Preface

"
In the preface to the first edition in 1984I wrote, 'I think it would be reasonable
to say that the last five years have seen more legislation promulgated with
relation to the shipping industry than any other similar period in shipping
history'. At the beginning of the following decade I can repeat this statement,
as the flow of legislation, necessary though it may be, has continued unabated.
On the International scene the new SOLAS Chapter III is a major item of
legislation and implementation of MARPOL 73/78 Annex II and Annex V
means more operational changes for ship and shore management. In Britain
the 1988 Occupational Health and Safety Regulations and the Ro/Ro Ferry
Regulations are major 'packages' which also put increased operational pres-
sures on ships' officers. I have, therefore, completely rewritten Chapter 2 of
this book to include all this legislation.
Major changes have also occurred in the educational and examination proce-
dures for Deck Officers studying in the United Kingdom. The BTEC HND in
Nautical Science brings nautical education into the mainstream of British edu-
cation and it is intended that this book will help deck officers of all ranks to
achieve that level of proficiency. However, new emphasis has been placed on
the responsibilities of Masters and shore management and on the interface
between such areas of responsibility. The Chartered Institute of Transport has
designated this book a 'fundamental text' for the Maritime Transport paper in
the qualifying examinations for membership of the Institute and I have taken
cognizance of this.
The main purpose of the book, however, is not to help students pass exam-
inations but to assist management in coping with the bewildering amount of
shipping legislation presently in force and in operating ships pI:ofessionally.
There are over 600 IMO and 240 British 'items' of legislation which have
some effect on maritime shipping operations: it has been difficult to decide
which to include in this book, but I have tried to cover all those that affect the
day-to-day operations of a ship.
Most problems at sea are caused by humans rather than by technology. The
emphasis in the 1990smust be on improving actual operational practices and it
is essential that manning levels should be commensurate with legislative
Preface

requirements. It is my sincere wish that this book will help management,

ashore and afloat, to operate ships in a safe manner. Recently a student from
Pakistan told me that, when serving on a Liberian ship, a Norwegian Chief 1
Officer gave him a copy of my book so that he could prepare for a survey: I am r

pleased to be of such assistance to ships' managers.

Once again, I must thank my wife Sandra and children Sheena and Richard
for their forbearance during the many hours that I spent immersed in regula-
tions. Now we can go on the many long walks that I promised you!
H.LL.
Acknowledgements
Blohm & Voss A G, Hamburg (Figure 9.7).
BP Shipping Limited, London (Figures 5.2 and 5.9).
Butterworth Systems (U.K.) Limited, London (Figures 6.3 aznd 6.4).
Harland and Wolff Limited, Belfast (Figure 9.1).
Jotun-Henry Clark Limited, Marine Coatings, London (Tables 3.2 and
3.3).
Other figures drawn by Sandra Lavery.
Extracts from British Standards are reproduced by permission of the Brit-
ish Standards Institution, Linford Wood, Milton Keynes, MK14 6LE,
from whom complete copies of the standards can be obtained.
Safety: Operational
"
Role of the Safety Officer
Since I October 1982 the employer of the crew on a United Kingdom ship has
been required under The Merchant Shipping (Safety Officials and Reporting
of Accidents and Dangerous Occurrences) Regulations, 1982 to appoint a
Safety Officer (see Chapter 2).
The duties of a Safety Officer are to: ' \,
1 Endeavour to ensure that the provisions of the Code of Safe Working
Practices are complied with.
2 Endeavour to ensure that the employer's occupational health and safety
policies are complied with.
3 Investigate .
(a) every accident required to be notified by the Merchant Shipping Act
(b) every dangerous occurrence
(c) all potential hazards to occupational health and safety
and to make recommendations to the master to prevent the recurrence of
an accident or to remove the hazard.
4 Investigate all non-frivolous complaints by crew members concerning
occupational health and safety.
5 Carry out occupational health and safety inspections of each accessible
part of the ship at least once every three months.
6 Make representations and, where appropriate, recommendations to the
master (and through him to the company) about any deficiency in the ship
with regard to
(a) any legislative requirement relating to occupational health and safety
(b) any relevant M notice
(c) any provision of the Code of Safe Working Practices
7 Ensure so far as possible that safety instructions, rules, and guidance are
complied with.
8 Maintain a record book describing all the circumstances and details of all

1
viii
 Shipboard Operations
accidents and dangerous occurrences, and of all other procedures
required by his duties, and to make the records available for inspection by
appropriate personnel.
9 Stop any work which he reasonably believes may cause a serious accident
and inform the appropriate officer.
10 Carry out the requirements of the safety committee.
Many mariners consider that the above duties, which are additional to
'normal' duties, place an onerous burden on the officer concerned. However,
safety has always been of paramount importance on board ship and some of
the above requirements only put into legislation the common practice of
efficient seamen.
The Safety Officer needs to be well conversant with the legislation
described in Chapter 2 and in particular the Code of Safe Practice for
Merchant Seamen, known to seamen as 'The Code'. The Department of
Transport has published Guidance Notes for Safety Officials; these notes
should be carefully studied, particularly those sections which discuss the
ramifications of the officer's statutory duties.
The Safety Officer should always be on the lookout for potential hazards
and must try to develop a high level of safety consciousness among the crew.
This will probably be the most difficult aspect of his job as there can be a high
level of safety apathy, and not consciousness, among the officers and seamen.
He should aim to become the ship's adviser on occupational safety, which
means that the Safety Officer himself must set a high personal standard of
safety awareness.
When carrying out the occupational health and safety inspections the
Safety Officer must pay attention to the environmental factors as well as to the
'statutory factors'. The galley is a good area to consider. It is very important
that the extinguishers are well maintained but it is also important that the air
extractor hoods are regularly cleaned to reduce the fire risk from accumulated
grease, and that dirt does not accumulate in areas which would produce a
health hazard. Thus, the Safety Officer does not only conduct an inspection
for the 'safety equipment checklist' but must carry out an environmental
inspection to ensure that occupational safety standards are being maintained.
Appendix 9 of the guidance notes lists some factors which must be
considered, a few of which are noted below.
1 Are means of access to the area under inspection in a safe condition, well
lit, and unobstructed?
2 Are fixtures and fittings over which seamen might trip or which project,
particularly 6verhead, thereby causing potential hazards, suitably painted
or marked?;
3 Are all guard-rails in place, secure, and in good condition?
4 Are lighting levels adequate?
2
Safety: Operational
5 Is ventilation adequate?
6 Is machinery adequately guarded where necessary?
7 Are permits to work used when necessary?
8 Is the level of supervision adequate, particularly for unexperienced crew?
~.
The investigation of accidents and dangerous occurrences will be an
important part of the Safety Officer's duties. The actual reporting of an
accident will be carried out by the master but it is the statutory duty of the
Safety Officer to investigate the incident and to assist the master to complete
the accident report form. The first form.was issued in September 1982, F ann
ARF /1, and the explanatory notes which accompany the form should be
closely followed.
The Safety Officer should have a chat with the ship's personnel to explain
the purpose and function of the form and to dispel any misconceptions to
which the 'galley radio' may have given rise. The following points should be
emphasized:
1 The purpose of the form is to ascertain the causes of accidents and
ultimately to reduce the chances of a similar accident happening again.
2 All forms are treated in the strictest confidence by ~e Department of
Transport.
3 None of the forms will be used by the Department of Transport in a
prosecution or an investigation.
4 The form is computer processed and thus will be seen by very few people.
5 Personal names are deliberately omitted from the form and thus anonymity
is ensured.
Officers should be aware that the post of Safety Officer is not a sinecure and
that much effort should be put into the role in order to meet the obligations
required by the regulations.
Role of the safety representative
In every ship to which the regulations apply the officers and ratings may elect
safety representatives, but are under no obligation to do so. However, it
would be remiss not to do so and:
in ships carrying fewer than 16 crew, one safety representative may be
elected by the officers and ratings; in ships carrying more than 15 crew
one safety representative may be elected by the officers and one safety
representative may be elected by the ratings.
The safety representative has powers but no duties, and he may:
1 Participate in any of the inspections or investigations conducted by the
Safety Officer, provided that the latter agrees to such participation.
3
 Shipboard Operations
2 Undertake similar inspections or investigations himself, providing that
notification of such activities has been given to the master.
3 On behalf of the crew on matters affecting occupational health and safety
(a) consult with the master and the Safety Officer and make recommenda-
tions to them, including recommendations to the master, 'that any
work which the safety representative believes may cause an accident
should be suspended';
(b) make representations through the master to the employer;
(c) request through the safety committee an investigation by the Safety
Officer of any such matter.
4 Inspect any of the Safety Officer's records.
The safety representatives need to develop a good relationship with the
Safety Officer and should work with him to raise safety standards. The spirit,
and the purpose, of the regulations would be badly damaged by
representatives who might use their powers as a 'negotiating weapon' in any
dispute with employers. The role of the safety representative should not be
abused by personnel who wish to use the post in an obstructive, instead of a
constructive, manner. The employer has an obligation to formulate rules for
the election of safety representatives and thus elections should take place.
The posts should not be filled by persons who are only nominated, either by
persons or unions, as the regulations make it clear that the posts can only be
filled by elected personnel.
Safety committee
If safety representatives are elected on any ship the employer must appoint a
safety committee, i.e. safety committees are mandatory on any ship which
has elected safety representatives. However, it would be a wise practice to
institute a safety committee on all ships. The membership of the committee
must include the master as chairman, the Safety Officer, and every safety
representative. The duties are to:
I Ensure that the provisions of the Code of Safe Working Practices are
complied with.
2 Improve the standard of safety consciousness among the crew.
3 Make representations and recommendations on behalf of the crew to the
employer.
4 Inspect any of the Safety Officer's records.
5 Ensure the observance of the employer's occupational health and safety
policies. !
6 Consider and take any appropriate action in respect of any occupational
health and safety matters affecting the crew.
4 S
Safety: Operational
7 Keep a record of all proceedings.
A well-organized committee, which meets regularly, can be of great
assistance to those entrusted with safety. Minutes should be kept, with copies
posted on the ship's notice boards and a further copy sent to the company'~
office. In addition to the safety representatives, personnel from all 'sections'
of the ship should attend, e.g. cadets, petty officers, stewards, etc. The
committee should not be dominated by senior officers and efforts should be
made to encourage the junior ranks attending to put forward their ideas.
Reports should be presented stating the maintenance and drills that have
"
been carried out since the previous meeting. Once a project or idea has been
accepted by the committee it must be put into action, otherwise the
committee loses impetus and members will regard it merely as a sop to
company and Merchant Shipping regulations and of little practical use.
Members should study an advisory booklet published by the General Council
of British Shipping, Accident Prevention Organisation on Board Ship, and the
advice to safety committees in the Department of Transport guidance
notes.
The committee should be the safety forum on board.:;hip and safety should
be its only concern. It should not become involve•. in discussion on
'conditions of service' or trade union matters.
Methods for improving and maintaining the
safety awareness of crews
Maintaining the interest of a crew in all aspects of safety can be a difficult and,
at times, frustrating and unrewarding task. This list contains suggestions
which the Safety Officer could employ in order to promote safety awareness.
I know from experience that many sailors are extremely lax in adhering to
safety requirements. However, some of the following methods have been used
on board ships to good effect. They should be regarded as practical ideas and
not just 'waffle' to be regurgitated in order to pass an examination.
Films
An extremely useful method on those vessels which carry projectors and
other viewing equipment. Various organizations, commercial or otherwise,
produce safety films which can be borrowed or hired. Experience indicates
that the best time for showing educational films is immediately preceding
feature films on those ships fortunate enough to have such a service.

Shipboard Operations
Posters
This can be an effective method of bringing particular dangers to the
attention of crew members. Posters should be situated in those spaces where
the danger warnings are most pertinent and should be changed frequently
before they become part of the furniture and thus ignored. The placing of
posters within living or recreational areas is a contentious issue; many seamen
believe that it detracts from the 'quality of living' in that area of the
accommodation. Posters can be obtained from the General Council of British
Shipping and other sources.
Publications
A number of useful booklets have been published by the Department of
Transport and copies should be given to the crew. These include Personal
Safety on Ships, Personal Survival at Sea, and Fire in Ships.
A small booklet entitled Safe or Sorry? is published by the Marine Society;
it is worth reading. The General Council of British Shipping issues a good
magazine, Your Safety Aboard Ship, and copies should be distributed
throughout the ship.
Informal talks
Talks in the crew's mess have been found to be a useful method for explaining
sections of the 'Code'. The above booklets could be used as the basis of such
chats. It may be useful to talk to sections of the crew, e.g. the catering staff,
who often have less safety awareness than other crew members.
Maintenance of safety equipment
Involve as many people as possible in the maintenance of safety equipment.
This practice emphasizes the fact that safety is the responsibility of everyone
on board. There is no reason why stewards, for example, should not be
instructed in methods of refilling the extinguishers in the catering area.
Audio-visual aids
Several commercial firms active in producing trammg aids have good
cassettes pertaining to safety. These can be used as an introduction to
informal talks, as an aid to maintenance, to assist in the training of emergency
teams, or simply as television films.
Fire patrols , must be maintained in excellent condition and be kept available for
Read M notice 528. Patrols, or equivalent inspections, must be carried out at
all times whether at sea or in port. Particular attention should be paid to
6
Safety: Operational
patrolling the accommodation between 2300 hours and 0600 hours. Safety
awareness is increased if the patrol is instructed to observe any safety
infringements, such as loose chairs, and not to be concerned solely with fire
prevention. I"
Marine safety cards
Published by the General Council of British Shipping, these cards highlight
particular dangers on board ship. Card I deals with entry into enclosed
'/if
spaces.
Accident records
Details of accidents should be posted on notice boards as an accident
prevention aid. The name of the unfortunate person involved should be
withheld.
Days without accident board
It is a common practice for factories, oil terminals, etc.: t~ post notices stating
the number of days since the occurrence of the last accid~nt. It might also be
useful to do this on board ship.
Safety quiz
This could be open to individuals with a suitable prize being awarded, or to
teams representing the several departments on board. This type of quiz has
been popular on several ships and the quiz in Your Safety Aboard Ship might
be used for such a purpose.
'Permit to work' system
This will be discussed in a separate section but it must be explained to the
crew and the importance of strict compliance with the permit should be
emphasized.
Aspects of the maintenance of safety equipment
The maintenance of safety equipment must be given a high priority. A highly
trained efficient emergency team can fail to carry out a task if a key item of
equipment is inoperable. It is a basic principle of safety that all equipment
immediate use at all times. It must be pointed out that it is an offence under
the Merchant Shipping Acts for life-saving appliances to be in a defective
7
 Shipboard Operations
condition and that a ship may be detained until the defects have been
rectified.
Some companies supply books which contain a full list of all emergency
equipment on board. If this does not apply to your ship, then a
comprehensive list of such items must be made in order that no piece of
equipment is overlooked. The safety maintenance plan should be integrated
with the ship's 'Planned Maintenance Schedule', but in addition tests should
be carried out during routine emergency drills. The areas where the drills
take place should be rotated on a carefully planned basis so that all equipment
is used at frequent intervals.
The following list does not contain all the safety equipment which the
vessel is required to carry. The main aspect is to bring to the attention of the
Safety Officer some legal requirements or suggestions of which he may not be
aware. It does not contain a full list of safety M notices.
Lifeboats
The minutiae of lifeboat maintenance will not be considered. However,
glass-fibre boats should be checked monthly for softness. From I May 1981
all morphine should have been removed from survival craft and non-
addictive pain-killers substituted for the morphine. M1248 'Automatic
Release Hooks for Liferafts and Disengaging Gear for Lifeboats and Rescue
Boats' should be studied.
Lifeboat falls
Turned end-for-end at intervals of not more than 30 months and renewed at
intervals of not more than 5 years. They should be greased at frequent intervals
and regularly inspected for broken strands. Sailors sometimes ignore the sec-
tions of falls within blocks. Slack the falls and grease those portions of the
wires. Lead blocks should be greased every two weeks and overhauled every six
months. Check that the fall becket is secured to the drum end.
Lifeboat davits
Test the limit switch at boat drills. Trackways should be scaled and properly
coated with grease as necessary, and pivot points should be greased every
fortnight. The main body of the davit should be checked for rust, harbour
pins greased, and the wire span for the boarding ropes checked. Inspect the
gripes for rust and broken strands. Some gripes are plastic coated; this is
rather a dubioUs practice as once the wire starts to rust the process cannot be
stopped. Test ~nhouse slips and bottlescrews. The brake mechanism should
be tested at four-monthly intervals; lower the boat to the water, raise it a
metre, apply the brake and see if it holds. Test the hand gear safety device at
8 9
Safety: Operational
each drill. Check aU ropes for rotting, check that the boarding ladders are
secured to the eye pads, and apply pilot ladder maintenance principles to the
boarding ladders. Ml186 deals with lifeboat winches fitted with a roller ratchet
mechanism; winches for lifeboats which are heavily used should be opened and
thoroughly examined every 2 years, otherwise to be examined every 4 years. '
Liferafts
Merchant shipping regulations require inflatable liferafts to be surveyed at
intervals not exceeding twelve months. This can only be carried out at
Department of Transport approved service stations (refer to M notices for
such stations). Square rigid liferafts may be serviced on board ship by the
manufacturer. M1047, 1173 and 1211 should be read in full as they contain
much pertinent information regarding inflatable liferafts. Since 25 May 1980
raft lashings must be fitted with an approved automatic release system of a
hydrostatic or equivalent nature, and rafts must be stowed in such a manner
that they float free from the vessel in the event of sinking.
Lifebuoys '
"
Check for cracks and, if any are found, replace the lifebuoys and have the old
ones destroyed ashore. When necessary repain t the name and port of registry.
Inspect the grablines and connections. Two of the buoys must have a 27. S m
buoyant line attached; ensure that these lines have not become too worn or
tangled. Half of the lifebuoys must be provided with self-igniting or
self-actuating lights; inspect the lights regularly. Frequent inspections
should be made of the two quick release buoys on the bridge, especially the
lines between the buoys and the light and smoke signals. Make sure that any
releasing pins, swivels, etc., are well greased and are not frozen. Lifebuoys
must weigh at least 4.3 kg if their weight is used to release light or smoke
signals.
Lifejackets
Donning instructions should be displayed in conspicuoU6 positions. The
report ofthe loss of the m.v. Lavat recommends that 'an additional supply of
lifejackets should be kept in some such position as the bridge to cater for
situations in which it is not possible for all the crew to collect their lifejackets
from their accommodation'. M1238 gives the recommended scale of the
number of additionallifejackets, e.g. if the vessel is certified to carry more
than 16 persons additionallifejackets for not less than 2S percent of the
certified number are required. The jackets should be stowed near the normal
embarkation locations in a suitable dry, unlocked and marked position.
Shipboard Operations Safety: Operational
Retro-reflective material
Fire hydrant valves
This should be fitted on lifeboats, liferafts, lifebuoys, buoyant apparatus and
These should be kept well greased and when possible should be checked
lifejackets. MIOS6 gives the details.
every week to see that they are free and do not require a wheel spanner to
Cordage make them turn. Check the accommodation hydrants; on a newly built ship it ~.
was found that several valves had been incorrectly fitted and they would have
Safety Officers should be aware that a cordage table for life-saving appliances been useless if needed to fight a fire in that area.
is contained in M1232. This should be referred to when renewing lifeboat
grablines, etc. Fire nozzles

