that generates data, based on its sensing mechanisms’
observations

– Event: Something that needs to be reported, e.g. in target detection; some

abnormal activity

– Sink: A node, randomly located in the field, that is interested in events and seeks
such information

Diffusion: Basics

• Data-centric vs. address centric architecture

– Individual network address is not critical; Data is important and is accessed as

needed

• User can pose a specific task, that could be executed by sensor nodes

• Concept of Named Data: (Attribute, Value) Pair

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 • Sink node requests data by sending “interests” for data

• Interests are propagated through the network, setting up gradients in the network,
designed to “draw” data

• Data matching the interest is then transmitted towards the sink, over multiple paths
(obtained by the gradients

The sink can then reinforce some of these paths to optimize

Diffusion: Data Propagation:

• When a sensor node detects a target, it:

– Searches interest cache for matching entry

– If found, computes highest requested event rate among its gradients

– Instructs sensor sub-system to generate data at this rate

– Sends data to neighbors on its gradient list

• Intermediate nodes maintain a data cache

– Caches recently received events

– Forwards event data to neighbors on its gradient list, at original rate or reduced
rate (intelligently)

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Diffusion: Reinforcement:

• When sink gets an event notification, it:

– Picks a suitable set of neighbor(s) (best link, low delay, etc.) and sends a refresh
interest message, with higher notification rate (e.g. every 10 ms instead of every
1s)

• This will prune some of its neighbors (since interests in a node’s cache
will expire)

– Each selected neighbor forwards this new interest to a subset of its neighbors;
selecting a smaller set of paths

• Negative reinforcement also necessary to de-select weaker paths if a better path found.

Direct Transmission:

• Direct Transmission

– All nodes transmit to the base station (BS)

– Very expensive since BS may be located very far away and nodes need more
energy to transmit over longer distances

• Farther the distance, greater the propagation losses, and hence higher the
transmission power

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 – All nodes must take turns transmitting to the BS so delay is high (N units for a N-
node network)

– Better scheme is to have fewer nodes transmit this far distance to lower energy
costs and more simultaneous transmissions to lower delay.

4. Wireless Sensor Networks Protocols:

1. LEACH:

• Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH)

• Two-level hierarchy

• LEACH is a cluster-based protocol

Each cluster will have large number of nodes and each cluster will have cluster head. These
cluster head will be communicating with the base station. The message from the base station is
transferred to the cluster head and cluster head will be communicating with the cluster nodes.

It is a two level hierarchy BASE STATIONCLUSTER HEADCLUSTER NODE

CLUSTER NODECLUSTER HEADBASE STATION

Since the nodes are communicating with the cluster head and cluster head to the base station,
considerable amount of energy is saved. The cluster nodes will need low energy levels to
communicate with cluster head comparing communication with base station directly.

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2. PEGASIS:

 Power-Efficient Gathering for Sensor Information Systems

– Minimize distance nodes must transmit

– Minimize number of leaders that transmit to BS

– Minimize broadcasting overhead

– Minimize number or messages leader needs to receive

– Distribute work more equally among all nodes

 Greedy Chain Algorithm

– Start with node furthest away from BS

– Add to chain closest neighbor to this node that has not been visited

– Repeat until all nodes have been added to chain

– Constructed before 1st round of communication and then reconstructed when

nodes expired.

– Data fusion at each node (except end nodes)

– Only one message is passed at every node

– Delay calculation: N units for an N-node network

– Sequential transmission is assumed

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Algorithm steps:

1) Select the node which is far away from the base station. This node is starting node.
2) From the starting node select the next node which is not visited. This node will be the
FIRST node. Now this 2 nodes will form a chain.

SN 1st N

Chain

3) The nodes which is not visited by the 1st node is visited and it is named as 2nd node. The
process repeated further in the same manner throughout the cluster network until all the nodes is
visited minimum one time and all the visited nodes are added to the chain. This completed chain
is called greedy chain.

4) Once greedy chain is established it is termed as a communication chain and node in the chain
which is nearer to the base station will communicate or node which is traffic free will be
communicating with the base station. The node which is communicating with the base station is
called as a chain leader.

• Leader Selection

– Nodes become leaders in sequential order

– Allows random deaths

– Nodes will not become leader if the distance between neighbors is higher than a
certain threshold (whereas in LEACH everyone becomes leader)

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 – Token is passed so that all nodes will know who is leader and which direction to
pass message

3. SPIN:

 Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation.

 A family of adaptive protocols called Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation
assigns a high-level name to completely describe their collected data (called meta-data).
 Use three types of messages ADV (advertisement), REQ (request) and DATA

Step a:

The base station A wish to send the message to the cluster nodes. The cluster nodes and cluster
head will be in IDLE or Minimum power mode (Low Power mode).Base station A sends the
ADV message to cluster head B stating that it has information or data to be transferred to the
cluster nodes.