International shore connection These are liable to misappropriation and theft, especially in port. Although it
is difficult, the Safety Officer must try to ensure their security. Inspect
Ensure that the securing bolts are free and keep them well greased. If periodically under pressure to ensure that the nozzles operate satisfactorily.
possible, a connection should be stowed in such a position that it is not Any scratches or indentations on the inner surface will spoil a jet. Inspect also
exposed to the elements. Although only one connection is required by the for general damage, putting emphasis on the mechanism of dual-purpose
regulations, some Chief Officers on VLCCs (very large crude carriers) find it nozzles.
a good practice to have three located about the ship, one under the focsle, one
near the gangway location, and one aft. A spare one could be kept at the Fire extinguishers
Emergency Squad mustering station. Specifications for a connection can be
found in the regulations and if friendly relations have been maintained with Portable extinguishers are the first line of defence. M~st fires have small
the Second Engineer a few can be made on board. The location of the beginnings and prompt action with an extinguisher can often deal with an
connections should be clearly indicated. emergency. All extinguishers should be:
(a) located in an easily accessible position
Emergency fire pump (b) the correct type to deal with the class of fire expected in that area
(c) painted in the appropriate colour code
To be tested weekly. Good standards of seamanship should be the prime (d) regularly inspected and tested
factor in maintaining equipment. However, a defective emergency fire pump The colour coding should be:
c~n involve the detention of a ship until it is repaired.
Water Signal red
Fire hoses Foam Pale cream
Powder French blue
Canvas hoses should always be dried after use before being stowed. Failure to
Carbon dioxide Black
do so will result in rot which first shows up by pinhole leaks in numerous
Halon Emerald green
places along the hose. If this occurs the hose must be replaced. Hoses other
than canvas can also rot and crack and must be inspected frequently. The The European Standard fire classifications are:
hoses should be frequently tested in the rotational system of emergency
A A fire involving solid materials usually of an organic nature, e.g. wood,
drills.
cloth, paper.
Male and female couplings can be damaged easily by dropping. If they do
B A fire involving liquids or liquefiable solids, e.g. hydro-carbons such as
not connect properly with either the hydrant or nozzle, they must be renewed
petrol, kerosenes, cooking oils.
immediately.
C A fire involving gases, e.g. from coal, fermenting sugar.
Hose boxes should be maintained in a clean, well-painted condition.
D A fire involving combustible metals, e.g. sodium, potassium, magnesium.
Hinges, etc. should be checked for rust and kept greased. The hose number
should be cleafly indicated on the boxes. Do not stow other equipment or The best media for extinguishing the classes are:
rags in the boxes and remember to check the hoses within the accommoda-
A Water, dry powder.
tion.
B Foam, dry powder.
10
11
Shipboard Operations
C Carbon dioxide, halon.
D Presents a problem to madners, especially if the superstructure is made of
aluminium. If water is used against fires involving metals, a violent
reaction can take place which may result in the spreading of the fire and/or
explosion. Powder extinguishers appear to be most effective but it would
seem that no one method can deal with all metal fires.
The date oftesting and refill should be clearly marked on the extinguisher.
Dry powder extinguishers should be shaken to ensure that the powder is
moving freely as the powder can 'cake' inside the cylinder, especially in
humid areas. Check that extinguisher nozzles are not blocked. M765 states
that non-portable extinguishers which operate by being rotated 90 degrees
from the vertical have been secured in such a manner as to require spanners to
make the operation possible. It is common sense to ensure that all
extinguishers are immediately available.
Breathing apparatus, smoke helmet or mask type
Inspect the seal on the face mask for signs of perishing on the rubber and
ensure that the visor is undamaged. Inspect the air hose for damage,
especially around the couplings. Wash and dry before restowing. Clean and
oil the air pump or bellows and check the protection on the air inlet. Test the
bellows or pump before use.
Breathing apparatus, self-contained
As above, check the mask seal and clean th~ face piece. Inspect any threaded
fittings for damaged threads and obstructions. Check main and by-pass
valves and inspect the pressure gauge for visible damage. Check the pressure
of the operating and spare air cylinders; any serious fall in pressure can be
rectified if the vessel has charging facilities (each ship should have a portable
compressor so that cylinders can be used frequently in training exercises).
Otherwise send them ashore for recharging; spares should be supplied while
that operation is being carried out.
Breathing apparatus, both types
Read the manufacturers' manuals and ensure that operating instructions are
attached to the apparatus. Each apparatus should have:
(a) a fire-proof life-and-signalling line
(b) an adjustable harness
(c) means f6r protecting eyes and face
(d) signal plates on the harness and the free end of the lifeline
The complete unit, including the harness should be occasionally wiped
down with a mild disinfectant solution. The wiping of the inside of the face
12
Safety: Operational
mask with a solution of dish-washing liquid often prevents it fogging up when
in use. Inspect the harness and line for signs of wear and damage and clean the
apparatus case.
,.
Fireman's outfit
This should contain:
(a) a breathing apparatus
(b) a portable self-contained electric battery operated safety lamp of three
hours' duration"
(c) a fireman's axe
(d) protective clothing
(e) boots and gloves
(f) a rigid helmet
The outfits should be stowed in accessible positions not likely to be cut off
by fire. It is recommended that one should be located at the Emergency
Team Assembly Station.
Fixed gas fire extinguishing installations '
"
Ensure that the outlets to the protected areas are open and painted red to
identify them as fire-fighting appliances. Inspect all control valves and cocks
and check the permanent marking which indicates the compartments to
which the pipes are led. Personnel should be aware of the nature of the
audible warning and such an alarm should be checked regularly. The access
doors to carbon dioxide storage rooms should be gas-tight and insulated and
the rooms should be clearly marked in permanent lettering. The contents of
the cylinders should be ascertained by weighing or by the isotope method.
The cylinders should also be visually inspected and any showing signs of
pitting should be replaced as soon as possible. M681 warns that cylinders in
gang release systems have rotated and made the system inoperable due to
misalignment of the valve operating levers; the alignment of the cylinders
should be checked regularly. M825 reports that loss of life has occurred when
carbon dioxide systems have been activated accidentally during repair
periods or in normal service. Sufficient measures were not taken to guard
against accidental release or to issue suitable instructions regarding the
operation.
Additional safety equipment
M1027 states that on some ships safety equipment which is excess to statutory
requirements is not being maintained properly. All equipment must be
maintained to a high standard so that it can be used in any emergency which
might arise.
13
Shipboard Operations Safety: Operational

Emergency station lists Reserve Team (boat deck)

Third Officer
M1217 which deals with musters and drills should be studied in conjunction Catering Officer
with the Merchant Shipping Musters and Training Regulations 1986. The Senior Rating (Deck) ~.
information which is required to be shown on muster or emergency station lists Chief Cook
is detailed in the above documents, as is the frequency of drilIs and musters. It Second Cook
should be emphasized, however, that teams should train as frequently as pos- Steward
sible and not just carry out the minimum requirements. Steward
The trend in emergency training over recent years has been to be as The function of the various teams is"given below.
realistic as possible and this has been reflected by the use of the 'Emergency
Team' system. This system divides the crew into teams which should be
Control team
trained in their various functions so that when an emergency occurs the whole
crew swings into action. This is not an idealistic picture; it is possible. The The Captain with his team co-ordinate all operations, maintain internal and
crews of tankers and other specialized vessels have been using the system for external communications, keep records, and plan the overalI strategy as the
years and have shown that a willing crew, led by enthusiastic officers, can be emergency develops.
trained to a good standard. Thus, when the emergency alarm sounds one
should observe seamen moving quickly with a purposeful air to their alIotted Support Control Team
stations and not, as in some cases, huddling in small groups unsure of what
The Chief Engineer is in charge of the engine room a~,\ is responsible for
they should be doing.
maintaining normal and emergency services. He will also ~dvise the Master
The number of teams into which the crew should be divided and the exact
on mechanical matters and if necessary take charge of engine room
membership of such teams is often a matter for an individual Safety Officer's
emergencIes.
preference and experience.
If the overalI system works one should not lay down strict guidelines for the
Emergency Team
composition of teams. Even the names of the teams will vary from ship to
ship. A suggested system is: This team deals with the emergency at source. On arriving at the scene of the
Overall Control Team (on bridge) Support Control Team incident, the team takes the necessary corrective action and informs the
Master (at engine room controls) Control Team of the situation. The Chief Officer is in charge of 'deck'
Radio Officer Chief Engineer emergencies, but if the incident occurs in the engine room the Second
Rating Fourth Engineer Engineer leads the team.
Deck Cadet Junior Engineer
Electrician Back-Up Team
Junior Petty Officer
Most incidents can be dealt with by the Emergency Team. The Back-Up
Emergency Team Back-Up Team (on poop)
Team may be needed to provide support by carrying additional equipment to
(Emergency Team H.Q.) Second Officer
the first team, to provide stretcher bearers, and to relieve injured or tired
Chief Officer Third Engineer
Second Engineer Junior Engineer men.
Chief Petty Officer Petty Officer
Reserve Team
Senior Rating (Deck) Senior Rating
Senior Rati~ (Engine Room) Rating (Deck) Upon assembling on the boat deck, if weather conditions permit, this team
Rating Rating (Engine Room) should clear and prepare to launch the lifeboats and liferafts. If the incident
Rating ~ Cadet poses a danger to the ship, the boats are then ready to take injured and
Cadet uninvolved persons such as wives. If the incident is minor, then the Reserve
Team wilI have benefitted from preparing the boats in an emergency.

14 IS
Shipboard Operations
The Eml.rgency Team should be kept as small as possible; an eight man
maximum is suggested. Some vessels have a Team I and a Team 2 of equal
standing, led respectively by the Chief Officer and the Second Engineer, but
on some occasions overcrowding at an incident has occurred. The smaller the
number, the easier it is to train to a high standard. Once a good standard has
been reached men can be interchanged between teams. On many vessels the
manning standards may be such that there are only sufficient men for one
emergency team.
One should remember that Lifeboat Muster Lists should also be displayed
and Muster Drills held so as to ensure that everyone knows their Abandon
Ship procedure. An individual's emergency stations and duties should be put
on a card which is displayed in that seaman's cabin.
Emergency Team training
The type of drill should be varied and all the safety equipment should be used
at regular intervals. The team members should be able to use all equipment,
e.g. the breathing apparatus, but their individual duties at each type of
incident must be carefully explained and rigidly adhered to. The basic
training of the team should not involve the. whole crew. However, the overall
system should be explained to all personnel and frequent exercises in-
volving all the crew should be carried out so as to prevent a 'them and us'
situation developing. All the crew should be trained in lifeboat and liferaft
operations.
The timing of drills should be announced but not the type of incident; thus
the maximum degree of reality is obtained.
If possible an Emergency Headquarters should be designated; a room or
large locker on the external perimeter of the accommodation with internal
and external access is best. Some of the ship's statutory and additional
equipment should be stowed there so that some of the gear required for all
emergencies can be quickly put into operation. After the emergency signal
has been sounded the type of emergency should be announced over the public
address system. Thus if the Chief Officer has been delayed by his operational
duties, he will find the team fully equipped and ready to go when he arrives at
the headquarters.
It is important to have exercise post-mortems and the headquarters can be
used for such discussions. Talks and demonstrations can also be given there.
Although fire is one of the main hazards to mariners it should be emphasized
that not all emergencies involve fire. Officers have arrived at the headquarters
to find the team wielding extinguishers and hoses when the drill was 'man
overboard'. Incidentally, such a drill can be carried out easily during a period
at'inchor. Other types of drill can be accommodation, hold and engine room
16
Safety: Operational
fires, accidents in enclosed spaces, helicopter crash on deck, injured seaman
fallen from a height, tank explosions, oil pollution and collision damage. An
exercise in which the whole crew can join, and which does have an element of
fun, is one in which crew members are blind-folded outside their own cabin
and are then instructed to proceed to their emergency station. Although this'
exercise does produce a few laughs, it never fails to show the difficulty of
moving through seemingly familiar surroundings in total darkness or
amoke-filled conditions.
Some seamen and shore managers often regard time spent in safety training
as lost time, especially on ships with r~duced manning levels. Fortunately
such members of administrative shore staff are now realizing that a few hours
a week spent on training can save many lives and millions of pounds. On
board ship a few senior officers still only pay lip service to the ideals of
efficient safety prevention and training. Indeed, some of them only train in
order to 'keep the company happy'. Senior officers must give enthusiastic
support to the Safety Officer's work.
To conclude this section I would strongly suggest that crews should be
liven a talk on the inadvisability of prematurely abanQoning the vessel. In
nearly all emergencies the ship is the safest place antt~ case histories of
Ihipping disasters have shown that many people have died abandoning
vessels which did not eventually sink. Seamen are excessively concerned
about the dangers of undertow or being struck from below by surfacing
wreckage. These are minor when compared to the danger from injury during
abandonment and from exposure during the subsequent period. Such a talk
Ihould include a section on abandonment preparation if that drastic step
becomes necessary. In cold climes the effect of quick immersion, known as
'cold shock', may prove to be disabling or even fatal. Before donning a
lifejacket several layers of warm woolly clothing and an anorak should be put
on. The extra clothing will prolong survival time as it will reduce heat loss and
the air trapped in the layers of clothing will aid flotation. All mariners should
endeavour to attend the two-day 'Survival at Sea' course which most nautical
colleges offer.
M notices which help with training are 1118, 1204, 1206, 1218 and 1267.
, Bmergency drills
Many drills can be performed and each drill must be slanted to the
requirements and layouts of particular ships. The following are two which
might be of particular interest.
Abandonment by liferaft
This drill is often neglected. I personally believe that launching a lifeboat in
17
Shipboard Operations
wind conditions over force 5 is a very risky operation and that the best chance
for survival lies in the proper use ofIiferafts. M1217 reminds mariners that on
vessels with davit-launched liferafts, one liferaft should, if possible, be inflated
and lowered at least once every four months in port. The Department of
Transport 'strongly recommends that drills in general should include some
preparation for abandonment into liferafts'.
Such drills must take into account the characteristics of the particular ship
involved and there will probably be a need for disembarkation points separate
from those for lifeboats. The necessity for such drills has been highlighted by
a recent abandonment in which a liferaft was inflated on deck. It is contrary to
seamens' instincts to criticize the actions of fellow mariners when their lives
are in extreme peril but good training will help to prevent such obvious
blunders.
Tests by the National Maritime Institute have shown that rafts are at their
most vulnerable when just launched with no one aboard. It is important
quickly to get a few men into the raft and to have them sit on the windward
side so as to make the raft stable enough for others to board. It is also
important to stream quickly the sea anchor in order to reduce drift and to aid
stability. Davit-launched rafts are particularly difficult to control on
high-sided vessels and seamen should be reminded that boarding all types of
raft can be a hazardous experience.
Fire fighting in port
Although many fires occur in port it can be difficult to arrange a drill with the
local fire authorities. This problem can be partly resolved by instructing the
team on shore requirements. All ships should have an updated fire wallet
containing the following information:
(a) a general arrangement plan
(b) a ventilation plan
(c) a shell expansion plan in case it will be necessary to cut through the ship's
side
(d) a plan of the fire-fighting equipment
(e) electrical data
(f) stability data due to the danger of free surface and other effects
(g) a cargo plan with any dangerous cargoes being specifically mentioned
(h) location of watertight doors and fire-resistant partitions
(i) any drilling machines and special equipment that the vessel carries
The Senior Fire Officer should be presented with the wallet on his arrival.
He will also probably require the following information:
(a) the exact locatfon of the fire and the chances of it spreading to other
compartments
(b) contents of double bottoms or deep tanks in the vicinity
18
Safety: Operational
(c) what the ship's staff are doing and how many hoses and pumps are in
operatioh
(d) if any fixed fire-fighting installation is in operation
(e) the state of cargo operations
(f) the condition of fuel oil, ballast and fresh water tanks '
(g) the ship's communication systems
(h) the number of people on board
(i) any peculiarities of the ship's design
M1267, Fire Prevention and Fire Fighting in Ships in Port, should be studied.
A joint drill with shore authorities should be arranged.
Care and maintenance of ropes
Although this is very much the province of the Chief Officer, knowledge of
correct rope usage will help the Safety Officer in his role of hazard spotting
and accident prevention.
Natural fibre ropes such as manila, hemp and sisal have been replaced
largely by man-made fibres, although mariners still pr~f~ the use of manila
for gantlines.
Nylon The strongest of man-made fibres, it has high energy absorption and
the ability to endure heavy repeat loading. Unfortunately it sinks.
Polyester Has good abrasion resistance and a lower extension than most
synthetic ropes. It has equal strength when either wet or dry but being
heavier than nylon it also sinks.
Polypropylene The most common type of mooring rope due to its ability to
float. It is of equal strength wet or dry.
Care and handling of synthetic fibre ropes
1 As all synthetic ropes have varying qualities of resistance to chemicals,
acids, alkalis, solvents, etc., they should be stowed in well-ventilated dry
compartments away from such materials.
2 Do not stow on deck, even for short passages between ports.
3 In port, cover coiled mooring ropes as exposure to strong sunlight is
detrimental to ropes.
4 Stow on gratings to avoid inadvertent contamination.
S Do not stow near heat, e.g. engine room bulkheads.
6 Inspect regularly for internal and external wear and tear. In cases of
excessive wear, powdering will be visible between the strands.
Remember that synthetic ropes often become 'dosed' internally while
looking good externally. Overworked ropes may become hard, stiff, and
hairy.
19
Shipboard Operations Safety: Operational

7 Eye splices should have not less than four tucks. The splice should then Disadvantages
be tapered by halving and quartering the strands for two tucks 1 Due to-the ability to stretch, there is a considerable whiplash effect if the
respectively. The tapered part of the splice should be securely wrapped rope breaks.
with adhesive tape. 2 No audible warning prior to breaking.
8 Synthetic ropes should be of a type providing a grip similar to that of 3 Low melting point, therefore it has a tendency to melt or fuse on the drum
natural ropes. end.
9 Avoid overloading the rope around sharp angles. 4 Susceptible to heat and sunlight.
10 Never put strain on a kink as it can cause permanent damage. The visual 5 Can be contaminated by chemicals, etc., and thus weakened considerably
effects of such damage may be removed but a loss of strength of one-third with little visible evidence of such.
can be experienced in the kink area. 6 Plaited ropes require special spliting instructions.
11 Wash the rope with fresh water in the event of it being splashed by
corrosives. Natural fibre ropes
12 Where wire is to be joined to a rope, ensure that a thimble is used and the
Manila should be used for pilot ladder construction, some life-saving appli-
wire and rope are laid the same way.
ances, lizards, etc. The care is similar to that for synthetic ropes. However,
13 Keep wires and ropes in different leads.
more turns can be put on the drum end.
14 Sections of ropes which are vulnerable to abrasion, e.g. the eyes, should
Advantages
be protected with leather sheaths.
1 Do not melt.
15 Do not cross cut ropes on drums.
2 Give audible warning if breaking point is approaching.
16 Synthetic ropes have low melting points, therefore do not surge or render
3 Do not recoil as much as synthetic when broken. \ ..
on drum ends. Do not use more than three turns.
4 Not susceptible to moderate heat and sunlight damage.
17 Always stopper off with the same type of rope using a 'West Country' or
5 Can be surged and rendered on drum ends.
'Norwegian' stopper.
6 C~n be opened up for internal inspection without damaging the rope.
18 Try to prevent mooring ropes from snagging on quays or on cargo ashore.
7 Easily spliced.
19 New coils should be unwrapped in an anti-clockwise direction from the
Disadvantages
coil centre, or the coil should be suspended by a swivel and the rope taken
1 Susceptible to rot and mildew.
from the outside.
2 Not as strong as synthetic ropes of the same size.
20 Seamen should be warned that there is no audible warning when a
3 Has small stretching ability.
synthetic rope is approaching breaking point. Seamen have been
4 Not easily handled. Has a tendency to swell and stiffen with age and damp
decapitated by the whiplash action of such ropes.
which makes large mooring ropes difficult to work with. If wet can freeze
Advantages and disadvantages of synthetic tope in very cold conditions.

Chapter 15 of the 'Code' should be studied in full for the care and
Advantages
inspection of gantlines used with bosun's chairs, safety harnesses, and stage
1 High tensile strength.
ropes. The safety of seamen using the above appliances depends very much
2 Good durability as it is less prone to gradual loss of strength.
on the conditions of the ropes and they must be given a high degree of care
3 Resistant to rot and mildew.
and attention. Particular attention should be paid to the following points:
4 Stretches more than natural fibres.
5 Does not kink easily and if constructed in plaited lay does not readily open 1 Such ropes should be stowed in a special locker and should be used for no
up. other purpose. Nothing else should be stowed in the locker.
6 Smaller than"natural fibre ropes for same strength. 2 All gantlines should be clearly marked for their particular function, e.g.
7 Easy to handfe. funnel, bridge front.
8 Does not become less pliable with age unless overworked. 3 Make sure the splices are correct.
4 All blocks and lizards should be in the same condition as the gantlines.

20 21
Shipboard Operations
5 A palm and needle whipping should be on all gantline ends.
6 All gantlines should be thoroughly inspected each time before use and
daily when in use.
7 The ropes must be load tested before use to fOUfor five times the weight
which they will be required to carry.
Also read all M notices relating to rope safety, e.g. M718 on mooring
equipment and M1336 on tows.
Safety precautions in the care and handling of batteries
This subject provides a useful talk for the Safety Officer.
Particular hazards when charging batteries are hydrogen explosion and
short circuits. During charging a battery gives off hydrogen and oxygen and
the subsequent mixture can be easily ignited. Short circuits may cause arcing
which could initiate an explosion or burn the operator.
General precautions for all batteries
I Compartments should be well ventilated to prevent any build-up of
dangerous gases.
2 A 'No Smoking/No Naked Lights' sign should be displayed on the
outside of the door to the compartment and also inside the compartment.
3 The compartment should be used for batteries only and not for odd pieces
of equipment such as NUC signals.
~ The compartment light bulbs should be protected by gas-tight covers and
all wiring should be well insulated.
5 All battery connections should be clean and tight.
6 The batteries should be securely stowed.
7 Metal tools should never be placed on top of batteries as they may cause
short circuits.
8 For the same reason, rings should not be worn when working with
batteries as short circuits may cause burns.
9 When being moved batteries should be carried horizontally. As they are
very heavy the batteries should be carried by sufficient personnel and in
such a manner as to avoid injury. Liquid spills can cause corrosive injuries
and damage to clothing.
10 All battery circuits should be dead when leads are being connected or
disconnected.
11 The battery compartment should be kept locked with an emergency key
in a glass box beside the entrance.
12 Do not use portable electrical equipment in the compartment.
22
Safety: Operational
Precautions when handling lead acid batteries
1 Sulphuric acid is hygroscop~c, i.e. it has a great affinity for water. When
preparing the electrolyte the acid should be slowly added to the water; if
the water is added to the acid the heat generated could cause an explosion.-
which would spray suiph uric acid over the handler.
2 Protective clothing such as goggles and rubber gloves should always be
worn.
3 The terminals should be protected by petroleum jelly. The deposits in the
area of the terminals can be injurio,",s to eyes and skin.
4 Do not use an excessive charging rate as an acid mist may come out of the
battery vents, settle on to adjacent surfaces, and cause burns to operators.
5 In the event of accidents the acid should be neutralized with copious
amounts of water. Eyewash containers and a supply of fresh water should
be readily to hand. The container should be distinguishable by touch.
Precautions when handling alkaline batteries
1 The metal cases of these batteries are 'live' and should not be touched by
the body or with tools. \ ...
2 The electrolyte is corrosive and in the event of accident should be
neutralized with boracic powder solution or by large quantities of fresh
water. Eyes should be washed out with fresh water and then washed again
with a boracic solution.
Alkaline and lead acid batteries should not be kept in the same
compartment. Tools used for working on one type of battery should be
thoroughly cleaned before being used on the other type.
Permit-to-work system
Permit-to-work forms should be used for any jobs which might be hazardous.
The form is a document which states the work to be done and the safety
precautions which must be adhered to when carrying out the task. It is a
method whereby safety instructions are written down and transmitted to
those entrusted with particular jobs. Much thought should go into the
preparation of such permits, a predetermined safe drill should be formulated,
all foreseeable hazards should be considered, and the appropriate precautions
should be written down in a correct sequence.
Permits are not required for all jobs and it is essential that the system does
not become overcomplicated. The permit should contain a carefully planned
checklist to identify and eliminate or control hazards, plus arrangements for
23
Shipboard Operations
emergency procedures should an accident occur. Examples of jobs which
require permits are:
(a) work on electrical equipment
(b) work on remote control machinery
(c) working aloft or outboard
A particular permit should only be issued by an officer who has experience
in the appropriate work operation. The officer must ensure that the checks
have been properly carried out and he should sign the permit only when he is
satisfied that it is safe for work to proceed.
Entry into dangerous spaces
Despite the fact that much publicity has been given to the dangers of entering
enclosed spaces there has been a long succession of tragedies over recent
years. M910 should be studied in full as it gives case histories of some
accidents. The notice also emohasizes the following points:
1 The atmosphere in any enclosed space may be incapable of supporting life
due to a deficiency of oxygen or to the presence of toxic or flammable gases.
2 An unsafe atmosphere may be present in spaces such as cargo holds, ballast
tanks, fresh water tanks, cofferdams, d~ct keels, etc.
3 A permit-to-work or similar scheme should be in operation before any
enclosed spaces are entered.
4 Anyone who attempts to carry out a rescue without following correct
procedures is endangering his own life and that of the person he is
attempting to rescue.
This section should be read in conjunction with the Merchant Shipping
Entry into Dangerous Spaces Regulations which are discussed in Chapter 2.
Most seamen are aware of the dangers associated with toxic and flammable
gases. Inhalation of some toxic vapours can cause damage to the nervous
system, the lungs, and to other vital organs, as well as causing brain damage
and death. Hydrocarbon or flammable gas mixtures cause narcosis, which is a
state of stupor, insensibility or unconsciousness. The symptoms of narcosis
show first as eye irritation and headache, then diminished responsibility and a
sense of dizziness which is described as being similar to drunkenness. If these
warnings are ignored the result may be paralysis, insensibility and death.
Oxygen deficiency is possibly the most dangerous hazard within enclosed
spaces as many seamen are unaware of the effects of such an atmosphere. The
oxygen content' of air is 21 percent. If the level falls to approximately 17
percent the atmosphere is unsafe and personnel will suffer impairment.
Entry into an atmosphere of less than 10 percent oxygen causes
unconsciousness, and death can occur if the victim is not quickly removed to
24
Safety: Operational
the open air and resuscitated. Exposure to an atmosphere containing a low
level of oxygen for only a few minutes can cause irreversible brain damage.
Many deaths have occurred in enclosed spaces on ships carrying what are
generally classed as non-hazardous cargoes. Oxygen deficiency can be
attributed to grain, timber, vegetable oils, steel, pig iron and many general
cargoes. Oxygen can also be removed from the atmosphere in enclosed spaces
by chemical reactions such as rusting or the hardening of paints and by the
ingress of gases such as nitrogen or inert gas, Thus, all atmospheres in
enclosed spaces must be considered as suspect and appropriate tests must be
carried out using portable instruments.
The presence and the proportion of hydrocarbon gas in air is detected by
the use of an 'explosimeter' or combustible gas indicator. This is a
battery-operated instrument with an attached rubber sampling tube which is
inserted into a compartment. The atmosphere within the space is drawn
through the explosimeter by use of an aspirator bulb and a reading of gas
percentage is obtained. The instrument should give a zero reading before
entry is permitted. Contrary to the belief of some seamen, the explosimeter
does not indicate the presence of toxic gases or oxygen deficiencv.
Chemical absorption detectors must be used ~h~!lever the p;esence of
toxic gases is suspected. One type consists of a hand bellows, a sampling tube,
and a variety of glass tubes containing chemicals. Air is drawn through the
chemical tube and the presence of gas is indicated by discolouration of the
chemical. Each tube is only capable of detecting a certain gas and it may be
necessary to test for several gases before entry is permitted.
Oxygen analysers should be carried on all ships and several types are
available. All are capable of reaching remote corners by the use of sampling
tubes. Aspiration draws the air through the analyser and the oxygen
percentage content of the air is obtained. The reading must be 21 percent
oxygen before entry into the space is permitted.
Tests should be taken by the remote sampling tube at several levels
throughout the space and in several corners. The instruments should be
carefully calibrated in fresh air before use and the manufacturer's
instructions should be rigidly complied with. Any limitations on the use of an
instrument should be understood.
If the above tests indicate that it is safe to enter a space, further tests within
that space should be made by persons wearing breathing apparatus. Small
portable explosimeters can be obtained for persons working in tanks which
have been used for the carriage of hydrocarbon oils. These give audible
warning if a build-up of gases occurs.
An efficient communication system should be set up by those working
within the compartment. Thus all people within the space should be visually
and audibly in contact with each other and with a stand-by man who must be
posted at the compartment entrance. The stand-by man must be in constant
2S
 Safety: Operational
Shipboard Operations
29 Are the following items of equipment available and capable of functioning
attendance and he must be fully briefed on his actions in the event of an
properly;
emergency. All the points in the following sample permit-to-work should be
Self-contained breathing apparatus
noted.
Resuscitator
Lifelines '
Sample pennit-to-work Safety harness
Hoisting gear
Entry into Enclosed Spaces
Stretcher
1 Date.
2 Period of validity (the period should not exceed 24 hours). GaHight (explosion-proof) torches
Explosion-proof portable efuergency lights
3 Location of work area.
4 Total number of persons entering the space. First aid kit
5 The names of the designated crew members. Spare torch and radio batteries
6 Information regarding the work to be carried out. Suitable fire extinguishers
7 Time of testing the oxygen analyser. 30 Will the first men in be wearing breathing apparatus?
The oxygen content of the enclosed space.
8 Time of testing the hydrocarbon meter. The emergency instructions should be printed at the bottom of the permit
Percentage of hydrocarbon gas in the space. and the permit should be signed by a responsible officer when he is satisfied
9 Time of testing the toxic gas detector. that all the safety procedures have been carried QUt.
The results of toxic gas test.
10 Were the tests made at several levels or at different positions?
"
11 Time of entry and time of exit. Damage control
12 Is the space being continuously ventilated?
13 Is there a constant atmosphere monitoring system? This is an aspect of seamanship which is sometimes neglected. Ideally,
14 Is the agreed communication system functioning? damage control should be incorporated with the Emergency System. If
15 If VHF walkie-talkie radios are being used: suitable, the Emergency Headquarters should also be used as the 'Damage
(a) are they intrinsically safe (i.e. explosion proof)? Control Station'.
(b) have they been tested?
16 Is there a stand-by man at the entrance? The Station should have a stability calculator and a file containing
17 Does the stand-by man understand his emergency procedure in the event pre-calculated conditions of trims which might be encountered during
of an accident? emergency situations. The conditions would naturally vary from ship to ship
18 Is the entrance clear? but the following stability problems could be considered for light and loaded
19 If applicable, have the doors been secured? voyages:
20 Have warning notices been posted?
21 Is there adequate explosion-proof illumination? 1 Flooding of fore peak or after peak.
22 Have precautions been taken to prevent t"ntry of injurious substances into 2 Flooding of engine room.
3 Flooding of holds or cargo tanks.
the space?
4 Effect of flooding in areas isolated by watertight doors.
23 Have potential hazards been identified?
24 Have the bridge and engine room watchkeepers been informed? 5 Stress on bulkheads due to adjacent compartments being flooded.
6 Effects of stress or strain due to grounding forward, aft, or amidships.
25 Is protectiv.e clothing being worn?
26 Is all the equipment to be used of an approved type? 7 The use of ballast to change trim or to counteract listing in emergency
27 If repairs ate to be carried out on machinery, is such machinery isolated situations.
from sources of power or heat?
Plans or diagrams which might be of use for damage control should be
28 Is fire-fighting equipment available?
27
26
Shipboard Operations
Safety: Operational
displayed in the Station or should be readily available. The following plans Devise a scheme for rescuing an unconscious man from an enclosed space on
should be included: board YQurship.
1 Areas of the ship which are isolated by fire doors or fire-resistant Use the above scheme to train crew members to deal with such an emergency
bulkheads. and discuss its effectiveness.
2 Remote controls for pumps, fans, sea valves, etc. Train crew members in the maintenance and use of the self-contained
3 Watertight doors. breathing apparatus and the air-hose breathing apparatus.
4 Fire-fighting and life-saving appliances. Devise a maintenance and inspection schedule for the fire equipment on
5 Pipe line and pumps. board the ship.
6 Trim and Stability Particulars Book. Devise a maintenance and inspection schedule for the life-saving appliances
7 Cargo. on board the ship. "
The location of stores which might be required for damage repairs should Compare your schedules with the company's maintenance scheme.
be indicated. Such stores should include timber, cement, welding Discuss with other personnel the duties of a Safety Officer and a safety
equipment, spare steel plates, portable pumps, and tools such as axes, representative.
crowbars, saws and hammers. Consider how the effectiveness of the safety committee can be improved.
Damage control drills should be practised by the Emergency Team and the
members should be instructed in their various roles in the event of:
Further reading
grounding
collision Books ,
breakdown of steering gear
a derrick being dropped DANTON,G. The Theory and Practice of Seamanship (koutledge and Kegan
Paul: London, 1978).
deck cargo shifting
bulkhead fractures LEE, E. C. B. and LEE, K. Safety and Survival at Sea (Norton: New York and
London, 1980).
loss of an anchor
ventilators and deck fittings being carried away ROBERTSON, D. Sea Survival (Elek: London, 1975).
RUSHBROOK, F. Fire Aboard (Brown Son and Ferguson: Glasgow, 1979).
Training sessions should be held for instructing the team in: RUTHERFORD, D. Ship Safety Personnel: Role and Duties (Griffin: London,
1982).
methods of constructing collison mats
plugging shell plating holes above and below the waterline WRIGHT,C. H. Survival at Sea (Laver: Liverpool, 1977).
use of cement boxes
Manuals
shoring up bulkheads
pumping out flooded compartments Merchant Ship Search and Rescue Manual (IMO: London).
methods for towing and being towed Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety (Brady: Bowie,
Suggestions for conducting the above operations in an efficient manner can Maryland).
be found in various seamanship books. Those methods should be adapted for
Investigation reports
use on individual ships. Damage control has its basis in forethought, training
and predetermined knowledge. m.v. Burto,nia, Court Report Number 8062 (HMSO: London, 1974).
m.v. Festivity, Court Report Number 8060 (HMSO: London, 1974).
A note for pott;ntial candidates for DoT Certilicate of m.v. Lovat, Court Report Number 8066 (HMSO: London, 1977).
Proliciency/HND .,
Nautical Science
Handbook
Discuss safety awareness and methods for promoting safety awareness with
interested crew members. In Peril on the Sea? (MNAOA Handbook for Safety Representatives).
28
29
Shipboard Operations

J oumal
JOY, D. B. 'Fire Down Below-The "Hudson Transport" Case', Seaways,
November 1983, pp 7-9.
LAVERY,H. I. 'The Implementation of the "Safety Officials Act" for the
Ship's Officer', Seaways, April 1983, pp 21-22.
LAVERY,H. I. 'The 1986 Solas Training Requirements-An Impossible
Ideal?' Seaways, August 1987, pp8-10.
ROSE,J. M. 'M Notices: The Helping Hands to Legislation?' Seaways, June
1987,pp10-11.

Before 22 May 1982 the International Maritime Organization was known as

the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (lMCO). The
Organization is based in London and the governing body, the Assembly,
which consists of 128 Member States and one Associate Member, meets once
every two years. A Council, consisting of32 Member Governments elected by
the Assembly, acts as IMO's governing body. IMO is a technical organization
and most of its work is carried out by committees, e.g. the Maritime Safety
Committee (MSC) which has 10 sub-committees such as Carriage of
Dangerous Goods. The Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC)
was established by the Assembly in 1973 and it has the responsibility for co-
ordinating the Organization's activities in the prevention and control of pollu-
tion of the marine environment from ships ..
The Secretariat, which has a staff of approximately 270 international civil
servants, is headed by the Secretary General who is appointed by the Council.
The objectives and activities of IMO are:
To provide machinery for co-operation among Governments in the field
of governmental regulations and practices relating to technical matters of
all kinds affecting shipping engaged in international trade.

30 31

Shipboard Operations
and
To encourage the general adoption of the highest practicable standards in
matters concerning maritime safety, efficiency of navigation, the preven'-
tion and control of marine pollution from ships and related legal matters.
To meet the objectives IMO has, within a twenty-five year period promoted
the adoption of 30 conventions and protocols and over 600 codes and recom-
mendations. Perhaps the four conventions which have the greatest practical
application for mariners and shore staff are those which relate to Safety of Life
at Sea, Regulations for Preventing Collisions, Prevention of Pollution and
Load Lines. IMO's codes and recommendations cover a wide range of sub-
jects, such as the carriage of particular types of cargo and the construction of
specialized ships. A very brief synopsis of the contents of some of the conven-
tions can be found in this chapter and the codes which have the most practical
shipboard application will be referred to in the appropriate section of the book.
Safety: Legislation
II-I Floodable length, permeability, permissible length of compartments
11-2 Fire protection, detection and extinction
III Life-saving applicances
Chapter III was re-written and includes new provisions for lifeboats~ and
liferafts, safer operational procedures for survival craft and rescue boats, better
protection of survivors from environmental hazards and additional radio life-
saving appliances.
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
The Consolidated Text of the above Convention, Protocol and Amendments
was first published in 1986. Mariners should use the Consolidated Text for all
practical requirements and it is recommended that this excellent volume
should be carried on all vessels. The text contains eight chapters:

I General provisions
B Safety of Life at Sea 1974 (SOLAS 74) II-I Construction-Subdivision and stability, machinery and electrical
installations '
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, entered into 11-2 Construction-Fire protection, fire detection ~d fire extinction
force on 25 May 1980. The convention set out the minimum standards for the III Life-saving appliances and arrangements
safe construction of ships and for the safety equipment which must be carried IV Radiotelegraphy and radiotelephony
V Safety of navigation
on board. VI Carriage of grain
VII Carriage of dangerous goods
The 1978Protocol to SOLAS 74 VIII Nuclear ships
The Protocol, which deals mainly with tanker safety, entered into force on 1
Certification is dealt with in the Appendix and three annexes give a summary
May 1981. The SOLAS inert gas requirements for certain tankers were
of the requirements relating to existing ships and future amendments to the
extended to all but the smallest tankers and new steering gear requirements
1974 SOLAS Convention.
were specified for certain sizes of tankers. The Consolidated Text contains 439 pages: a synopsis of the requirements
A new 'Steering Gear-Testing and Drills' regulation applied to all ships and
would be impracticable, but attention is drawn to the following areas which
the SOLAS requirements for inspection and certification of ships were made
affect some of the routine operations carried out on board ship. The Consoli-
more stringent. dated Text generally applies only to ships engaged on international voyages and
the term 'new ship' means a ship, the keel of which was laid on or after 1 July
The 1981SOLAS amendments 1986.
The 1981 SOLAS amendments and the 1981 Protocol amendments entered
into force on 1 September 1984. SOLAS Chapter II

The 1983SOLASamendments Steering Gear-Requirements and Drills

The 1983 SOLAS amendments entered into force on 1 July 1986. These The steering gear construction requirements are to be found in II -1, Regula-
amendments affected several chapters but the basic aim was to increase certain tion 29, and the operation, testing and drills requirements are located in V,
minimum standards in the following areas: Regulations 19-1 and 19-2.