Step b:

The cluster head B once received the ADV message it acknowledge the base station A with REQ
message that it is ready to receive the data. On the same time cluster head will switch to the
NORMAL power mode.

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Step c:

Once the base station A receives the REQ message it will transmit the DATA message to the
cluster head B.

Step d:

Once the cluster head B received the data successfully, it will transmit the ADV message to its
cluster nodes which are in IDLE power mode.

Step e:

The cluster nodes which receive the ADV message now turn to NORMAL power mode and
reply to the cluster head with an acknowledgement message REQ.

Step f:

Once the REQ message is reached the cluster head, it will transmit the data message to the
cluster nodes.

4. DD (Directed diffusion):

• Propagate interest

• Set up gradients

• Send data and path reinforcement

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5. S-MAC:

• Sensor-MAC Protocol

• Assumptions

– Network consists of several small nodes, deployed in an ad hoc manner

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 – Nodes dedicated to a single or few collaborative applications: Per-node fairness is
not critical

– In-network processing assumed: e.g. data fusion, data aggregation, collab signal
processing

– Long idle periods and occasional burst of data: higher latency may be tolerated

• Periodic Listen and Sleep Mode of operation

– Each node sleeps for a while; wakes up and then communicates with its
neighbors, as necessary.

– Periodic synch among neighbors to reduce drift

– Pair-wise or group-wise node synch

– Nodes exchange schedule by broadcast

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 – MAC is still needed to avoid collisions

RTS-Ready to Send

CS-Clear to send

SYNC-Synchronization

6. Localization (Location Discovery) Algorithms:

• It is essential, in some applications, for each node to know its location

– Sensed data coupled with loc. data and sent

• We need a cheap, low-power, low-weight, low form-factor, and reasonably accurate

mechanism

• Global Positioning Sys (GPS) is not always feasible

– GPS cannot work indoors, in dense foliage, etc.

– GPS power consumption is very high

– Size of GPS receiver and antenna will increase node form factor

1. Indoor Localization:

• Use a fixed infrastructure

– Beacon nodes are strategically placed

• Nodes receive beacon signals and measure:

– Signal Strength

– Signal Pattern

– Time of arrival; Time difference of arrival

– Angle of arrival

• Nodes use measurements from multiple beacons and use different multi-lateration
techniques to estimate locations

• Accuracy of estimate depends on correlation between measured entity and distance

• Examples of Indoor Loc. Systems

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 – RADAR (MSR), Cricket (MIT), BAT (AT&T), etc.

• Some approaches require a priori signal measurement and characterization and database
creation

– Node obtains distance estimate by using database

– Not always practical to have database loaded in the individual node; only some
nodes (e.g. gateway) might carry it.

2. Sensor Net. Localization:

• No fixed infrastructure available

• Prior measurements are not always possible

• Basic idea:

– Have a few sensor nodes who have known location information

– These nodes sent periodic beacon signals

– Other nodes use beacon measurements and triangulation, multi-lateration, etc. to

estimate distance

• Receiver Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) was used to determine correlation to distance

– Suitable for RF signals only

– Very sensitive to obstacles, multi-path fading, environment factors (rain, etc.)

– Was not found to have good experimental correlation

– RF signal had good range, few 10metres

• RF and Ultrasound signals

– The beacon node transmits an RF and an ultrasound signal to receiver

– The time difference of arrival between 2 signals is used to measure distance

– Range of up to 3 m, with 2cm accuracy

Localization algorithms:

• Based on the time diff. of arrival

• Atomic Multi-lateration:

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 – If a node receives 3 becaons, it can determine its location (similar to GPS)

• Iterative ML:

– Some nodes not in direct range of beacons

– Once an unknown node estimates its location, will send out a beacon

– Multi-hop approach; Errors propagated

• Collaborative ML:

– When 2+ nodes cannot receive 3 beacons (but can receive say 2), they collaborate

7. Ad-hoc Network protocols:

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1. Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV):

• Every node maintains a routing table.

• “Full” vs. “incremental” update

• Settling time – the weighted average time that routes to a destination will fluctuate before
the route with the best metric is received.

Each node constructs a one-dimensional array containing the distances (cost or metric) to all
other nodes and distributes that vector to its immediate neighbors.

The starting assumption for distance vector routing is that each node knows the cost of the link to
each of its directly connected neighbors. The link that is down/not reachable is assigned as an
infinite cost.

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2. Cluster head Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR):

• A central “cluster head” node is chosen.