33
32
Shipboard Operations
Every ship must be provided with a main steering gear and an auxiliary
steering gear and they shall be so arranged that the failure of one will not cause
the other to be inoperative.
A specification that should be noted is that whilst the main steering gear
must be capable of putting the rudder over from 35° on one side to 35° on the
other at maximum draught and service speed (from 35° on either side to 30° on
the other side in not more than 28 seconds) the auxiliary gear must only be
capable of putting the rudder over from 15° to 15° in not more than 60 seconds
at maximum draught but at one half of the maximum service speed or 7 knots
(whichever is the greater).
Both steering gears must be capable of being operated from the navigation
bridge and arranged to restart automatically after a power failure.
In every tanker (which includes chemical tankers and gas carriers) of 10,000
tons gross and upwards the main steering gear must consist of two or more
identical power units both capable of operating the rudder independently.
Ships that have steering gear power units which are capable of simultaneous
operation shall have more than one of the units operating when in areas where
navigation demands special caution.
Emergency steering gear drills must be carried out at least once every three
months to ensure that emergency steering procedures are practised. However,
within 12 hours before a departure the following equipment must be checked
and tested:
1 The main steering gear.
2 The auxiliary steering gear.
3 The remote steering gear control systems.
4 The steering positions located on the navigation bridge.
5 The emergency power supply.
6 The rudder angle indicators in relation to the actual position of the rudder.
7 The remote steering gear control system power failure alarms.
8 The steering gear power unit failure alarms;
9 Automatic isolating arrangements and other automatic equipment.
The full movement of the rudder, the steering gear and the connecting link-
age should be visually inspected. Communications between the bridge and
steering compartment should be checked.
All officers concerned with the operation or maintenance of the gear should
be conversant with changeover procedures and block diagrams of such proce-
dures, plus the operating instructions, should be permanently displayed on the
bridge and in the steering compartment.
The dates of checks and tests and the dates and details of emergency steering
drills should be recorded in a log book.
34
Safety: Legislation
Emergency Source of Electrical Power in Cargo Ships
This information, which applies to new ships, is found in II-I, Regulation 43.
Each ship must have a self-contained emergency source of electrical power
sufficient to supply all the services that are essential for safety in an emergenq.;,
The following are the minimum services that must be provided.
1 Emergency lighting at every muster and embarkation station and over the
side for a period of three hours
2 Emergency lighting for a period of 18 hours in
all alleyways, stairs, exits and lifts"
the machinery spaces and generating stations
all control stations and switchboards
all stowage positions for firemen's outfits
the steering gear compartment
certain locations where fire and other pumps are located
3 Power for a period of 18 hours for
the navigation lights and other lights required by the Collision Regula-
tions
the radiotelegraph main transmitter and main receiver
the radiotelephone transmitter and receiver ' ...
4 Power for a period of 18 hours for
all internal communication equipment required in an emergency
navigational aids such as compasses, radars and automatic plotting equip-
ment, echo-sounding device, speed and distance device and certain
indicators
the fire detection and fire alarm system
the daylight signalling lamp, whistle, call points and internal signals
one of the fire pumps if dependent upon the emergency generator for its
source of power
In certain cases the emergency source shall also supply power to the steering
gear for at least 30 minutes of continuous operation on ships of 10,000 tons
gross tonnage and upwards and in any other ship for at least 10 minutes.
This regulation is complex and much detail has been omitted from this
synopsis. The power source may be either a generator or an accumulator bat-
tery and it must be located above the uppermost continuous qeck, readily
accessible from the open deck and so placed that a fire at the main source of
electrical power will not interfere with the operation of the emergency source.
Fireman's Outfit
Chapter 11-2, Regulation 17. All ships shall carry at least two fireman's outfits,
tankers shall carry two additional outfits and passenger ships carry additional
outfits depending upon the aggregate lengths of passenger and service spaces.
35
Shipboard Operations
The contents of a fireman's outfit can be divided into two basic equipment
groups.
(a) Personal equipment which consists of:
1 Heat and water resistant protective clothing.
2 Boots and gloves of electrically nonconducting material.
3 A rigid helmet.
4 A hand held electric safety lamp which shines for at least three hours.
5 An approved axe.
(b) An approved breathing apparatus which may be either:
1 A smoke helmet or smoke mask with a suitable air pump and a length of
hose able to reach from the open deck to any part of the holds or machin-
ery spaces. If, in order to do so, the hose would exceed 36 metres in
length, a self-contained breathing apparatus should be substituted or
provided in addition; or
2 A self-contained compressed-air-operated breathing apparatus with an
air volume of 1,200 litres in the cylinders, or other self-contained
breathing apparatus capable of functioning for at least 30 minutes.
Suitable spare charges must be carried to the satisfaction of the
administration (In IMO Regulations the term 'administration' means
the government of the state whose flag the ship is entitled to fly).
Each breathing apparatus must be provided with a fireproof lifeline of suffi-
cient length and strength with suitable means of attachment to the apparatus
harness or to a separate belt.
All the equipment must be stored so as to be easily accessible and located in
widely separated positions.
SOLAS-Chapter III
The most sweeping change to the 1974 SaLAS Convention has been the
complete rewrite of this chapter. A study of the chapter shows that a particular
emphasis has been placed on dry abandonment into survival craft and on the
training for use, and the maintenance of, survival equipment. This chapter
applies in full to new ships from 1 July 1986 and in the case of existing ships
partly from that date but mainly from 1 July 1991. Marine personnel, both
ashore and afloat, should therefore closely study this chapter to ascertain which
particular regulations apply to particular ships. As radical changes have been
made to the reqqirements of some major items of survival equipment and to
training proced~res, some of the changes are noted below. The term 'survival
craft' means 'a daft capable of sustaining the lives of persons in distress from
the time of abandoning the ship'.
36
Safety: Legislation
Survival Craft Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacons
Chapter III, Regulation 6, Section 2.3. This regulation applies to all ships but
existing ships do not have to comply until 1July 1991. One man~ally activated
emergency position-indicating radio beacon must be carried on each side of the
ship. They must be stowed in a manner whereby they can rapidly be placea in
survival craft.
Two-way Radiotelephone Apparatus
Chapter III, Regulation 6, Section 2.4. This regulation applies to all ships but
existing ships do not have to comply until 1 July 1991. Two-way radio-
telephones must be provided for communication between survival craft, a
minimum of three must be provided on each ship. The radiotelephone appara-
tus which is used on board many ships for operational procedures, such as
berthing, may be used for survival craft purposes if such apparatus complies
with Regulation 14.3 of Chapter IV.
Muster Lists and Emergency Instructions '
\,
Chapter III, Regulations 8 and 53. These regulations apply to all ships. Clear
instructions which are to be followed in the event of an emergency must be
provided for every person on board and muster lists should be exhibited in
conspicuous places throughout the ship (including the bridge, engine-room
and accommodation spaces).
A muster list must give the details of the general emergency alarm signal
(seven or more short blasts followed by one long blast) and the action to be
taken when the alarm is sounded. Emphasis should be put on how the actual
order to abandon ship will be given. The muster list should show the duties
assigned to the different crew members and the following duties should be
included:
1 The closing of the watertight doors, fire doors, valves, scuppers, side-
scuttles, skylights, portholes and any similar opening.
2 Putting equipment into survival craft.
3 Preparing and launching survival craft.
4 General preparation of other life-saving appliances.
5 The muster of passengers (this should include wives).
6 Use of communication equipment.
7 The manning of fire parties assigned to deal with files.
8 Special duties assigned in respect of the use of fire-fighting equipment and
installations.
Many ships now use emergency teams which are trained to deal with specific
emergencies and many administrations encourage the use of such a system.
37
Shipboard Operations
Emergency team duties, therefore, will have to be carefully stipulated, co-
ordinated and integrated with the obligatory muster list.
In addition to the above, the muster list shall state which officers have the
responsibility for ensuring the maintenance and ready availability of life-
saving and fire appliances and it shall specify substitutes for key persons who
may become disabled in emergencies (one hopes that such substitutes will be
available now that many ships have reduced manning scales). The muster list
must be prepared before a ship proceeds to sea and amended as necessary.
Additional duties are stipulated for crew members on passenger ships and
the format of the list used on such ships must be approved.
Survival Craft Operating Instructions
Chapter III, Regulation 9, applies to all ships.
Posters or signs must be exhibited on, or in the vicinity of, survival craft and
their launching controls. The posters or signs must:
I Illustrate the purpose of controls and the procedures for operating the appli-
ance and give relevant instructions or warnings.
2 Be easily seen under emergency lighting conditions.
3 Use IMO approved symbols.
Manning of Survival Craft and Supervision
Chapter III, Regulation 10, applies to all ships.
Many mariners may believe that reduced manning levels will make the
implementation ofthis regulation difficult. However, the regulation is unam-
biguous and the following requirements should be complied with:
1 There must be a sufficient number of trained persons for mustering and
assisting untrained persons.
2 There must be a sufficient number of crew members for operating the survi-
val craft and launching arrangements for abandonment by all persons on
board.
3 A deck officer or certificated person must be placed in charge of each survival
craft which is used (however, persons practised in the handling and opera-
tion of liferafts may be placed in charge of liferafts), and a second-in-
command must be nominated in the case of lifeboats.
4 The person in charge of the survival craft must have a list ofthe survival craft
crew and mu~t ensure that the crew under his command are acquainted with
their duties; in lifeboats the second-in-command must also have a list of the
lifeboat crew:
5 If a passenger ship lifeboat has a radiotelegraph installation, a person
capable of operating the equipment must be assigned to the lifeboat.
38
Safety: Legislation
6 Each motorized survival craft must have a person capable of operating the
eng\ne and carrying out minor adjustments.
7 The Master must ensure the equitable distribution of trained personnel
among the ship's survival craft.
~.
It may be advisable, therefore, that the Safety Officer of a ship whose
crew is not proficient in abandonment procedures initiates a comprehen-
sive programme of safety training for the personnel.
Abandon Ship Training and Drills, and the Training Manual
Chapter III, Regulation 18, applies to all ships.
A training manual which complies with Regulation 51, must be provided in
each crew messroom and recreation room or in each crew cabin. The manual
must contain instructions and information on the life-saving appliances and on
the best methods of survival. The manual should be written in easily under-
stood terms and illustrated wherever possible. Audio-visual aids may be con-
sidered as part ofthe manual. The following must be explained in detail:
1 Donning of lifejackets and immersion suits. ,
2 Muster at the assigned stations. \,
3 Boarding, launching and clearing the survival craft and rescue boats.
4 Method of launching from within the survival craft.
5 Release from launching appliance,s.
6 Methods and use of devices for protection in launching areas where appro-
priate.
7 Launching area illumination.
8 Use of all survival equipment.
9 Use of all detection equipment.
10 Use of radio life-saving appliances (with the assistance of illustrations).
11 Use of drogues.
12 Use of engines and accessories.
13 Recovery of survival craft and rescue boats, including stowage and
securing.
14 Hazards of exposure and the need for warm clothing.
15 Best use of survival craft facilities in order to survive.
16 Methods of retrieval, including the use of helicopter rescue gear, breeches
buoy and shore life-saving apparatus and ship's line-throwing apparatus.
17 All other functions contained in the muster list and emergency instruc-
tions.
18 Instructions for emergency repair of the life-saving appliances.
As many of the above procedures are contained within the syllabuses of
'Survival at Sea' courses at certain nautical colleges, I would recommend that
all officers be encouraged to attend such courses.
39
Shipboard Operations
Regulation 18 requires that each crew member shall participate in at least
one abandon ship drill and one fire drill every month. The drills must take
place within 24 hours of the ship leaving a port if more than 25 % of the crew
have not taken part in such drills on board that particular ship within the
previous month. There are additional requirements for the mustering of pas-
sengers on passenger ships.
Each abandon ship drill must include the following:
1 The summoning of passengers and crew to the muster stations by the sound-
ing of the general alarm.
2 Ensuring that everyone understands the abandon ship order as specified in
the muster list.
3 Reporting to stations and preparing for the duties described in the muster
list.
4 Checking that everyone is suitably dressed.
5 Checking that lifejackets have been put on properly.
6 Preparing and lowering at least one lifeboat.
7 Starting and operating the lifeboat engine.
8 The operation of davits used for launching liferafts.
Different lifeboats should be lowered at successive drills and the drills
should be conducted, as far as practicable, as if there is an actual emergency.
Each lifeboat with its assigned operating crew should be manoeuvred in the
water at least once every 3 months during an abandon ship drill. Ships on short
international voyages may meet different criteria.
Rescue boats which are not lifeboats should be manoeuvred in the water by
the assigned crew at least every 3 months, but in general this should be carried
out each month.
Because lifeboat and rescue boat launching drills carried out with the ship
making headway involve dangers, such drills should only be practised in shel-
tered waters under the supervision of an officer experienced in such drills.
The emergency lighting for mustering and abandonment must be tested at
each abandon ship drill.
The new emphasis on training is apparent in Regulation 18. Each crew
member must be given training in the use of the life-saving appliances as soon
as possible after joining but such training must be given not later than 2 weeks
from joining. Instructions to the crew in the use of the life-saving appliances
and in survival-at-sea must be given each month. Instructions may be given on
different parts of the ship's life-saving system but the complete system must be
covered within any period of 2 months. Each crew member must be given
instructions on tWefollowing subjects:
I Operation and Use of the ship's inflatable liferafts.
2 Problems of hypothermia, first-aid treatment of hypothermia and other
appropriate first-aid procedures.
40
Safety: Legislation
3 Special instructions necessary for use of the ship's life-saving appliances in
severe weather and severe sea conditions.
Special training must be given in the use of any davit-launched liferafts.
The administration (i.e. the government of the state whose flag the ship is
entitled to fly) may require the following information to be recorded in a log-
book:
The date when musters are held .
Details of abandon ship drills
Details of fire drills "
Drills of other life-saving appliances
On-board training
If a full muster, drill or training session is not held at the appointed time, an
entry must be made in the log-book stating the circumstances and the extent of
the muster, drill or training session held.
Although it is not stipulated in this regulation, the Safety Officer may find
that the contents of other regulations can be used as the basis for instruction
and/or training periods. Such regulations include:
,
111-12 Launching Stations ' ..
111-13 Stowage of Survival Craft
111-14 Stowage of Rescue Boats
III-IS Survival Craft Launching and Recovery Arrangements
111-16 Rescue Boat Embarkation, Launching and Recovery Arrangements
111-48 Launching and Embarkation Appliances
111-49 Line-throwing Appliances
Operational Readiness, Maintenance and Inspections
Chapter III, Regulation 19, applies to all ships.
This regulation emphasizes the important point that survival equipment is
of little use if it is not ready for use at all times, as it states that: 'Before the ship
leaves port and at all times during the voyage, all life-saving appliances shall be
in working order and ready for immediate use'.
Instructions for on-board maintenance of life-saving appliances shall
include the following for each appliance:
1 A checklist to be used for a monthly inspection of all life-saving appliances,
including lifeboat equipment, to ensure that such appliances are complete
and in good order.
2 Maintenance and repair instructions.
3 Schedule of periodic maintenance.
4 Diagram of lubrication points with the recommended lubricants.
5 List of replacable parts.
41
Shipboard Operations
6 List of sources of spare parts.
7 Log for records of inspections and maintenance.
A report of the monthly inspection must be entered in the ship's log-book.
A shipboard planned maintenance schedule may incorporate the instruc-
tions listed above.
Falls used in launching shall be turned end-for-end at intervals of not more
than 30 months and be renewed when necessary due to deterioration or at
intervals of not more than 5 years, whichever is the earlier. Adequate spares for
the appliances must be carried.
The following tests and inspections shall be carried out weekly:
1 All survival craft, rescue boats and launching appliances to be visually
inspected to enSure that they are ready for use.
2 All engines in lifeboats and rescue boats to be run ahead and astern for a total
period of not less than 3 minutes (in special cases this may be waived for
ships constructed before 1 July 1986).
3 The general emergency alarm system to be tested.
Every inflatable liferaft and inflatable lifejacket shall be serviced at intervals
not exceeding 12 months at an approved servicing station (in certain cases this
may be extended to 17 months). All repairs and maintenance of inflated rescue
boats shall be carried out in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions
and only emergency repairs may be carried out on board, permanent repairs
shall be carried out at an approved servicing station. Hydrostatic release units
shall be serviced at intervals not exceeding 12 months at a competent servicing
station (in certain cases this may be extended to 17 months).
Inflatable Liferafts
Chapter III, Regulation 39 (Inflatable Liferafts) and Regulation 38 (General
Requirements for Liferafts) apply to all ships.
The regulations are very detailed and should be closely studied but attention
should be paid to the following points:
1 The liferaft shall have an efficient painter and the length must be not less
than twice the distance from the stowed position to the waterline in the
highest sea-going condition or 15 metres, whichever is the greater.
2 The liferaft painter system shall provide a connection between the ship and
the liferaft and shall be so arranged as to ensure that the liferaft when
released and, in the case of an inflatable liferaft, inflated is not dragged
under by the ~inking ship, i.e. there must be a float-free arrangement.
3 If a weak link is used in the float-free arrangment, it shall not be broken by
the force required to pull the painter from the container and, if applicable,
shall be strong enough to permit the inflation of the liferaft.
42
Safety,' Legislation
4 If a hydrostatic release unit is used in the float-free arrangement, it shall
automatically release the liferaft at a depth of not more than 4 metres.
5 The main buoyancy chamber shall be divided into not less than two
separate compartments.
6 The floor shall be capable of being insulated against cold (usually by a
double floor which inflates automatically but which can be deflated and
reinflated by the occupants).
7 The gas used for inflating the raft shall be non-toxic,
8 At least one entrance shall be fitted with a semi-rigid boarding ramp.
9 Entrances not fitted with a boardihg ramp shall have a boarding ladder.
10 There shall be means inside the liferaft to assist persons to pull them-
selves into the liferaft from the ladder.
11 If the liferaft becomes inverted it shall be capable of being righted in a
seaway in calm weather by one person.
12 A manually controlled lamp visible at night for a distance of at least 2 miles
for not less than 12 hours shall be fitted to the top of the canopy powered by
a sea-activated or a dry chemical cell and which shall light automatically
when the liferaft inflates.
13 Another manually controlled lamp shall be fitted irl!,~de the liferaft capable
of continuous operation for a period of at least 12 hours and which shall
light automatically when the liferaft inflates.
A liferaft should be packed in a suitable container in such a way as to ensure
as far as possible that the liferaft inflates in an upright position. A container
should be marked with the following information:
Maker's name or trade mark
Serial number
Name of approved authority and the number of persons it is permitted to
carry
SaLAS
Type of emergency pack enclosed
Date when last serviced
Length of painter
Maximum permitted height of stowage above the waterline (this relates to
drop-test height-at least 18 metres but in some cases, higher-and
painter length)
Launching instructions
Similar information must be marked on the liferaft itself.
The type of emergency pack will generally be 'SaLAS A' pack (passenger
ships on short international voyages may have liferafts equipped with 'SaLAS
B' packs). Mariners should carefully study Regulation 38 to ensure that a
comprehensive knowledge of liferaft equipment is gained (it is too late to
43
Shipboard Operations
attempt to acquire knowledge during emergency situations), but it should be
noted that liferafts now have:
four rocket parachute flares
six hand flares
two buoyant smoke signals
thermal/protective aids sufficient for 10% of the liferaft complement or
two, whichever is the greater
an efficient radar reflector
two sea-anchors of a greatly improved type
seasickness bags (which will probably be very necessary in most sea condi-
tions)
It should be noted that Regulation 26 stipulates that liferaft capacity should
be for 100% of the ship's complement instead of50% as before. Existing ships
have a 'period of grace' until 1 July 1991 before compliance with this standard
is officially required.
Lifeboats
Chapter III, Regulation 41, deals with the general requirements for lifeboats
and Regulations 42 to 46 inclusive deal with the permitted 'sub-species' of
lifeboats. Totally enclosed lifeboats, which must comply with Regulation 44,
are required on new cargo ships in place of the traditional open lifeboat. In
general, the open lifeboat will gradually disappear by 1 July 1991. Once again
the Regulations should be studied in full but mariners should note that all
lifeboats should be of sufficient strength to enable them to be safely lowered
into the water when fully loaded and should be capable of being launched and
towed when the ship is making headway at a speed of 5 knots in calm water.
Other pertinent features are:
1 Every cargo ship lifeboat to be so arranged that it can be boarded by its full
complement of persons in not more than three minutes from the time the
instruction to board is given.
2 A boarding ladder to be provided that can be used on either side of the
lifeboat to enable persons in the water to board, the lowest step of the ladder
to be not less than 0.4 metres below the lifeboat's light waterline.
3 The lifeboat to be so arranged that helpless people can be brought on board
either from the sea or on stretchers.
4 All surfaces on which persons might walk to have a non-skid finish.
5 Every lifeboat te be powered by a compression ignition engine with either a
manual starting system or a power starting system with two independent
rechargeable eriergy sources, both systems to be capable of starting the
engine at an ambient temperature of -15°C within 2 minutes (unless
otherwise permitted by the administration).
44
Safety: Legislation
6 Every lifeboat engine to be capable of being operated for not less than 5
minutes after starting from cold with the lifeboat out of the water and to be
capable of operation when the lifeboat is flooded up to the crankshaft.
7 Lifeboat speed to be at least 6 knots with sufficient fuel to run for a period of
not less than 24 hours. ,.
8 The engine arrangements to be enclosed in a fire-retardant casing.
9 Means to be provided for recharging all engine-starting, radio and search-
light batteries.
10 Water-resistant instructions for starting and operating the engine to be
mounted in a conspicuous place neat the engine mounting.
11 Each lifeboat to have at least one drain valve which shall automatically open
to drain water from the hull when the lifeboat is not waterborne and which
shall automatically close when the vessel is waterborne, the position of the
drain valve to be clearly indicated.
12 Each lifeboat to be fitted with a release device to enable the forward painter
to be released when under tension.
13 A manually controlled light visible on a dark night for not less than 12
hours to be fitted to the top of the cover or enclosure.
14 A lamp which provides illumination for not less than 12 hours to be fitted
inside the lifeboat (an oil lamp is not permitted for thi'spurpose).
The carrying capacity of a lifeboat is calculated by using either the number
of persons wearing lifejackets that can be seated in a normal position without
interfering with the operation of the lifeboat or standard dimensions for seated
personnel. Every lifeboat that is launched by a fall or falls is to be fitted with a
release mechanism complying with the following requirements:
1 The mechanism to be arranged so that all hooks are released simultaneously.
2 The mechanism to have two release capabilities, 'normal' when there is no
load on the hooks, and 'on-load' when there is a load on the hooks, the latter
capability to be adequately protected against accidental or premature
release.
3 The release control to be clearly marked in a colour that contrasts with its
surroundings.
4 The mechanism to be designed with a factor safety of 6.
Regulation 41 should be studied to ascertain the items of equipment that
must be carried. As is the case with liferafts, some items such as a survival
manual and a few thermal protective aids are additional to earlier regulations
and other items such as painters and a sea-anchor are designed to higher stand-
ards.
A lifeboat must be marked as follows:
1 The dimensions and the number of persons which it carries to be marked in
clear permanent characters.
45
Shipboard Operations
2 The name and port of registry marked on each side of the bow in block
roman capitals.
3 Means of identifying the ship to which the lifeboat belongs and the lifeboat's
number to be marked so as to be visible from above.
Rescue Boats (Chapter III, Regulation 47)
A rescue boat is a boat designed to rescue persons in distress and to marshall
survival craft (a survival craft is a craft capable of sustaining the lives of persons
in distress from the time of abandoning the ship) and rescue boats are
becoming a standard requirement on most vessels.
Rescue boats may be either of rigid or inflated construction or a combination
of both. A rescue boat is not considered as one of the required number of
survival craft but is additional to them unless the option given in Regulation 26
is taken whereby a lifeboat may be accepted as a rescue boat provided that it
also complies with the requirements for a rescue boat.
A rescue boat must be capable of carrying at least 5 seated persons and one
lying down. It must have a bow cover and be capable of manoeuvring at
speeds of up to 6 knots and maintaining that speed for at least 4 hours.
Launching and Embarkation Appliances
Chapter III, Regulation 48: this regulation should be studied in conjunction
with Regulation 15, Survival Craft Launching and Recovery Arrangements
and Regulation 16, Rescue Boat Embarkation, Launching and Recovery
Arrangements.
Launching appliances must be capable of being lowered against an adverse
heel of 20· and a trim of 10·. However, in oil tankers, chemical carriers and gas
carriers, with a final angle of heel greater than 20·, launching appliances must
be capable of operating at the final angle of heel on the lower side of the ship.
A launching mechanism shall be arranged so that it may be actuated by one
person, it must depend on gravity or stored mechanical power (i.e. launching
power must be independent of the ship's power supplies) and it shall remain
effective under conditions of icing.
Every rescue boat launching appliance shall be fitted with a powered winch
motor of a capacity which will enable the rescue boat to be raised from the
water with its full complement of persons and equipment. An efficient hand
gear shall be provided for the recovery of each survival craft and rescue boat.
Where davit arms a,re recovered by power, safety devices are to be fitted to cut
off the power automatically before the arms reach the stops.
Every launching appliance is to be fitted with brakes capable of stopping and
holding a fully loaded survival craft or rescue boat during launching. Manual
46
Safety: Legislation
qrakes must be arranged so that the brake is always applied unless the operator
holds the control in the 'off' position.
Falls shall be of rotation-resistant and corrosion-resistant steel wire rope.
,.
Basic Life-saving Appliances on ~New' Cargo Ships
The regulations contained in SOLAS Chapter III are rather tortuous and
complex with much cross-referencing between various regulations. Mariners
should carefully check that the equipment on board ship complies with the
various regulations: the following list is given as an indication of the life-saving
appliances required on a 'typical' new cargo ship, i.e. a ship being constructed
on or after 1 July 1986.
1 Totally enclosed, fire retardant, self-righting lifeboats sufficient for the
total complement to be carried on both sides of the vessel (on chemical and
gas tankers each lifeboat must have a self-contained air support system).
Free-fall lifeboats carried aft may be an alternative. Most oil, chemical and
gas tankers will have lifeboats fitted with a fire protection (external water
spray) system. ' ..
2 A rescue boat (unless one of the lifeboats has been accepted as a rescue
boat).
3 Liferafts sufficient for the total complement capable of being launched
from either side or liferafts for the total complement on each side of the
vessel. If the survival craft are stowed more than 100 metres from the stem
or stern an additionalliferaft is required to be stowed as far forward or aft as
is practicable.
4 Lifebuoys as follows:
Length of ship (metres) Minimum number
Under 100 8
100 and under 150 10
150 and under 200 12
200 and over 14
The lifebuoys must be distributed so as to be as readily available as
practicable and at least one in the vicinity of the stern.
At least one lifebuoy on each side of the ship shall be fitted with a buoyant
lifeline equal in length to not less than twice the height at which it is stowed
above the waterline at any time or 30 metres, whichever is the greater.
Not less than half of the lifebuoys must have self-igniting lights, not less
than two of which must be provided with self-activating smoke signals and
which must be capable of quick release from the navigating bridge. Life-
buoys fitted with lights or smoke signals shall not be the lifebuoys provided
with lines and shall be equally distributed to port and starboard. Self-
igniting lights on tankers shall be of the electric battery type.
47
Shipboard Operations
Each lifebuoy shall have the ship's name and port of registry marked on it
in black roman capitals.
5 Lifejackets to be provided for every person on board the vessel plus a
sufficient number for persons on watch and for use at remotely located
survival craft stations.
6 Immersion suits to be provided for every person assigned to crew the
rescue boat plus as deemed necessary under Regulation III 27.
7 One EPIRB on each side of the vessel.
8 At least three two-way radiotelephones.
9 Retro-reflective tape or material on all lifeboats, liferafts, lifebuoys and
lifejackets.
10 A portable radio apparatus for survival craft.
11 Not less than twelve rocket parachute flares stowed on or near the navigat-
ing bridge.
12 An on-board communications and alarm system.
13 A line-throwing appliance with four projectiles and lines each capable of
travelling a distance of 230 metres in calm weather with reasonable
accuracy.
Features of a SOLAS lifejacket (non-inflatable)
Under Chapter III, Regulations 32 and 27, a non-inflatable lifejacket should
meet the following standards:
1 Does not sustain burning or continue melting after being totally enveloped
in a fire for a period of 2 seconds.
/2 Capable of being correctly put on within 1 minute.
3 Capable of being worn inside out or is clearly capable of being worn in one
way only and, as far as possible, cannot be put on incorrectly.
4 Comfortable to wear.
5 Allows the wearer to jump from a height of 4.5 metres into the water with-
out injury and without dislodging or damaging the lifejacket.
6 Lifts the mouth of an exhausted or unconscious person not less than
120 mm clear of the water with the body inclined backwards.
7 Turns the body of an unconscious person from any position to one where
the mouth is clear of the water in 5 seconds.
8 Buoyancy not reduced by more than 5% after 24 hours submersion in fresh
water.
9 Enables the person wearing it to swim a short distance and to board a
survival craft:
10 Fitted with a!whistle firmly secured by a cord.
liOn cargo ships each lifejacket to be fitted with a light as under Regulation
32.3 (with respect to cargo ships constructed before 1 July 1986, this
48
Safety: Legislation
feature shall apply not later than 1 July 1991). The light shines for at least 8
hours. '
12 Fitted with retro-reflective material.
,.
General requirements for life-saving appliances
Chapter III, Regulation 30, gives the f.()llowing requirements for life-saving
appliances:
1 Constructed with proper workmanspip and materials.
2 Not damaged in stowage throughout the air temperature range of - 30°C to
+ 65°C.
3 If likely to be immersed in seawater during use, operate throughout the
seawater temperature range of - 1°C to + 30°C.
4 Where applicable, rot -proof, corrosion-resistant, and not unduly affected by
seawater, oil or fungal attack.
5 Resistant to sunlight deterioration.
6 Of a highly visible colour.
7 Fitted with retro-reflective material. ,
8 If to be used in a seaway, capable of satisfactory oper~on in a seaway.
The government of the state whose flag the ship is entitled to fly shall deter-
mine the period of acceptability of life-saving appliances which are subject to
deterioration with age. Such life-saving appliances shall be marked with a
means for determining their age or the date by which they must be replaced
Testing of life-saving appliances
Chapter III, Regulation 4, makes the requirements of the IMO publication
Recommendations on Testing and Evaluation of Life-Saving Appliances manda-
tory for governments giving approval to life-saving appliances and arrange-
ments.
C Prevention of pollution 1973(MARPOL 73)
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,
1973, came into force on 2 October 1983. This convention contains regulations
which are designed to prevent pollution caused accidentally or during routine
operations by ships transporting oil cargoes, by noxious or harmful cargoes,
and by sewage and garbage. The requirements for the storing, treating, and
discharging of such substances are set out and also the procedures for the
reporting of spillages. The technical measures are stipulated in five annexes:
49
Shipboard Operations
I Prevention of Pollution by Oil
II Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk (e.g.
chemicals).
III Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances carried in Packages (e.g.
packaged forms, containers, tanks).
IV Prevention of Pollution by Sewage.
V Prevention of Pollution by Garbage.
The 1978 Protocol to MARPOL 73
The international conference on 'Tanker Safety and Pollution Prevention'
(TSPP) which was held in 1978, in addition to issuing the SOLAS Protocol,
recognised 'the need to improve further the prevention and control of marine
pollution from ships, particularly oil tankers'. The MARPOL 78 Protocol was
therefore promulgated and it came into force on 2 October 1983.
The Protocol deals mainly with the requirements for tankers to comply with
legislation concerning segregated ballast tanks (SBTs), the clean ballast tank
system (CBT), and crude oil washing (COW).
The Protocol also makes strict provision for inspection and certification
procedures to ensure that all ships comply with pollution prevention measures.
All but the smallest vessels must undergo an initial survey before being issued
with the 'International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate' (IOPP Certifi-
cate). Periodical surveys at intervals not exceeding five years must be carried
out, and also at least one intermediate survey half-way through the period of
validity.
The original MARPOL 73 Convention and 78 Protocol are collectively
known as MARPOL 73/78. Details of particular regulations from MARPOL
73/78 can be found in Chapter 6.
Regulations for the prevention of pollution by oil-Annex I,
MARPOL 73/78, 1986consolidated edition
IMO, which is to be commended for consolidating all of the current pro-
visions of Annex I in a single publication as a series of new measures to
prevent pollution by oil (the 1984 Amendments), came into force in 1986.
Indeed, the necessary but continuous improvement in anti-pollution stan-
dards and technical measures has unfortunately made this area a legal
minefield for ship and shore managers alike.
The new measure$ require that existing ships comply with regulations con-
cerning the installation of oil discharge, monitoring and control systems and
oily-water-separating and oil-filtering systems.
One of the main points of the 1984 Amendments deals with ships operating
50
Safety: Legislation
in special areas (basically the Mediterranean, Baltic, Black and Red Seas and
the 'Gulf' ar.ea). Regulation 10 requires the installation of a device to oily-
water-separating equipment which stops overboard discharge once the oil con-
tent of the mixtures exceeds 15 ppm. Any residues which cannot meet the
15 ppm standard must be retained on board the ship. '
Regulation 20 changed the format of the Oil Record Book. Non-tankers now
have to carry an Oil Record Book Part I (Machinery Space Operations) whilst
tankers will additionally have to carry Part II (Cargo/Ballast Operations). The
contents of the Oil Record Book are discussed later in this chapter within the
context of the British Prevention of Oi. Pollution Regulations 1983. Ships'
masters should note that each completed page of the Oil Record Book must
now be signed by the master.
Regulations for the control of pollution by noxious liquid substances
in bulk-Annex II, MARPOL 73/78
Annex II is particularly complex and the effective date of this annex was
delayed twice, the second delay being to allow the adoption of amendments to
the annex. Thus, Annex II, which incoporates amendments, entered into force
on 6 April 1987 . ' ...
Annex II contains sixteen regulations; however, some confusion may be
caused by the fact that two regulations are designated with both a number and
the letter A. Thus, although the last regulation is number 14, regulations 5A
and 12A bring the total number to sixteen.
All the regulations are important but the following are worth emphasizing:
Regulation 3-Categorization and listing of noxious liquid substances. Chemicals
which are carried by sea and which could harm the marine environment are
divided into four categories, 'A' being the most dangerous and 'D' the least.
Appendices to the annex contain guidelines for the categorization of chemicals
and the agreed categories of chemicals transported by sea.
Regulation 5-Discharge of noxious liquid substances. This is a particularly
important regulation as it states the requirements for the discharge of sub-
stances and such requirements vary according to the categorization. The dis-
charge into the sea of ballast water, tank washings, and other residues
containing Category 'A' chemicals is completely banned. Residues which are
the result of tank-washing operations of tanks which contained Category 'A'
substances must be discharged into a shore reception facility but any water
subsequently added to the tank may be discharged into the sea provided that:
the ship is travelling at a speed of at least seven knots
the discharge is below the waterline
the ship is not less than 12 miles from the shore and
the water is not less than 25 metres deep
51
Shipboard Operations
Other requirements pertain to categories 'B' to 'D' and to operations in 'special
areas' (Black Sea and Baltic Sea areas).
Regulation SA-Pumping, piping and unloading arrangements. This is a new
regulation which for the first time introduces certain parameters with regard to
category 'B' and 'C' substances. To ensure that quantities of residues are not
left in cargo tanks, every ship constructed on or after 1 July 1986 must have
pumping and piping arrangements that ensure, by testing with water under
favourable pumping conditions, that each tank designated for the carriage of
'B' and 'c' substances does not retain a quantity of residue in the tank's piping
or around the suction in excess of certain stipulated quantities. Thus, the
amount of category 'B' substances must not exceed 0.1 cubic metres and for
category 'C' substances the upper limit is 0.3 metres.
Ships built before 1 July 1986 must comply with similar but slightly less
stringent requirements.
Regulation 7-Reception facilities and cargo unloading terminal arrangements.
This regulation is of particular help to ships' officers as it requires contracting
parties to ensure that facilities are provided at shore installations for the recep-
tion of chemical wastes. IMO has published guidelines to assist governments
of contracting parties to evaluate the adequacy of reception facilities in their
ports.
Regulation 8-Measures of control. This regulation requires contracting parties
to appoint surveyors to ensure that high operational standards are maintained.
Operations must be recorded in the Cargo Record Book and in some cases the
book must be endorsed by a surveyor. It should be noted that tanks which have
<;ontained category 'A' substances must now be washed before the ship leaves
the unloading port. This operation of washing at a loading port is known as
'prewashing', a term which might lead to some confusion.
Prewashing is also required for certain 'B' and 'C' substances anywhere in
the world but in special areas it is a requirement for all 'B' and 'C' cargoes. This
regulation also gives details of exceptions to the prewash requirements.
Regulation 9-Cargo Record Book. All ships to which the Annex applies must
carry this record book in which various operations, such as loading, discharg-
ing, tank washing and ballasting, are recorded. The book must be retained on
board for at least three years after the last entry and it may be inspected by
shore authorities to ensure that the requirements of Annex II are complied
with.
Regulation JO-Sufveys. The surveys which are required for chemical tankers
are now similar to $ose required for oil tankers, i.e.
(a) an initial survey before the ship is put into service;
(b) periodical surveys;
52
Safety: Legislation
(c) an intermediate survey during the period of validity of an 'International
Pollution· Prevention Certificate for the Carriage of Noxious Liquid Sub-
stances in Bulk' (the certificate lasts for a period of five years).
In a separate publication to that of Annex II, IMO has produced Guidelines ,
for Surveys under Annex II of MARPOL 73/78 which is intended to assist
administrations in formulating procedures for carrying out the surveys which
took effect on 6 April 1987. Shore and ship management should have know-
ledge of the document.
Other regulations stipulate which ships must have an 'International Pollu-
tion Prevention Certificate for the Carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances in
Bulk'. It should be noted that chemical tankers which are surveyed under the
provisions of the International Bulk Chemical Code or Bulk Chemcial Code
(see Chapter 7) will be issued with a 'Certificate of Fitness' only.
Procedures and Arrangements Manual. IMO has published a document Stan-
dardsfor Procedures and Arrangementsfor the Discharge of Noxious Liquid Sub-
stances, which provides a uniform international basis for the shipboard
Procedures and Arrangements Manual. The shipboard manual's main purpose is
to enable the ship's officers to identify the arrangements artd operational proce-
dures for all the various aspects of the transportation ot:chemicals. Each
manual contains much detailed information and should have a standard format
A. The manual should be in two parts and the first part should be divided into
four sections:
1 A description of the main features of Annex II
2 A description of the ship's equipment and arrangements
3 Cargo unloading procedures and tank stripping
4 Procedures relating to the cleaning of cargo tanks, residue discharge, bal-
lasting and deballasting
The second part of the manual should only contain information pertaining
to the ship on which the manual is carried. Information could include a table of
noxious substances which the ship is certified to carry, a table identifying in
which tanks each noxious liquid may be carried, descriptions of equipment
such as cargo heating and temperature control systems and information of the
tanks carrying noxious liquids.
It should be noted that the manual is an operational manual and not a safety
guide.
MARPOL 73/78 Annexes III to V
These three annexes are optional and some countries which have accepted the
'parent' Convention have not yet adopted annexes III to V. However, Annex
V, 'Prevention of Pollution by Garbage', was adopted by sufficient countries to
enable it to enter into force on 31 December 1988.
53
Shipboard Operations
The Annex applies to all ships and its purpose is to prevent the pollution
which can be caused by the dumping of food, domestic and operational waste
from ships conducting their normal day-to-day activities. It should be noted
that there is a complete ban on the dumping into the sea of all plastics, includ-
ing synthetic ropes, synthetic fishing nets and plastic garbage bags. Ships' staff
should note that environmental pressure groups may, quite correctly, be keep-
ing an even closer watch on the rubbish-handling procedures of short-sea
ferries due to the implementation of Annex V.
Some types of garbage may be dumped if strict conditions are complied
with. Dunnage, lining and packing materials can only be disposed of at sea
when the vessel is more than 25 miles from land. Food wastes and all other
garbage (which includes paper products, rags, bottles, crockery, glass and
metal) cannot be dumped within 12 miles of land unless it has been passed
through a grinder or comminuter. In any case, the minimum distance from
land when dumping is permitted is 3 miles.
Extremely strict controls apply to the 'special areas' and some sea areas in the
Middle East where garbage pollution is prevalent. In those areas dumping of
all forms of garbage, except food wastes, is completely banned, and food wastes
cannot be dumped into the sea within 12 miles ofland.
Contracting parties to the Convention must provide facilities in port for the
reception of garbage.
D Other IMO Safety Initiatives
IMO search and rescue manual (IMOSAR manual)
This manual provides international guidelines for a common maritime search
and rescue (SAR) policy. The intention of the manual is to encourage all
coastal states to develop their rescue organizations on similar lines, thus enabl-
ing adjacent states to co-operate and provide mutual assistance. The manual is
in two parts. Part I deals with the organization of existing services and facilities
necessary to provide practical and economical SAR coverage of a given area.
Part 2 contains information to assist all personnel participating in SAR opera-
tions and exercises. Details of the Maritime Search and Rescue Recognition
Code (MAREC Code) are contained in an appendix.
The 1987 edition of IMOSAR includes earlier amendments.
Although the 'International Conference on Maritime Search and Rescue
1979' (SAR 1979) entered into force on 22 June 1985, ship operators should
not assume that tbere is now a worldwide search and rescue service. The Con-
vention does not stipulate any date by which such a service must become
operational. It does, however, describe the way in which an international SAR
54
Safety: Legislation
system should be established. The world's oceans have been divided into 13
SAR areas, some of which by the late 1980s had co-ordinated SAR plans whilst
in other areas no plans existed. However, continuing improvements in com-
munication technology will speed the development of co-ordinated SAR
plans. ~.
Global maritime distress and safety system (GMDSS)
Technical developments, such as the International Maritime Satellite Organi-