• The cluster head is chosen by the “Least Cluster Change” algorithm

• Traffic is routed to the current cluster head who forwards the traffic through a gateway
node to the next cluster head in line until the cluster head of the destination node is
located.

• Each node must maintain a cluster member table.

Steps:

Each cluster will have cluster heads. Gateway cluster is chosen in a cluster such a way
that it will connect two cluster head from different clusters.

Cluster head are chosen in such a way that even if “n” number of clusters is added in the
cluster or cluster nodes change the position, the cluster head will be at the position such
that it can be accessed by the new nodes with a least distance.

The message from the cluster node is transmitted to the cluster head then to the gateway
node. From the gateway node it will be transmitted to the nearest cluster head then to the
cluster nodes.

Cluster NodeCluster HeadGateway RouterNext Cluster HeadCluster Node

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 Node communication from one cluster to node communication in other cluster is Three
Level Hierarchy.

Cluster Head:

Forward packets to gateways on behalf of source nodes.

Dynamically elected

Gateway:

Nodes within the communication range of two or more cluster.

Difference between DSDV & CGSR:

3. Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP):

• 4 tables: Distance, routing, link-cost, and message retransmission list

• Neighboring nodes broadcast update messages

• Uses hello messages to establish connectivity

• Checks all incoming update information

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Message Routing THRO Link-cost Message
transmission Retransmission
List
AB B 1 Acknowledged
AC B 2 Acknowledged
Failed
AE B&C 3 Acknowledged
AD B,C&E 4 Acknowledged
Failed

Each node constructs a one-dimensional array containing the distances (cost or metric) to all
other nodes and distributes that vector to its immediate neighbors.

The starting assumption for distance vector routing is that each node knows the cost of the link to
each of its directly connected neighbors. The link that is down/not reachable is assigned as an
infinite cost.

4. Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV):

• Route Request Packets (RREQ)

• The source node broadcasts an RREQ to all neighboring nodes.

• Nodes record the source of the first RREQ received to establish a reverse path.

• Route Reply Packets (RREP)

• The destination or node with a route to the destination unicasts a RREP back to the
source to establish a route.

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Source N1 wants to send message to the destination N8.Since the service metric is not linked
with the destination N1 will send RREQ message to the neighboring node which it can access.
The neighboring nodes will forward the packets to its nearby nodes. The chain is formed and all
possible nodes that can able to communicate with destination will forward the RREQ message to
the destination N8.

The destination N8 if it is ready to accept message it will acknowledge the same by sending
RREP message to all its neighboring nodes which is having low metric or metric which is not
busy. This RREP message will be transfer to the source by the linked nodes connected to N1.

Once the RREP message is received the source will transfer message to its nearby nodes in such
a way that the metric which is of low cost or metric which is free that will connect to the
destination.

Propagation of RREQ:

a) N1N4N6N7N8
b) N1N3N6N7N8
c) N1N2N5N8

Path of RREP:

a) N8N5N2N1
b) N8N7N6N3N1
c) N8N7N6N4N1

Out of 3 paths N8N5N2N1 is selected because it has low metric or low hop distance.

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5. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR):

• Each node maintains a route cache.

• If a source node has no route in its cache, it broadcasts a route request.

• A route reply is generated when either the destination or a node with a route to the
destination is found.

• Supports symmetric links

• Maintenance is accomplished by route error packets and acknowledgements.

• If a node fails to send an acknowledgement, any route that contains that node is
truncated.

Node point Possible paths in Route reply Cache paths Metrics

communication route discovery from path
18 12578 YES 12578 4

18 13578 NO Deleted *

18 1468 YES 1468 3

The route with lowest metric is selected from the table and it is stored .All the
communication is send through the cache path available.

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6. Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA):

• Used in highly dynamic networks

• Provides multiple routes for source/destination pair

• Uses direct acyclic graphs to measure “height”

• Assumes all nodes have synchronized clocks

• Classifies links as upstream and downstream

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Source 1 wants to send message to the destination 8.Since the service metric is not linked with
the destination 1 will send QRY message to the neighboring node which it can access. The
neighboring nodes will forward the packets to its nearby nodes. The chain is formed and all

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possible nodes that can able to communicate with destination will forward the QRY message to
the destination 8.

The destination 8 if it is ready to accept message it will acknowledge the same by sending UPD
message to all its neighboring nodes which is having low metric or metric which is not busy.
This UPD message will be transfer to the source by the linked nodes connected to 1.

Once the UPD message is received the source will transfer message to its nearby nodes in such a
way that the metric which is of low cost or metric which is free that will connect to the
destination.

The source which is sending the QRY message will be having the highest metric which means
this station will be the uplink station and the node which is sending the UPD message will have
the lowest metric which means this node will be the downlink station.

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