zation (INMARSAT), have led to the inception by IMO and other organi-
zations of a global maritime distress and safety system which incorporates
technical communication developments.
The basic concept of the system is that both shore and ship rescue authorities
will be quickly informed of distress situations and that all relevant units will
take part in a carefully co-ordinated rescue operation. IMO has published an
A4 size book under the title GMDSS which explains the basic concept of the
system, the functions it will perform and how it is expected to be introduced.
The book also includes technical descriptions of satellit~ and terrestrial radio-
communication services which will be used in the syst~, comprising the
INMARSAT and COSPAS-SARSAT satellite systems, digital selective call-
ing system, worldwide navigational warning service, including the NA VTEX
system, and survival craft transponders for use in SAR operations.
It is anticipated that the GMDSS will be in operation by the early 1990s.
Merchant ship search and rescue manual (MERSAR)
The advantages of modern sophisticated communication systems can be
negated if the personnel who are actually engaged in a rescue operation are
ineffective. In this age of high level shipping technology there is still a very
important place for commonsense, practical seamanship. The fourth edition of
this manual, published in 1986, states that:
The purpose of this manual is to provide guidance for those who during
emergencies at sea may require assistance from others or who may be able
to render such assistance themselves. In particular, it is designed to aid the
master of any vessel who might be called upon to conduct SAR operations
at sea for persons in distress.
The manual includes sections on co-ordination of SAR operations, actions
by ships in distress, action by assisting ships, assistance by SAR craft, planning
and conducting the search, conclusion of search, communications, and aircraft
casualties at sea.
55
 Shipboard Operations
This manual should be carried on the navigation bridge of every vessel. I
personally found the MERSAR Manual invaluable when, as Captain of an oil
tanker in the South China Sea during a monsoon period, I was required to
co-ordinate a SAR operation to rescue the crew of an abandoned log carrier.
The operation was brought to a successful conclusion with the aid of
MERSAR techniques. All officers should be conversant with the contents of
this manual.
Harmonized Survey and Certification System
Three IMO conventions require ships to be surveyed in port or in a repair
yard:
Solas
Load Lines
Marpo173/78
However, the survey intervals of the conventions often do not coincide. Over
the operational lifetime of a ship the expense of survey delays can be quite
considerable. IMO has acknowledged this problem and consequently has pre-
pared a system whereby the survey and certification requirements of the three
conventions will be harmonized, thus reducing delays and costs and in addi-
tion making it easier for administrations to ensure that the conventions are
being complied with.
It is intended that the system will be in force by 1 February 1992.
SOLAS Ferry Safety Amendments
A series of measures, based on United Kingdom statutory instruments intro-
duced as a result of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster, are contained in a
number of amendments to SaLAS 74. The measures were adopted by IMO's
Maritime Safety Committee in 1988.
The first series comprise the following changes:
1 The provision of indicators on the bridge to show the proper closure of
loading doors and other openings which, if left open, could lead to major
flooding.
2 The installation of a surveillance system, such as television monitoring, to
detect any leaks through the doors.
3 The patrolling .~rmonitoring of cargo spaces so that the movement of
vehicles in bad weather or the presence of unauthorized passengers can be
detected. ~ noted below.
4 The installation in public spaces and alleyways of supp lementary emergency
lighting which can operate for at least three hours even if the ship capsizes.
56
Safety: Legislation
The above measures apply to all ro-ro passenger ships from 22 October
1989, except fo~ a three year period of grace for existing ships with reference to
Item 2 and a one year period for Item 4.
Other amendments are operative from 29 April 1990. These amendments
affect Chapter II-I and are summarized below:
(a) An amendment to Regulation 8 will provide more information to the '
Masters of ro-ro ships with regard to draught, trim and stability after
loading and before departure (electronic loading and stability computers
may be used for this purpose).
(b) A new regulation, 20-1, requires cargo loading doors to be closed and
locked before departure, with an appropriate entry being made in the
ship's log.
(c) A new regulation, 22, requires a lightweight survey to be carried out on all
passenger ships at intervals not exceeding five years (this will ensure that
the stability of ro-ro ships is not adversely affected by changes in weight
such as additions to the superstructure).
What could be described as a major change is another amendment to Regula-
tion 8 which is designed to improve the stability of all passenger ships, includ-
ing ro-ro vessels, in a damaged condition. The amendment represents a major
advance in residual stability standards and is intended to enSlire that a ship that
is damaged to a prescribed extent will remain afloat and stable. The amend-
ment takes into account factors such as wind pressure, passengers crowding on
one side and the weight of survival craft being launched and will apply to
passenger ships constructed on or after 29 April 1990.
The amendments were adopted under the SaLAS Convention's 'tacit
acceptance' procedure which was designed to permit the quick adoption of
urgent measures.
E International Publishers of Non-statutory
Recommendations
The International Maritime Organization is by far the most important pub-
lisher of nautical legislation and codes of practice. However, several industry-
based international organizations publish operational guides that are very
important and which must not be ignored by ship and shore management.
Such guides are particularly valuable as they are written by personnel from the
industrial side of the industry rather than from the legislative side and contain
much practical, relevant and valuable advice. Three of these organizations are
57
 Shipboard Operations
The International Chamber of Shipping (ICS)
The Chamber could be said to be the international 'voice' of shipowners as it
concentrates on issues that unite shipowners and avoids national or company
interests. The Chamber was first formed in 1921 but has increased in strength
and stature in the last few decades after recovering from the trauma of the
Second World War. The membership is mainly from the long-established
maritime nations, and represents about half of the world's merchant tonnage.
The ICS has an important role in maintaining and improving the operational
standards of shipping and its publications reflect that role. Publications
include the Guide to Helicopter/ Ship Operations and the Tanker Safety Guide
(Chemicals) .
The Oil Companies International Marine Forum
(OCIMF)
The OCIMF was formed in 1970 at a time of increased awareness of the
environmental impact of oil pollution. It is an association of oil companies
involved with the transport and/or refining of hydrocarbon and associated
products. The main objectives of the OCIMF are the promotion of safety and
the prevention of pollution, particularly with relevance to the operation of
tankers and terminals. The Forum permits the transmission of the opinions
and views of oil companies to bodies such as IMO and has an important role in
the areas of safety and pollution prevention. The OCIMF publishes guides
under its own 'banner', e.g. the Guide on Marine Terminal Fire Protection and
Emergency Evacuation. However, it is possibly best known for its joint publi-
cations, e.g. with the ICS, Peril at Sea and Salvage: A Guidefor Masters, and
with the ICS and the International Association of Ports and Harbours (IAPH),
the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals.
The Society of International Gas Tanker and Terminal
Operators Ltd (SIGTTO)
The Society was founded in 1979 and the members are involved in the opera-
tion of gas terminals and/or the operation of gas tankers. One of the main
reasons for its existence is therefore the safe and efficient operation of gas
tankers and terminals. Although a relatively new body, it has consultative
status with IMO and has produced two major reference works, Liquefied Gas
Handling Principl~ on Ships and in Terminals and Recommendations and
Guidelines for Linked Ship/ Shore Emergency Shut-down of Liquefied Gas Cargo
Transfer.
58
Safety: Legislation
F UK Safety Legislation
Statutory Instruments (Sls) and M Notices
The Statutory Instrument is the means by which British Regulations are for;
mulated. Webster's Third New International Dictionary defines a statutory
instrument as 'a rule, order, or administrative regulation having the force of
law'. In 1989 there were over two hundred and forty regulations applicable
to British ships.
Merchant Shipping Notices, known "as M Notices, are published by the
Department of Transport. They are quasi-legal documents in so far as they are
not statutory instruments but the recommendations contained in the Notices
should be complied with. The M Notices are the method by which the Depart-
ment of Transport promulgates important information which should be
quickly brought to the attention of seafarers and management, or to those
associated with the industry. The notices often refer to incidents which have
recently occurred and give recommendations to prevent the recurrence of such
incidents. ,
The notices are primarily concerned with safety and\tlew legislation and
mariners should have a good working knowledge of the contents of most
Notices. The importance of the contents of M Notices should never be under-
estimated and students in particular should refer constantly to them.
M Notices have the standing of 'authoritative documents', i.e. due con-
sideration must be given to the contents, and offices would be required to
account for ignorance of, or failure to comply with, M Notice recom-
mendations at any inquiry concerning a particular incident for which M Notice
information was available.
All ships should carry a comprehensive file containing all M Notices which
are currently in force. A particular notice appears each year which lists the
Notices which are currently in force.
Brief details of some statutory instruments which affect daily operations, or
the safe and efficient management of ships, are contained in the following
pages.
Life saving
Merchant Shipping (Life-Saving Appliances) Regulations 1980.
SI 1980No. 538
Operative 25 May 1980, these regulations stipulate the life-saving appliances
59
 Shipboard Operations
which must be carried by the twenty-one different classes of ship as spe-
cified by the regulations. The most common classes of ship are:
I Passenger ships engaged on long international voyages
II Passenger ships engaged on short international voyages
VII Ships other than tankers engaged on voyages any of which are long
international voyages
VII(T) Tankers engaged on voyages any of which are long international
voyages
The term 'passenger ship' means a ship carrying more than 12 passengers;
'short international voyage' means a voyage in the course of which a ship is not
more than 200 miles from a port at which passengers and crew could be landed;
a 'long international voyage' is a voyage which is not a short international
voyage.
A 'tanker' is a cargo ship which has been constructed or adapted for the
carriage in bulk of liquid cargoes of a flammable nature.
The 54 regulations fall into two broad categories:
1 An enumeration of the actual appliances which each class of vessel must have
on board.
2 The general requirements with regard to the standards of the appliances.
Twenty-one schedules are appended to the regulations and these schedules
give very specific and detailed requirements for particular appliances. For
example:
(a) Regulation 11 (2) states that 'every ship to which this regulation applies of
500 tons and over shall carry on each side of the ship one or more lifeboats
of sufficient aggregate capacity to accommodate all persons on board'.
(b) Regulation 36 gives details of the equipment and rations that a lifeboat
must be provided with.
(c) Schedule 3 gives the construction requirements for lifeboats.
All sea-going officers must have detailed knowledge of the life-saving appli-
ances requirements of SaLAS 83 and also the national requirements for the
vessel on which they are actually employed. Officers on British ships must,
therefore, carefully study these regulations or the regulations which are men-
tioned next.
Merchant Shipping (Life-Saving Appliances) Regulations 1986.
SI 1986No. 1066
Operative 1 July, 1986, these regulations apply to 'new ships' (a new ship is a
ship the keel of which has been laid on or after 1 July 1986), both to United
Kingdom ships wherever they may be and to non-United Kingdom ships
while they are within the United Kingdom or the territorial waters thereof.
60
Safety: Legislation
The main purpose of these regulations is to give effect to the SaLAS 83
Amendments with regard to new British ships. The Merchant Shipping (Life-
Saving Appliances Regulations 1980) (Amendment Regulations) 1986, SI
1986 No. 1072 extend to British ships built before 1 July 1986 the SaLAS 83
requirements for: ,.
Manning of survival craft
Provision of training manuals
Requirements for operational readiness, maintenance, inspections and
servicing of life-saving appliances
Regulation 28 of the 1986 Regulations states that if a ship proceeds on any
voyage without complying with the requirements of the regulations, the owner
and master of the ship shall each be guilty of an offence and liable on summary
conviction to a fine not exceeding £1,000 or, on conviction on indictment, to
imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years and a fine.
It is interesting to note that this regulation also states that 'It shall be a good
defence to a charge under this regulation to prove that the person charged took
all reasonable steps to avoid commission of the offence'. One assumes that the
term 'reasonable' would have to be defined by a court oflaw.
Regulation 29 deals with the 'power to detain' in tha~any ship which does
not comply with the requirements of the regulations is liable to be detained.
Merchant Shipping (Musters and Training) Regulations 1986.
SI 1986No. Ion
Operative 1 July 1986, these regulations give effect to Regulations 8,18,50 and
53 of the new SaLAS Chapter III (83 Amendments).
One of the few complaints that I have of Chapter II I is the cross-referencing
that has to be carried out between different regulations before certain
requirements can be fully comprehended. This Statutory Instrument com-
bines the SaLAS musters and training regulations into a well presented and
easily understood format, thus making it very useful for examination revision
purposes.
The regulations (in general) apply to all United Kingdom ships anywhere in
the world and to non-United Kingdom vessels when in British waters.
It should be noted that superficial log entries concerning musters and drills
are no longer good enough. Regulation 8 clearly states that:
'(1) The following matters shall be recorded by the master in the official
logbook:
(a) upon each occasion on which in accordance with these Regulations,
a muster, abandon ship drill, fire drill, drill of other life-saving
appliances or on-board training is held:
(i) a record of the date upon which musters, drills and training are
held;
61
 Shipboard Operations
(ii) details of training and type of drill held;
(iii) a record of the occasions on which lifeboats, rescue boats and
davit launched liferafts, as applicable are lowered or launched.
(b) upon each occasion on which a full muster, drill or training session
is not held as required by these Regulations.
(i) a record of the relevant circumstances;
(ii) the extent of the muster drill or training session held.
(2) In ships not required to keep an official logbook a record of each matter
specified in paragraph (1) shall be made by the master and shall be retained
on board for a period of not less than 12 months.'
It should be noted that the Department of Transport is concerned that
high safety standards should be maintained and to 'encourage' masters to take
such responsibilities seriously these regulations state certain penalties for neg-
lect of duty. If the master of a ship:
(a) does not comply with the muster list and emergency instructions regula-
tions
(b) does not comply with the practice musters and drills regulation
(c) does not comply with the on-board training and instructions regulations
then that master shall be guilty of an offence and liable on summary con-
viction to a fine not exceeding £1,000 or, on conviction on indictment, to
imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years and a fine.
If the master fails to comply with any of the requirements of Regulation
he is liable to a fine not exceeding £50.
Any person who fails to carry out the duty assigned to him with regard to
muster list duties and any officer who is assigned to ensure that life-saving and
fire appliances are maintained in good condition and are ready for immediate
use and fails to do so is liable to a fine not exceeding £500.
One would hope that all masters would take their safety obligations seriou-
sly. Perhaps that is too idealistic a hope as I have been told of several situations
in which a master has put pressure on a chief officer to sign official logbook
entries with regard to drills which had not actually been carried out because of
operational pressures. I would seriously recommend that only correct entries
should be made in the logbook.
The term 'summary conviction' applies to offences which are dealt with in a
magistrate's court and 'conviction on indictment' applies to offences which are
considered by a higher court.
Fire protectiolJ'.
, guidance in the notice will greatly assist officers to comply with:
In 1989 there were eight statutory instruments in force which applied to fire
protection. The three 'main' instruments are:
62
Safety: Legislation
(a) Merchant Shipping (Fire Appliances) 'Regulations 1980, SI 1980
No. 544;, which apply to ships built on or after the 25 May 1980;
(b) Merchant Shipping (Fire Protection) Regulations 1984, SI 1984
No. 1218, which apply to ships built on or after 1 September 1984;
(c) Merchant Shipping (Fire Protection) (Ships Built Before 25 May 1980)
Regulations, SI 1985 No. 1218, which came into operation on 12 August
1985 and which apply to ships built before 25 May 1980.
The regulations are very comprehensive and what might seem to be an
excess of regulations is in fact the result of more exacting SaLAS standards
and advances in fire protection techndlogy and techniques. It is, therefore,
imperative that managers ashore and afloat ensure that all the vessels which
they manage comply with the regulations pertaining to individual ships. This
is of particular importance when a foreign flag vessel is being registered in the
United Kingdom.
The vessel classification system is the same as that specified in life-saving
appliances regulations. It should be noted that in the 1984 regulations the
emphasis changed somewhat from fire fighting to fire protection. The 1984
statutory instrument contains 147 regulations and 14 schedules which cover
three basic 'areas': '
Fire prevention
'..
Structural fire protection
8
Fire appliances
However, some regulations deal with particular items, e.g. Regulation 143
refers to 'Special Requirements for Ships Carrying Dangerous Goods'.
As the regulations are extensively cross-referenced I would recommend that
ships' officers study the actual regulations rather than refer to a synopsis.
Management should read carefully Regulations 146 and 147: Regulation
146 states that, if a ship proceeds or attempts to proceed to sea without com-
plying with the regulations, the owner and master shall each beguilty of an offence
and liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding £1,000 or, on con-
viction on indictment, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years
and a fine; and Regulation 147 states that ships are liable to be detained for
non-compliance with the regulations.
M1217 Musters and Drills and On-Board Training and Instruction
This is an important M notice for those officers involved with crew safety
training, whether on British or non-British ships. The recommendations and
The Merchant Shipping (Musters and Training) Regulations 1986
The Merchant Shipping (Life-Saving Appliances) Regulations 1986
63
 Shipboard Operations
The Merchant Shipping (Life-Saving Appliances) Regulations 1980
(Amendment) Regulations 1986
The Merchant Shipping (Closing of Openings in Hulls and in Watertight
Bulkheads) Regulations 1987
SOLAS Chapter III
I have already mentioned the new emphasis on maintenance and training
and this notice underlines 'the fundamental importance of training and
instruction, in particular on-board training and instruction in the use of a
ship's live-saving appliances and in the best methods of survival. Closely
associated with such training is the holding of, and taking part in, musters and
drills' .
The notice has 15 sections which should be closely studied as, in addition to
simply stating the requirements of the regulations, recommendations are given
for the practical application of such requirements. For example, Section 7
deals with 'Fire and Other Emergency Drills'. Section 7.1 states that 'A fire or
other emergency drill should be held simultaneously with the first stage of the
abandon ship drill'. Section 7.2 expands this by advising:
For the purpose of a fire drill an outbreak of fire should be assumed to have
occurred in some part of the ship and a mock attack should be made. The
complete co-operation of the personnel of all departments is essential in
fire fighting. The type and position of the supposed fire should be varied
from time to time and can include:
1 Cargo fires in holds or other spaces;
2 Fires involving oil, gas or chemical cargoes as appropriate;
3 Fires in engine or boiler rooms;
4 Fires in crew or passenger accommodation;
5 Fires in galleys due to burning oil or cooking fats.
Ten more sub-sections continue the advice on planning effective and effi-
cient fire drills.
Section 13 refers to 'Drills in Closing of Doors, Side Scuttles and Other
Openings' which are required by the Closing of Openings in Hulls and in
Watertight Bulkheads Regulations 1987 and which came into force on 1
November 1987. The notice reminds mariners that those 'Regulations also
require inspections, at not more than 7 days, of watertight doors and mech-
anisms, indicators and warning devices connected with such doors, valves, the
closing of which is necessary to make watertight any compartment below the
margin line, and valves, the operation of which is necessary for the efficient
operation of damag~-control cross-connections'.
Masters are reminded of the need to instruct the crew in the operation of
such devices and attention is drawn to M notices 1151, 1283 and 1326 which
deal with those particular Regulations.
64
Safety: Legislation
Occupational Health and Safety
Merchant Shipping (Code of Safe Working Practices) Regulations
1980.SI 1980No. 686
Operative 7 July 1980. Every ship to which these regulations apply which has a~
total crew (including the master) not exceeding 15 persons must have two
copies of the Code of Safe Working Practices for Merchant Seamen, one copy to
be retained by the master and the other copy kept in a place readily accessible to
seamen.
"
On ships with a crew exceeding 15 persons, one copy of the Code must be
kept by the following persons:
(a) The Master
(b) The Chief Officer
(c) The Chief Engineer
(d) The Purser or Catering Officer
(e) The Safety Officer
(f) Safety representatives
(g) Each member of the accident prevention committe,e who wishes to have a
copy "
In addition, at least one reference copy should be available for every 25
seamen employed on the ship. At least three notices should state where such
reference copies are located.
The master, and any of the persons in the (b) to (f) categories, must make a
copy of the Code temporarily available to any seaman on being so requested.
Any person who fails without reasonable cause to make available such a copy
shall be guilty of an offence and liable on summary conviction to a fine not
exceeding £1,000.
The owner of the ship shall ensure that the ship carries sufficient copies of
the Code and any person who contravenes this requirement shall be guilty of an
offence and liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding £1,000.
If the master does not display the notices referred to earlier he is liable to a
fine not exceeding £50.
People leaving a ship in order to proceed to a nautical college should bear in
mind that 'any person who knowingly removes a copy of the Code ... from the
ship without the consent of the owner or master shall be guilty of an offence and
liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding £50.'
Merchant Shipping (Safety Officials and Reporting of Accidents
and Dangerous Occurrences) Regulations 1982.SI 1982No. 876
Operative 1 October 1982. Part 1 of the Regulations requires the employer of
the crew of every British ship carrying a crew of more than five (with a few
65

Shipboard Operations
exceptions) to appoint a Safety Officer. It also enables the officers and ratings,
if they so desire, to elect safety representatives. Once such a representative is
elected, the employer is required to appoint a safety committee. The Regula-
tions stipulate that a Safety Officer must 'use his best endeavours to ensure that
the provisions of the Code of Safe Working Practices and the employer's occu-
pational health and safety policies are complied with'. Among his many duties
he is required to improve the crew's safety awareness, to investigate crew
members' safety complaints, to investigate accidents, make recommendations
to prevent the recurrence of such accidents, and to carry out inspections. Part 1
also states the powers of a safety representative whereby, on behalf of the crew,
he may make representations to the master, the Safety Officer, the employer
(through the master), and the safety committee on matters concerning safety.
He may also participate in safety investigations or inspections carried out by
the Safety Officer, undertake such tasks himself, and request the committee to
initiate particular investigations into aspects of safety. The duties of the safety
committee include using 'their best endeavours' to improve safety conscious-
ness, to make recommendations and representations to the employer, and to
take appropriate action in any health and safety matters which affect the ship
and her crew. The duties of the employer and master with regard to access of
information and other matters conclude Part I.
Part 2 of the Regulations provides for the notification of specified accidents
and dangerous occurrences to persons employed or carried on board and
applies to all United Kingdom ships other than pleasure craft and fishing
vessels. The master or, in his absence, the most senior officer must report every
accident involving death or serious injury as quickly as possible to the Depart-
ment of Transport. In addition, if the vessel carries a Safety Officer, the master
or the most senior officer shall make a written report of every accident or
dangerous occurrence by completing the Department of Transport form, ARF
(accident report form, a numerical suffix indicates a revised version of the
original form ARF 1, e.g. ARF 2). The master or senior officer, the Safety
Officer, and the safety representative must sign the form. Other provisions
apply when the vessel is not carrying a Safety Officer.
The Regulations contain a schedule which lists some typical dangerous
occurrences which should be reported even if major injury has not occurred,
e.g. a derrick collapse, a fall overboard, the parting of a towrope, significant
cargo shift etc.
Regulation 12 states that:
'(1) Any person who fails to comply with any of the provisions of these
Regulations shall be guilty of an offence and liable on summary con-
viction to. a fine not exceeding £1,000, or on conviction on indict-
ment, to itnprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or a fine or
both;
66
Safety: Legislation
(2) In any proceedings for an offence under these Regulations it shall be a
aefence for the person to show that all reasonable steps had been
taken by him to ensure compliance with the Regulations.'
,.
Merchant Shipping (Health and Safety: General Duties)
Regulations 1984.Sf 1984No. 408
Operative 24 April 1984, these Regulations set out the general duties of
employers and employees with regard to health and safety aboard ship. They
apply to United Kingdom ships and to
non-British ships in British ports.
An employer is required to ensure, so far as is reasonably practical, the
health and safety of his employees and other persons on board ship. This
includes:
(a) The provision and maintenance of safe plant, machinery and equipment
and systems of work.
(b) Arrangements for the safe use, handling, stowage and carriage of articles
and substances.
(c) The provision to employees of necessary health, and safety information,
instruction, training and supervision. "-
(d) The maintenance of safe and healthy work places.
(e) The provision and maintenance of a safe and healthy environment.
(f) Collaboration with other employers to facilitate the health and safety of all
persons on board ship.
An employer is also required to make a statement of health and safety policy
and to bring the statement to the notice of his employees (this shall not apply to
an employer who employs less than five employees in aggregate aboard UK
ships). No employer is permitted to levy any charge on any employee in respect
of these Regulations.
Contravention of the above shall be an offence punishable on summary con-
viction by a fine not exceeding £1,000.
The employee is required to take reasonable care for the health and safety of
all persons on board ship, including himself. He is also required to co-operate
with his employer, or any other person, to ensure that any health and safety
duties under Merchant Shipping Acts can be carried out. Contravention shall
be an offence punishable on summary conviction by a fine not exceeding £50.
Any person charged with contravening the above shall have a defence if he
can show 'that he took all reasonable precautions and exercised all due dili-
gence' .
All persons have a duty not to intentionally misuse or recklessly interfere
with anything that is provided in the interests of health and safety; contraven-
tion shall be an offence punishable on summary conviction by a fine not
exceeding £200.
67
 Shipboard Operations
It should be noted that an 'Offences by Body Corporate' regulation is
contained in these Regulations which is worth quoting in full:
10 (1) Where an offence under any of these Regulations committed by a
body corporate is proved to have been committed with the consent
or connivance of, or to have been attributable to any neglect on the
part of, any director, manager, secretary or other similar officer of
the body corporate or a person who was purporting to act in any
such capacity, he as well as the body corporate shall be guilty of
that offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and
punished accordingly.
Any ship, whether British or not, is liable to be detained in a British port if an
inspection by a duly authorized person reveals a failure to comply with the
requirements of these Regulations.
These Regulations give effect in part to ILO Convention 147.
Merchant Shipping (Protective Clothing and Equipment)
Regulations 1985.Sf 1985No. 1664
Operative 1 May 1986, these Regulations require employers to provide
protective clothing and equipment for their employees who are engaged in,
or at risk from, hazardous work processes on board ship. The Regulations
apply to United Kingdom ships and to non-British ports.
The Regulations make it clear that the provision of clothing and equipment
is not sufficient in itself, thus an employer shall ensure that:
1 Every employee engaged in a work process described in M1195 is provided
with suitable protective clothing and equipment as specified in M1195.
2 Every employee engaged in any other work process involving a particular
hazard is similarily provided for.
3 Such equipment is either issued or kept in easily accessible, suitable storage.
4 Such equipment is properly maintained, regularly inspected, checked at
intervals of not more than three months, repaired or replaced as necessary
and, in the case of breathing apparatus used for work processes mentioned in
M 1195, inspected and checked before and after use.
5 Employees are instructed in the use of protective clothing and equipment.
6 Instructions for their proper use and maintenance are provided with
protective clothing and equipment.
Contravention of the..aboveshall be an offence punishable on summary convic-
tion by a fine not exceeding £1 ,000. (I would suggest that much of the above
could be incorporateQ into a Planned Maintenance Schedule and also into a
Company Crew Training Schedule.)
The Annex to M1l95 enumerates the work processes for which protective
68
SaJety,' LegIslation
clothing and equipment must be provided, e.g. 'Any process or activity involv-
ing a reasonably foreseeable risk to the head from falling or moving objects'
requires 'a general purpose industrial safety helmet' to British Standard speci-
fication (M1358 contains amendments to the annex to MI195).
Employees also have duties as each employee: '
1 shall ensure that any deficiencies or defects in any items of protective cloth-
ing or equipment issued to him for his individual use are reported to a
responsible ship's officer; and
2 shall actually wear or use appropriate protective clothing and equipment.
Contravention by an employee of these requirements shall be an offence
punishable on summary conviction by a fine not exceeding £100.
No person shall require an employee to start a work process as described by
these Regulations unless the appropriate clothing or equipment is provided.
Contravention shall be an offence punishable on summary conviction by a fine
not exceeding £200.
'All reasonable precautions' and 'all due diligence' is a defence under these
Regulations. The Regulations also have a 'body corporate regulation' as
described in the previous regulation. ,
A duly authorized person may inspect and if necessary'\ietain any ship not
complying with these Regulations in a British port.
The Regulations give effect in part to ILO Convention 147.
Merchant Shipping (Guarding of Machinery and Safety of
Electrical Equipment) Regulations 1988.Sf 1988No. 1636
Operative 1January 1989,the Regulations apply to United Kingdom ships and
to non-British ships in British ports.
The employer and the master shall ensure that:
1 Every dangerous part of the ship's machinery is securely guarded.
2 All guards and similar devices are of substantial construction, properly
maintained and in position.
3 There is a means for taking prompt action to stop any machinery and for
cutting off the power in the event of an emergency.
4 All ship's electrical equipment and installations are so constructed,
installed, operated and maintained that the ship and all persons are protected
against electrical hazards.
Contravention of the above by an employer shall be an offence punishable on
summary conviction by a fine not exceeding £2,000, or on conviction on
indictment by imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or a fine or
both. Contravention by a master shall be an offence punishable only on sum-
mary conviction by a fine not exceeding £1,000. 'All reasonable precautions'
and exercise of 'all due diligence' is a defence.
69
 Shipboard Operations
A duly authorized person may inspect and, if necessary, detain any ship not
complying with these Regulations in a British port.
Regulation 3 (2) deals with procedures when 'the safety of the ship' is para-
mount and for examination purposes.
MI355 gives some guidance on how the Regulations are to be interpreted.
The notice defines machinery as being securely guarded 'if it is protected by a
properly installed guard or device which prevents foreseeable contact between
a person or anything worn or held by a person and any dangerous part of the
machinery'. I t is pointed out that it is not the machinery as a whole which needs
guarding but only dangerous parts such as gearing, belt drives, reciprocating
components and revolving shafts and couplings (the barrels of windlasses,
winches and capstans are not normally considered to be dangerous parts nor
are mechanical hatch covers). Machines brought on board by dockers or ship
repairers in the United Kingdom are subject to the Factories Act or the Ship-
building and Ship Repairing Regulations. A British Standard (BS 5304) refers
to the Safeguarding of Machines.
MI355 also draws attention to the Code, in which further advice is given.
These Regulations give effect in part to ILO Convention 147 and ILO Con-
vention 152, and also allow, in conjunction with other regulations, the repeal of
the 1934 Docks Regulations.
Occupational Health and Safety (1988) Regulations in
Association with the Docks Regulations (1988)
A major 'package' of regulations came into force on 1 January 1989 which,
together with the new Docks Regulations prepared by the Health and Safety
Commission, replaces the 1934 Docks Regulations. The package also enables
the United Kingdom to ratify the International Labour Organization Conven-
tion 152, which is concerned with health and safety in dock work, and give
effect to the Merchant Shipping (Minimum Standards) Convention, ILO
Convention 147.
The regulations are somewhat of a departure from the traditional style or
format of Merchant Shipping statutory instruments. The regulations are brief
and are written in general terms but are cross-referenced with particular chap-
ters in the Code of Safe Working Practices for Merchant Seamen which contain
the 'principles and guidance' to enable the regulations to be fulfilled. I have
always advised students to regard the recommendations in the Code as regula-
tions and these new statutory instruments in effect give certain chapters the
status of regulati6rts.
The regulations apply to British ships and, in general, to foreign ships in
British ports. The 'package' of regulations could be said to be one of the most
important sets of British maritime regulations for some years and, as such,
70
Safety: Legislation
should be closely studied by everyone concerned with shipping operations in
British ports.
The British regulations are similar to regulations of those countries which
ratify ILO conventions.
~.
The Merchant Shipping (Entry into Dangerous Spaces) Regulations
1988. SI 1988 No. 1638
Operative 1 January 1989, the regulations define a dangerous space as:
q
any enclosed or confined space in which it is foreseeable that the atmos-
phere may at some stage contain toxic or flammable gases or vapours, or be
deficient in oxygen, to the extent that it may endanger the life or health of
any person entering that space
It should be noted that, except when necessary for entry, the master of a ship
shall ensure that all entrances to unattended dangerous spaces on a ship are
either kept closed or otherwise secured against entry.
The specific duties of personnel are:
(a) the employer shall ensure that procedures for 'el\suring safe entry and
working in dangerous spaces are clearly laid down; '-
(b) the master shall ensure that such procedures are observed on board the
ship; and
(c) no personnel shall enter or remain in a dangerous space except in accord-
ance with the employer's clearly laid down procedures.
The master of (a) any tanker or gas carrier of 500 GRT tons and over, and,
(b) any other ship of 1,000 GRT andover shall ensure that drills simulating the
rescue of a crew member from a dangerous space are held at intervals not
exceeding two months, and that a record of such drills is entered in the official
log book. The master must also ensure that any oxygen meter or testing device
carried on board is maintained, serviced or calibrated as necessary. A master
who contravenes any of the foregoing is liable to be punished on summary
conviction by a fine not exceeding £1,000.
In additon to laying down procedures, an employer shall ensure that on each
ship where entry into a dangerous space may be necessary an oxygen meter,
and such other testing device as is appropriate to the hazard likely to be
encountered in any dangerous space, shall be provided. Contravention of these
duties by an employer shall be an offence punishable on summary conviction
by a fine not exceeding £2,000 or, on conviction on indictment, by impris-
onment for a term not exceeding 2 years or a fine or both.
Any person (other than the employer or master) who does not follow correct
dangerous space procedures is liable to a fine on summary conviction not
exceeding £400.
71
 Shipboard Operations
In general, a person who can show that he 'took all reasonable precautions
and exercised all due diligence' will have a good defence if charged with any of
the above offences.
All ships' officers should carefully note that in recent years all statutory
instruments define the term 'master' as including 'any person in charge of the
vessel during the absence of the master', thus an officer cannot shift the blame
on to a master who is ashore if that officer is neglectful of his duty.
Similarly, employers are being legally required to act in a responsible
manner (the term 'employer' means 'the person for the time being employing
the master'), e.g. an employer who fails to provide equipment necessary for
complying with certain regulations will be guilty of an offence. I suggest that
masters ensure that copies of written requests for such equipment are retained,
thus if accidents happen because of the absence of required equipment the
appropriate people can be held responsible for not supplying the equipment.
Regulations 10 and 11 make it clear that duly authorized persons may
inspect any ship in British ports and, if necessary, detain the ship until these
regulations are complied with.
In order to fulfil the requirements of the regulations personnel 'shall take full
account of the principles and guidance contained in the Code'. The relevant
information can be found in Chapter 10 of the Code and M notice 1345 con-
tains a copy of Chapter 10. Much of the content of the chapter describes
procedures that any competent, professional officer will already be complying
with. However, it is a matter of some regret that fatalities over recent years have
led to procedures that should be carried out as standard good seamanship and
practice being made obligatory by law. The M notice should be carefully
studied as adherence to the recommendations will undoubtedly save lives. The
chapter defines the basic precautions as:
1 A competent person should make an assessment of the space and a respon-
sible officer to take charge of the operation should be appointed.
2 The potential hazards should be identified.
3 The space should be prepared and secured for entry.
4 The atmosphere of the space should be tested.
5 A 'permit-to-work' system should be used.
6 Procedures before and during the entry should be instituted.
Detailed information on each of these six basic areas is contained in the
chapter, together with additional information on topics such as 'drills and
rescues', breathing apparatus and resuscitation equipment.
One piece of advice must be strictly followed: 'No one should attempt a rescue
without wearing breathing apparatus'.
,
72
Safety: Legislation
The Merchant Shipping (Safe Movement on Board Ship)
Regulations 1988.Sf 1988No. 1641
Operative 1 January 1989, these regulations place an obligation on both the
master and the employer to ensure that a safe means of access is provided and
maintained to any place on the ship at which a person may be expected to be. In '
carrying out the duties arising from these regulations full account must be
taken of the principles and the guidance contained in Chapter 9 of the Code.
Places on the ship at which a person may be expected to be, include accommo-
dation areas as well as normal place of work. 'Persons' in the context ofthese
regulations include passengers, dock-workers, and other visitors to the ship
on business but exclude persons who have no right to be on the ship.
The employer and master shall ensure:
1 That safe means of access is provided and maintained to any place on the
ship to which a person may be expected to go.
2 That all deck surfaces used for transit about the ship, and all passageways,
walkways and stairs, are properly maintained and kept free from materials or
substances liable to cause a person to slip or fall.
3 That those areas of the ship being used for the loading or unloading of cargo
or for other work processes or for transit are adequately and...appropriately
illuminated.
4 That any permanent safety signs used on board the ship for the purpose of
giving health or safety information or instruction comply with British Stan-
dard 5378 Part 1 or with any equivalent standard.
5 That any opening, open hatchway or dangerous edge into, through or over
which a person may fall is fitted with secure guards or fencing of adequate
design and construction, which shall be kept in a good state of repair.
6 That all ship's ladders are of good construction and sound material, of
adequate strength for the purpose for which they are used, free from patent
defect and properly maintained.
7 That no ship's powered vehicle or powered mobile lifting appliance is driven
in the course of a work process except by a competent person who is auth-
orized to do so.
8 That danger from use or movement of all such vehicles and mobile lifting
appliances is so far as is reasonably practicable prevented.
9 That all ship's vehicles and mobile lifting appliances are properly main-
tained.
Contravention of any of the above by an employer shall be an offence
punishable on summary conviction by a fine not exceeding £2,000 or on
indictment by imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years or a fine, or both.
Contravention of any of the above by a master shall be an offence punishable
only on summary conviction by a fine not exceeding £1,000.
In addition, the owner shall ensure that in a new ship (a ship the keel of
73
 Shipboard Operations
which was laid on or after 1 January 1989) ladders providing access to the hold
comply with the requirement specified in paragraph 6.4 of Chapter 9 of the
Code. Contravention shall be an offence punishable as above.
Once again, a person who has taken all reasonable precautions and has exer-
cised all due diligence will have a good defence if charged with contravention of
any of the above.
M notice 1344 contains Chapter 9 of the Code. All of the chapter and the M
notice must be carefully studied. For example, Section 5 deals with 'Guarding
of Openings':
5.2 Any hatchway open for the purposes of handling cargo or stores
through which a person may fall should be closed as soon as those
operations cease, except during short interruptions of work, including
meal breaks, or where closure cannot be effected without prejudice to
safety or mechanical efficiency because of the heel or trim of the ship.
5.3 The guardrails or fencing should be free from sharp edges and should
be properly maintained. Where necessary, locking devices, and suitable
stops or toe-boards should be provided. Each course of rails should be kept
substantially horizontal and taut throughout their length.
5.4 Guardrails or fencing should consist of an upper rail at a height of
1 metre and an intermediate rail at a height of 0.5 m. The rails may,
where necessary, consist of taut wire or taut chain. Where existing
fencing to a height of at least 920 mm has been provided this need not
be replaced while it remains secure and adequate.
The M notice also deals with topics such as drainage and watertight doors
and gives general advice to seafarers.
Ships are liable to inspection and may be detained until the 'health and safety
of all employees and other persons aboard ship is secured'.
The Merchant Shipping (Means of Access) Regulations 1988. 51 1988
No. 1637
Operative 1 January 1989.
Duties of the employer and master
1 Ensure that there is a safe means of access between the ship and any quay,
pontoon or similar structure or another ship alongside which the ship is
secured.
2 Ensure that any equipment necessary to provide a safe means of access is
placed in position promptly after the ship has been secured and remains in
position while the ship is secured.
3 Ensure that access equipment which is in use is properly rigged, secured,
deployed and i~ safe to use and is so adjusted from time to time as to
maintain safety of access.
74
Safety: Legislation
4 Ensure that access equipment and immediate approaches thereto are
adequatel y' illuminated.
5 Ensure that any equipment used for means of access and any safety net is of
good construction, of sound material, of adequate strength for the purposes
for which it is used, free from patent defect and properly maintained. ,.
6 When access is necessary between ship and shore, and the ship is not
secured alongside, the employer and master shall ensure that such access is
provided in a safe manner.
7 Ensure that a life-buoy with a self-activating light and also a separate safety
line attached to a quoit or some simil:tr device is provided ready for use at
the point of access aboard the ship.
8 Ensure that an adequate number of safety nets is carried on the ship or is
otherwise readily available.
9 Ensure that a portable ladder is used for the purpose of access to the ship
only where no safer means of access is reasonably practical.
10 Ensure that a rope ladder is used only for the purpose of access between a
ship with high freeboard and a ship with low freeboard or between a ship
and a boat if no safer means of access is reasonably practicable.
,
The employer and the master shall take full account of¢e principles and
guidance contained in Chapter 8 of the Code.
Duties of the employer alone
1 In every ship of 30 metres or more registered length ensure that there is
carried on the ship a gangway which is appropriate to the deck layout, size,
shape and maximum freeboard of the ship and which complies with the
specifications set out in British Standards Institution BSMA 78: 1978.
2 In every ship of 120 metres of more in registered length ensure that there is
carried on the ship an accommodation ladder which is appropriate to the
deck layout, size, shape and maximum freeboard of the ship and which com-
plies with the specifications set out in BSMA 89: 1980.
Duties of the master alone
The master shall ensure that when access equipment is in use and there is a risk
of a person falling from that access equipment or from the ship or from the
quayside immediately adjacent to the access equipment, a safety net is
mounted in order to minimize the risk of injury.
Contravention of a master's duties shall be an offence punishable only on
summary conviction by a fine not exceeding £1,000.
Contravention of an employer's duties shall be an offence punishable on
summary conviction by a fine not exceeding £2,000 or on conviction on indict-
ment by imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or a fine, or both.
When access equipment is provided in accordance with these regulations
75
 Shipboard Operations
any person boarding or leaving the ship shall use that equipment except in
emergencies; failure to do so shall be an offence punishable on summary con-
viction by a fine not exceeding £400.
A person who took all reasonable precautions and exercised all due diligence
would have a good defence if charged under these regulations.
Any ship which does not comply with the requirements of these regulations
is liable to be detained until the health and safety of all employees and other
persons aboard ship is secured.
M notice 1343 contains Chapter 8 of the Code.
Gangways
BSMA 78: 1978 contains the specification for 'Aluminium shore gangways'
and a few of the provisions are set out below. Each gangway is tested when fully
assembled.
1 Decking shall comprise either continuous flat-topped longitudinal section
or individual flat-plate surfaces, which may have a non-slip coating.
2 Footsteps of 50 x 50 mm hardwood shall be secured to the top of the deck-
ing at regular centre-to-centre intervals of not less than 400 mm. Footsteps
may also be constructed from extruded aluminium sections of particular
specifications.
3 Stanchions are of carbon steel or aluminium to a height of 1,000 mm, fitted
at regular intervals (maximum interval 1,500 mm) and vertical to the hori-
zontal gangway. The stanchions shall be one of three types:
(a) fixed
(b) hinged, but with securement to prevent inadvertent collapse
(c) portable, with securement to prevent accidental displacement from the
socket
4 Hand and intermediate guides shalI be two in number at a height of
1,000 mm and 500 mm respectively.
They may be of the following types:
(a) continuous and adequately tensioned sisal, manila or polypropylene or
plastic covered wire rope of 16 mm diameter
(b) galvanized steel chain provided with adequate means of tensioning
(c) continuous rigid guides of particular specifications
5 Toeboards 150 mm high shalI be fitted on each side.
6 A rolIer or wheels of 110 mm minimum diameter to be fitted on one end.
7 Suitable attachments must be provided for the securing ropes.
8 Four lifting lugs must be provided.
9 Width to be 6oo"inm.
10 The construction shall allow for an angle of use up to 30° from the horizon-
tal. However, a purchaser can specify a maximum angle to the manufac-
turer.
76
Safety: Legislation
Each gangway shall be permanently marked with the manufacturer's name,
model number, maximum designed angle of use, and the maximum safe load-
ing by number of persons and by total weight.
Accommodation ladders ~.
Accommodation ladders must conform to the specifications set out in Standard
BSMA 89: 1980 of which a few provisions are noted below. The materials used
are generally steel or aluminium of suitable standards. Each ladder must sup-
port a test load. ~
1 Ladders may be of single-flight or multi-flight construction and are of two
basic types:
(a) The revolving-platform ladder is capable of being varied in direction
and inclination between the ship and the lower access level. The ladder
may be supported by steel wire ropes or chains or by rollers fixed to the
bottom of the ladder.
(b) The fixed-platform ladder is hinged from a fixed anchorage and is
capable of being varied in inclination only. Support is provided by steel
wire ropes or chains. ' ,
2 The distance between the steps shall be 300 mm (measured tangential to
the step noses).
3 The top handrail should be at a height of 1,000 mm and an intermediate rail
should be provided at mid-height.
4 The width of all ladders shall be 600 mm.
5 Ladders shall be capable of being operated safely in a horizontal position
and shall operate at an angle of 55° with the steps horizontal.
6 All the support points, such as pivots, and suspension points, such as lugs,
shall be of adequate strength to support the weight of the ladder and the
design load.
Each ladder shall be permanently marked by the manufacturer's name,
model number, the maximum designed angle of use, and the maximum safe
loading by numbers of persons and total weight.
Chapter 8 states that 'Gangways should not be used at an angle of inclination
greater than 30° from the horizontal and accommodation ladders should not be
used at an angle greater than 55° from below the horizontal, unless specificalIy
designed for greater angles.' M 1343 should be carefully studied, but a few
points are of particular note.
Bulwark ladders. When the inboard end of the gangway or accommodation
ladder rests on or is flush with the top of a bulwark, a bulwark ladder, which
complies with the specifications set out in Shipbuilding Industry Standard No
SIS7, should be provided. Adequate fittings shall be provided to enable the
bulwark ladder to be properly and safely secured.
77
Shipboard Operations
Any gap between the bulwark ladder and the gangway or accommodation
ladder should be adequately fenced to a height of at least 1 metre.
Portable and rope ladders. When it is necessary to use a portable ladder for
access, as described earlier, it should be used at an angle of between 60° and 75°
from the horizontal. The ladder should extend at least 1 metre above the upper
landing place unless there are other suitable handholds. It should be properly
secured against slipping or shifting sideways or falling and be so placed as to
afford a clearance of at least 150 mm behind the rungs. When a portable ladder
is rested against a bulwark or rails, a bulwark ladder as detailed above should be
used.
When it is necessary to use a rope ladder, as described earlier, it should never,
be secured to rails or to any other means of support unless the rails or support
are so constructed and fixed as to take the weight of a man and a ladder with an
ample margin of safety. A rope ladder should be left in such a way that it either
hangs fully extended from a securing point or is pulled up completely. It
should not be left so that any slack will suddenly payout when the ladder is
used. A rope ladder shall be of adequate width and length and so constructed
that it can be efficiently secured to the ship. The steps shall provide a slip-
resistant foothold of not less than 400 mm x 115 mm and shall be so secured
that they are firmly held against twist, turnover or tilt. The steps shall be
equally spaced at invervals of 310 mm (±5 mm). Ladders of more than 1.5
metres in length shall be fitted with spreaders not less than 1.8 m long. The
lowest spreader shall be on the fifth step from the bottom and the interval
between spreaders shall not exceed nine steps.
Safety nets. Where there is a risk of a person falling from the access equipment
or from the quayside or ship's deck adjacent to the access equipment, a safety
net shall be mounted where reasonably practical. The aim of safety nets is to
minimize the risk of injury arising from falling between the ship and quay or
falling onto the quay or deck and as far as reasonably practical the whole length
of the means of access should be covered. Safety nets should be securely rigged,
with use being made of attachment points on the quayside where appropriate.
General points
1 In normal circumstances, the whole means of access and the immediate
approaches should be effectively illuminated from the ship or the shore to at
least the level of20 lux, as measured at a height of 1 metre, above the surface
of the means of access or its immediate approaches (a minimum level of 30
lux should be cEJnsidered when conditions warrant it, e.g. in the presence of
coal dust). , 2 Ensure that lifting plant is not used other than in a safe and proper manner.
2 When the access equipment is provided from the shore it is still the responsi-
bility of the master to ensure as far as is reasonably practical that proper
standards are maintained.
78
Safety: Legislation
3 All acces~ equipment should be inspected by a competent person at appro-
priate intervals and defects should be reported and made good. Rigging
should be taut at all times.
4 No access equipment should be painted or treated to conceal any cracks,.
or defects.
5 Aluminium equipment should be examined for corrosion in accordance with
the instructions in Annex 1 of the Code.
6 Gangways and other access equipment should not be rigged on ships' rails
unless the rail has been reinforced foJ' that purpose.
7 The means of access should be sited clear of the cargo working area and so
placed that no suspended load passes over it, when this is not practicable
access should be supervised at all times.
8 The means of access and its immediate approaches should be kept free from
obstruction and kept clear of any substances likely to cause a person to slip or
fall.
The above is a synopsis of Chapter 8 and M1343 must be closely studied.
Copies of the appropriate standards can be obtained from the British Stan-
dards Institution, Linford Wood, Milton Keynes, '~!<-14 6LE, United
Kingdom.
The Merchant Shipping {Hatches and Lifting Plant)-Regulations
1988. SI 1988 No. 1639
Operative 1 January 1989. It should be noted that within the context of these
regulations a 'competent person' means a person over the age of 18 possessing
the knowledge and experience required for the performance of thorough exam-
inations and tests of ships' lifting plant. The term 'thorough examination' is
defined in Chapter 17 of the Code as 'a detailed examination by a competent
person, supplemented by such dismantling as the competent person considers
necessary, and access to or removal of hidden parts also at the discretion of the
competent person in order to arrive at a reliable conclusion as to the safety of
the plant examined'.
Lifting plant
Duties of the employer and master
1 Ensure that any lifting plant is of good design, of sound construction and
material, of adequate strength for the purpose for which it is to be used, free
from patent defect, properly installed or assembled and properly main-
tained.
3 Ensure that except for the purpose of carrying out a test the lifting plant is
not loaded in excess of its safe working load (refer to page 131 for test
details).
79

Shipboard Operatiom
4 Ensure that no lifting plant is used
(a) after manufacture or installation, or
(b) after any repair or modification which is likely to alter the safe working
load or affect the lifting plant's strength or stability,
without first being suitably tested by a competent person (after 1 January
1993 ensure that a lifting appliance is not used unless it has been suitably
tested by a competent person within the preceding five years).
5 Ensure that any lifting plant is not used unless it has been thoroughly
examined by a competent person
(a) at least once in the preceding 12 month period, and
(b) following a test as above.
6 Ensure that a certificate or report in a form approved by the Secretary of
State is obtained within 28 days following any test or examination and is
kept in a safe place on board ship for a period of at least 2 years from receipt
of the certificate or report of the next following test or examination.
7 Ensure that each lifting appliance is clearly and legibly marked with its safe
working load and a means of identification.
8 Ensure that any crane that is carried on the ship and whose safe working
load (SWL) varies with its operating radius is fitted with an accurate indica-
tor, clearly visible to the driver, showing the radius of the load lifting
attachment at any time and the SWL corresponding to that radius.
9 Ensure that each item of lifting gear is clearly and legibly marked with its
SWL and a means of identification.
10 Ensure that each item of lifting gear which weighs a significant proportion
of the SWL of any lifting appliance with which it is intended to be used is,
an addition to its S:WL, clearly marked with its weight.
Every employer and master shall take full account of the principles and
guidance in Chapter 17 ofthe Code.
In addition to the above the master shall ensure that any pallet or similar
piece of equipment for supporting loads or lifting attachment which forms an
integral part of the load of a one-trip sling or pre-slung cargo sling is not
used on a ship unless it is of good construction, of adequate strength for the
purpose for which it is used and free from patent defect (the term 'one-trip
sling' means a sling which has not previously been used for lifting any other
load and is fitted to the load at the commencement of the journey and
intended to be disposed of at the destination of that journey).
Contravention of the above by an employer shall be an offence punishable on
summary conviction by a fine not exceeding £2,000 or on conviction on
indictment by-imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years or a fine, or both.
Contraventi~n of the above by a master shall be an offence punishable only
on summary conviction by a fine not exceeding £1,000.
80
Safety,' Legislation
Duties of other personnel
No person shall operate any lifting plant unless he is trained and competent to
do and has been authorized by a responsible ship's officer. Any person con-
cerned with carrying out any obligations with regard to lifting plant shall take
full account of the principles and guidance in Chapter 17 of the Code. Contra-
vention of this paragraph shall be an offence punishable only on summary
conviction by a fine not exceeding £400.
MI347 contains a copy of Chapter 17 of the Code. All personnel concerned
with ships' lifting plant should careffilly study the chapter but it is essential that
all ships' officers study the 115 procedures detailed in the chapter. Some of the
procedures could be classed as 'innovative' but much of the chapter is con-
cerned with 'established practice' (my terminology). An example of the former
concerns the regulation which states that 'No person shall operate any ship's
lifting plant unless he is trained and competent to do so and has been auth-
orized by a responsible ship's officer' (Regulation 6(5».
Chapter 17 contains the following recommendations:
1 Training should consist of theoretical instruction,to the extent necessary to
enable the trainee to appreciate the factors affecting \be safe operation of the
lifting plant, ship's ramp or retractable car-deck and of practical work with
the appropriate plant etc. under supervision.
2 For a person under 18 years of age undergoing training, the degree of direct
supervision required should be related to the trainee's experience, perceived
competence and the nature of the appliance etc. on which he is being
trained. Any work he carries out should be part of his training.
3 After training each person should undergo a test, and if he passes should be
given a certificate specifying the type of appliance on which the test was
carried out.
4 Where persons have been regularly authorized to operate a class of lifting
plant for a period of at least 2 years before the above regulations became
operative they may be considered competent for the award of a certificate,
provided there is no reason to believe otherwise.
5 Employers should keep records of training and testing undertaken and
should ensure the routine monitoring of the competence of those operating
lifting appliances.
The operational guidance for the conventional type of ship's derrick could
be said to be 'established practice'. The guidelines include the following
points:
I Runners should be fitted to all derricks so that when the runner is slack the
bight is not a hazard to persons walking along the deck.
2 Before a derrick is raised or lowered all persons in the vicinity should be
warned not to stand in wire bights.
81
Shipboard Operations
3 All necessary wires should be flaked out.
4 When a single-span derrick is being raised, lowered or adjusted, the hauling
part of the topping lift or bull-wire (i.e. winch end whip) should be
adequately secured to the drum end.
S The winch-driver should raise or lower the derrick at a speed consistent with
the safe handling of the guys.
6 Before a derrick is raised, lowered or adjusted with a topping lift purchase,
the hauling part of the span should be flaked out for its entire length in a safe
manner. A seaman should back up to assist the man controlling the wire on
the drum by keeping the wire clear ofturns and in making fast to the bitts or
cleats.
7 To ensure that the derrick is in its final position, the topping lift purchase
should be secured to bitts or cleats by first putting on three complete turns
followed by four crossing turns and finally securing the whole with a lashing
to prevent the turns jumping off due to the wire's natural springiness.
8 When a derrick is lowered on a topping lift purchase, a seaman should be
detailed for lifting and holding the pawl bar ready to release it should the
need arise.
Particular attention should be paid to Chapter 17,2.43: 'A load greater than
the safe working load may be applied to lifting plant only for the purpose of a
test'.
Personnel should be aware that these regulations are not solely concerned
with cargo handling appliances and are much more widely applicable than the
1934 Docks Regulations which they replace. The terms 'lifting appliance',
'lifting gear' and 'lifting plant' must be clearly understood. Regulation 2 gives
the following definitions:
Lifting appliance means any ship's stationary or mobile appliance (and
every part thereof including attachments used for anchoring, fixing or
supporting that appliance but not including vehicle coupling arrange-
ments) which is used on a ship for the purpose of suspending, raising or
lowering loads or moving them from one position to another whilst sus-
pended and includes ship's lift trunks and similar vehicles; it does not
include-
(a) pipes, or gangways; or
(b) screw, belt, bucket or other conveyors;
used for the continuous movement of cargo or people but does include the
lifting appliances used to suspend, raise, lower or move any of these items;
(c) surviyal craft or rescue boat launching and recovery appliances or
arrangements; or
(d) pilotnoists.
Lifting gear means any gear by means of which a load can be attached to a
lifting appliance and which does not form an integral part of that appliance
82
Safety: Legislation
or load but does not include pallets, one-trip slings and pre-slung cargo
slings and freight containers.
Lifting plant includes any lifting appliance or lifting gear.
~.
Hatches
Duties of the employer and master
Ensure that any hatch covering used on a ship is of sound construction and
material, of adequate strength for the purpose for which it is used, free from
patent defect and properly maintained.
Duties of the master
1 Ensure that a hatch covering is not used unless it can be removed and
replaced, whether manually or with mechanical power, without endangering
any person.
2 Ensure that information showing the correct replacement position is clearly
marked, except in so far as hatch coverings are interchangeable or incapable
of being incorrectly replaced. '
3 Ensure that a hatch is not used unless the hatch co~ring has been com-
pletely removed, or if not completely removed, is properly secured.
Every employer, master and person carrying out the obligations with
regard to hatches shall take full account of the principles and guidance in
Chapter 18 ofthe Code.
Except in the case of an emergency endangering health or safety, no person
shall operate a hatch covering which is power-operated or a ship's ramp or a
retractable car-deck unless authorized to do so by a responsible ship's officer.
Contravention of these regulations by an employer shall be an offence
punishable on summary conviction by a fine not exceeding £2,000 or on con-
viction on indictment by imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years or a
fine, or both.
Contravention of these regulations by a master shall be an offence punish-
able only on summary conviction by a fine not exceeding £1,000.
Any other person who fails to take full account of the principles and guid-
ance in Chapter 18 of the Code or who operates a powered hatch covering or a
ship's ramp or retractable car-deck without authorization shalf be liable to a
fine not exceeding £400 on summary conviction.
M1346 contains Chapter 18of the Code and once again this M notice should
be closely studied by all personnel involved in any way with ships' hatches
(this includes Port and Harbour Authority personnel and stevedores).
In general, a person who can show that he 'took all reasonable precautions
and exercised all due diligence' will have a good defence if charged with any of
the offences in these regulations.
83
Shipboard Operations
Any ship, when inspected by a duly authorized person, which does not
comply with the requirements of these regulations is liable to be detained until
the health and safety of all employees and other persons aboard ship is secured.
Merchant Shipping (Safety at Work Regulations) (Non-UK Ships)
Regulations 1988
Operative I January 1989. The British Department of Transport has made it
very clear by issuing this Regulation that British Safety at Work Regulations
must be complied with by non-UK ships when in British ports. Criminal
proceedings can now be taken by the Department of Transport against
employers and masters associated with foreign ships which breach the follow-
ing 1988 merchant shipping regulations:
Guarding of Machinery and Safety of Electrical Equipment
Means of Access
Entry into Dangerous Spaces
Hatches and Lifting Plant
Safe Movement on Board Ship
Each of these individual regulations contains a regulation which permits
non-UK ships in British ports to be inspected by Department of Transport
surveyors and if the standards are not good enough a report can be sent to the
government of the country in which the ship is registered. The ships can also
be detained if the conditions warrant it.
However, in addition to the above this Regulation now makes it possible to
directly punish an employer and/or master. An employer is now liable on
summary conviction to a fine not exceeding £2,000 or on conviction on indict-
ment to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or a fine or both.
In practice it may be difficult for anyone to actually 'lay hands' on an
employer and it is more likely that the master will suffer for contravention of
safety regulations. The master of a non-UK ship is liable on summary convic-
tion to a fine not exceeding £1,000. I would advise masters of ships trading to
British ports to study carefully the occupational health and safety regulations.
The Docks Regulations 1988. SI 1988No. 1655
Operative 1 January 1989. These Regulations were greatly welcomed as the
1934 Docks Regulations which they replaced had been widely regarded as 'out
of date' for a lonE time. The new Regulations are based on modern dock proce-
dures and the ItO Convention 152 on Health and Safety in Dock Work (1979)
and are complerllentary to merchant shipping regulations. In the past there has
been some confusion as to which regulations apply to 'the ship' and which to
'the shore', but the '1988 package' of regulations clearly lays down which
84
Safety: Legislation
regulations apply to ships and which to shoreside operations when dealing with
interface between ship and shore. These Regulations make it clear that they are
applicable only to dock operations within Great Britain (Northern Ireland has
parallel regulations and for practical purposes one can interchange the terms
GB and UK within the context of these Regulaticns). The terms 'dock opera<'
tions' and 'dock premises' should be carefully studied but in general:
Dock operations include the loading or unloading of goods on or from a
ship and movement of passengers on or from a ship at dock premises and
any incidental activities such as $e movement of goods, passengers or
vehicles, the mooring of a ship, the storing, checking, sorting, inspecting,
weighing or handling of goods, fuelling and provisioning of a ship, etc.
Dock premises are 'any dock, wharf, quay, jetty or other place at which
ships load or unload goods or embark or disembark passengers, together
with neighbouring land or water which is used or occupied, or intended to
be used or occupied, for those or incidental activities, and any part of a
ship when used for those or incidental activities'.
The scope of the Regulations is thus very wide and all personnel involved
with ship/shore interface operations should carefully study them. In general
the Regulations deal with the health, safety and welfare }~quirements of dock
operations but the basic areas covered could be defined as:
Planning and control of dock operations
Lighting
General access, both by land and water
Rescue, life-saving and fire-fighting equipment and means of escape
Hatches, ramps and car-decks
Drivers of vehicles and lifting appliances operators
Use of vehicles
Use of lifting plant
Testing, examination, marking and documentation of lifting plant
Confined spaces
Welfare amenities
Protective clothing
The Regulations have been made under the Health and Safety at Work Act
1974 and the Health and Safety Executive is responsible for the enforcement of
statutory provisions in relation to any activity carried on in dock premises.
The Docks Regulations are now of reduced importance to mariners as many
of the regulations which were previously in the 1934 Docks Regulations are
now contained in Merchant Shipping regulations. The Department of Trans-
port and the Health and Safety Commission have thus reduced the possibility
of confusion between which is 'ship' responsibility and which is 'shore'
responsibility. A knowledge of the Statutory Instrument in itself will pos-
85
Shipboard Operations
sibly contain enough information for ships' staff but it will certainly be
insufficient for shore staff.
The HSC has produced an excellent publication entitled Safety in Docks,
Docks Regulations 1988and Guidance-Approved Code of Practice which can be
obtained from the HMSO Publications Centre, PO Box 276, London SW8
5DT at a modest cost. This is the shore equivalent to the '1988 Merchant
Shipping package' and is actually another 'package' as it contains the Regula-
tions, an approved code of practice and guidance notes; however, in this case
the package is contained in one publication. All managers who are involved in
any aspect of dock operations should carefully study this publication.
'Herald of Free Enterprise' Legislation
The 7,951 GRT ro-ro car passenger ferry Herald of Free Enterprise capsized on
6 March 1987whilst leaving Zeebrugge, with the loss of 150passengers and 38
members of her crew.
Since the mid-1970s many people had expressed concern over various
aspects of the design and operation of ro-ro vessels. The design problems
included doubts about stability after hull penetration, the integrity of hulls,
watertight integrity of opening arrangements, and free surface effect on large
undivided car decks if water got inside the hull. Operational problems
included the lack of stability checks when loaded, difficulty of ascertaining the
actual number of passengers on board, lashing of vehicles, and the ascertaining
of the weight of vehicles and loads. In my opinion both the government and
owners were slow to face up to the problems of these vessels, and as a frequent
passenger on such ships I believed that 'there was a disaster just waiting to
h,.ppen'. Unfortunately for 188 people and their relations and friends the dis-
aster did indeed happen.
The Herald was lost because one of the basic tenets of seamanship was
ignored - the vessel left the berth with her watetight integrity impaired. The
ship sailedwith her inner and outer bow doors open, water from the bow wave
entered a car deck and due to free surface effect caused the ship to lurch quickly
to port to an angle of30o, from which position she capsized.
All senior ship's officers and shore management should study the Report of
the Court of Inquiry into the Loss of the Herald of Free Enterprise (HMSO 1987).
The report contained what could be construed as a very strong observation in
that 'from top to botton the body corporate was infected with the disease of
sloppiness'. My sea career was with companies which gave careful con-
sideration to consJructive suggestions from sea staff, but my teaching experi-
ence indicates that this is not always the case. I have always advised senior
officers to keep written copies of all 'safety' requests and comments sent to
shore management. The Court of Inquiry was told of specific requests from
masters that were ignored by shor~management. These included:
86
Safety: Legislation
(a) lights to be fitted on the bridge to indicate whether bow and stern doors
were open' or closed;
(b) means to ascertain whether an excess number of passengers was being
carried; and
(c) ships to be provided with instruments for reading draughts. '
The report shows that shore managers who ignore the advice of their skilled,
experienced, professional sea staff are acting improperly. Traditionally the
ship's master has been largely held to account when things have gone wrong,
but a study of recent legislation indicatss that an increasing onus is being
placed on the duties of the 'body corporate' and of the owner. It is possible that
we may see employers being imprisoned for failure to comply with statutory
regulations.
The British Government is to be commended for quickly making legislation
to reduce the operational problems which were highlighted by the Court of
Inquiry Report. However, one must wonder why often a disaster has to occur
before obvious safety deficiencies are corrected (this is not just a marine trans-
port problem, the Manchester Airport disaster in 1985 and the London
Underground disaster of 1987 also highlighted safety deficiencies which had
been ignored). \ ..
Merchant Shipping (Passenger Boarding Cards) Regulations 1988.
SI 1988No. 191
Operative 29 February 1988, these Regulations apply to United Kingdom
passenger ships when operating as passenger ships of Classes II and IIA
(basically ro-ro ferries on short international voyages). They require the
operation of a passenger boarding card system with documentation to be
retained for future inspection by duly authorized persons. It is an offence for a
ship to leave her berth before the total number of passengers on board has been
determined and the master informed.
Duties of the owner
1 The owner shall ensure that there is a system of individual passenger board-
ing cards as described in M1312 (or subsequent M notices).
2 No passenger ship shall leave her berth before the total number of passen-
gers on board has been determined by means of the boarding card system
and the master informed (breach of 1 and 2 can lead to a fine not exceeding
£2,000 or on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for a term not
exceeding two years or a fine or both).
3 No passenger shall be permitted to board unless issued with a boarding card.
4 Arrangements shall be made to determine the number of passengers remain-
ing on board from the previous voyage, such arrangements to be descibed in
written instructions.
87
Shipboard Operations
5 Relevant documents to be retained either on board or ashore and to be
available for inspection after being sealed (breach of 3, 4 and 5 can lead to a
fine not exceeding £1,000).
Note that the term 'owner' is used and not the 'employer'.
Duties of the master
I To ensure that the ship shall not leave her berth before the total number of
passengers on board has been determined by means of the boarding card
system and he has been informed of that number (breach of this requirement
can lead to a fine not exceeding £2,000 or on conviction on indictment to
imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or a fine or both).
2 No p~ssenger shall be permitted to board unless issued with a boarding card.
3 Arrangements shall be made to determine the number of passengers remain-
ing on board from the previous voyage which are described in written
instructions (breach of2 and 3 can lead to a fine not exceeding £1,000).
Any person who knowingly or recklessly makes any false statement in con-
nection with the system of individual passenger boarding cards liable or
intended to lead to error in the determination of the total number of passengers
or falsifies records or documents or the stealing of such records or documents
shall be guilty of an offence and liable on summary conviction to a fine not
exceeding £2,000 or on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for a term
not exceeding two years or a fine or both.
'All reasonable steps to avoid commission' of any offence shall be a good
defence. These Regulations contain an 'Offence by Bodies Corporate' regu-
lation.
M1312 should be closely studied as it contains much practical guidance for
the actual operation of the passenger boarding card system. The notice states
that in framing the Regulations the Department of Transport had two objec-
tives in mind:
(a) The system of boarding cards to be adopted should be simple and clear, so
that it will remain effective in the years to come when the recent casualty,
which promted the introduction of the requirements, is no longer upper-
most in the operators' minds
(b) The proper functioning of the system should be capable of being easily
checked and, if necessary, enforced by the Department's surveyors with-
out the necessity of arranging a full passenger count as passengers leave the
ship
It should benoted that the Merchant Shipping (Passengers Boarding Cards)
(Application tb non-UK Ships) Regulations 1988 SI 1988 No.641, operative
I April 1988, extended the above Regulations to foreign flag vessels operating
to and from British ports.
88
Safety: Legislation
Merchant Shipping (Closing of Openings in Enclosed
Superstructures and in Bulkheads above the Bulkhead Deck)
Regulations 1988.Sf 1988No. 317
Operative 9 March 1988. It should be noted that within the context of these
Regulations a voyage commences when a ship leaves her berth or anchorage at
a port.
These Regulations must be carefully studied as only some of the more perti-
nent ones are mentioned below.
Regulation 2 states that 'the foll~wing loading doors:
(a) gangway and cargo loading doors fitted in the shell or boundaries of
enclosed superstructures,
(b) bow visors so fitted,
(c) weathertight ramps so fitted and used instead of doors for closing openings
for cargo or vehicle loading,
(d) cargo loading doors in the collision bulkhead, shall be closed and locked
before the ship leaves its berth and shall be kept closed and locked until the
ship has been secured at its next berth'.
,
Regulation 3 deals with the supervision and report'ef closure of doors and
clearly states that an officer who has been appointed by the master shall verify
that every loading door has been closed and locked and report this to the bridge
before the ship proceeds on a voyage.
Regulation 4 deals with the closure of watertight or weathertight doors
above the margin line and the provisions are similar to those for loading doors.
('Watertight' generally applies when there is a posssibility of water accumu-
lating at either side; 'weathertight', when water may accumulate at one side
only).
In general, entries shall be made in the officiallog book (OLB) to record the
times of opening and closing the above doors.
The owner is required to provide what is known as a 'Berth List' which lists
the individual berths the ship may use, and the ship shall only use those berths
except in a case of emergency.
Regulation 8 requires the owner to supply written instructions, approved by
the Secretary of State, concerning the doors to which the Regulations apply
and none of the doors shall be opened or closed except in compliance with the
written instructions. The instructions shall be kept on the ship at all times in
the custody of the master, and shall include the following information:
(a) The circumstances in which the doors to which these Regulations apply
may be opened and are required to be closed
(b) A list of the small doors included in this Regulation
(c) The requirements of verifying and reporting the closure of doors
(d) Procedures for opening doors in an emergency
89
Shipboard Operations
(e) The entries required to be made in the OLB
(f) A reference to the Berth List (which may have additional necessary
information with it) and a clear statement that loading and discharging
may be done only at the berths listed
(g) Warning of the penalties for not complying with these Regulations
Anyone guilty of an offence shall be punished 'on summary conviction by a
fine not exceeding £2,000 or, on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment
for a term not exceeding two years and a fine'. (Note that it is not 'or' a fine but
'and' a fine.) 'All reasonable steps' is a good defence. These Regulations con-
tain a 'corporate body' offence, regulation (11).
I t should be noted that Regulation 2 permits a vessel to move a short distance
from the cargo loading/discharging position (not more than one ship's length)
before closing a bow visor or a weathertight ramp if that operation cannot be
done at the berth. The same provision applies with regard to opening the same.
These Regulations apply to UK ro-ro passenger ships only, but most of the
provisions are extended to non-UK ro-ro passenger ships while they are
within a UK port by the Merchant Shipping (Closing of Openings in Enclosed
Superstructures and in Bulkheads above the Bulkhead Deck) (Application to
non-UK ships) Regulations 1988, SI 1988 No. 642, operative 5 April 1988.
Merchant Shipping (Loading and Stability Assessment of Ro-Ro
Passenger Ships) Regulation 1989.Sf 1989No. 100
Operative 20 February 1989, the Regulations apply to UK ro-ro passenger
ships and in the case of Classes I, II or II(A) require the provision of a loading
and stability computer or an equivalent means of making stability calculations
and, in general, of an automatic draught gauge system. The Regulations also
require records to be made of the ship's draught of water, trim and freeboards
and the components of her stability before proceeding on any voyages and for
such records to be retained for a specified period.
M1366 should be carefully studied as its main purpose 'is to specify the type
of equipment, information and procedures which would be acceptable to the
Department in the implementation of the Regulations'. The notice states that
the Regulations 'give effect to recommendations by the Court which investi-
gated the loss of the ferry Herald of Free Enterprise. Their primary
requirements are to ensure that ro-ro passenger ships of Classes I, II, II(A)
and IV maintain adequate stability during loading and unloading operations
and also that prior to departure their stability is determined in an appropriate
manner and sho)Vn to be of a requisite standard'.
The owner or-every ship shall ensure that information relating to the ship's
stability during: loading and unloading is included in the ship's stability
information booklet.
90
Safety: Legislation
Officers' duties
1 The master shall ensure that the ship has suitable stability and freeboard.
2 After loading and before proceeding an officer shall ascertain the following
information: ~.
(a) draught at bow and stern
(b) trim by bow or stern
(c) vertical distance from waterline to the appropriate load line mark on each
side of the ship.
The information shall be recorded in the OLB.
3 After loading and before proceedi~g an officer shall ensure that the KG, GM
or deadweight moment (whichever is appropriate) is calculated as per
M1366 (a ship or shore computer) and recorded in the OLB. A full record of
the calculation shall be retained on the ship for at least one calendar month,
and in the case of a Class II or II(A) ship a copy of the record (or the record
itself) shall be retained by the owner for at least one calendar month.
4 The master shall cause the maximum permissible KG, or the minimum
permissible GM, or the maximum permissible deadweight moment (which-
ever is appropriate) to be determined and recorde~ in the OLB.
5 Before a ship proceeds the master shall ensure tha~ ...the ship has suitable
stability standards.
In general, a breach of the Regulations shall be an offence 'punishable on
summary conviction by a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum or on
conviction on indictment by imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years,
or a fine or both'.
However, anyone who provides calculations from a shore-based computer
which are not substantially correct is liable on summary conviction to a fine not
exceeding the statutory maximum or on conviction on indictment to a fine.
Any officer who is required to ascertain the draught, trim and vertical dis-
tance and fails to do so or is careless in carrying out this duty is liable to be
punished on summary conviction by a fine of £400 or on conviction on indict-
ment by a fine.
Anyone required to keep a record of stability calculations who fails to do so is
liable to be punished on summary conviction by a fine of £400 or on conviction
on indictment by a fine.
'All reasonable steps' is a defence. A ship is liable to detention if these
Regulations are not complied with.
The requirements of these Regulations are extended to non- UK ships using
UK ports by the Merchant Shipping (Loading and Stability Assessment of
Ro-Ro Passenger ships) (Non-UK ships) Regulations 1989, SI 1989 No. 567,
Operative April 1989.
91
 Shipboard Operations
Merchant Shipping (Emergency Equipment Lockers for Ro-Ro
Passenger Ships) Regulations 1988SI 1988.No. 2272
Operative 1 April 1989, these Regulations apply to UK ro-ro passenger ships.
Regulation 4 states:
'4 (1) Every ro-ro passenger ship to which these Regulations apply shall be
provided with at least one weathertight emergency locker constructed
of steel, or glass reinforced plastic (GRP) or other suitable material at
each side of the ship. Such lockers shall contain the equipment specified
in M notice 1359. Such equipment shall be of good quality and shall be
regularly maintained.
(2) The lockers shall be clearly marked and so located on an open deck and
as high up in the ship and as near the ship's side as possible, that in all
foreseeable circumstances the locker, or lockers, on at least one side will
be accessible'.
M1359 states that 'The provision of such lockers and equipment was a recom-
mendation of the Court of Formal Investigation into the loss of the Herald of
Free Enterprise'. The purpose of the equipment is to provide means in unusual
circumstances, e.g. when a ship is at a very large angle of heel, to assist passen-
gers and crew to escape from enclosed spaces within the ship when the normal
escape arrangements cannot be used. Some of the emergency equipment will
also be of assistance during damage control operations, and in assisting with
escape when the normal escape routes are obstructed by debris or by doors
jammed in the closed position'.
M1359 must be closely studied as it gives practical guidance as to the loca-
tion, construction and equipment of the lockers. In general the equipment
should be as follows:
Fireman's axe (long handled)
Fireman's axe (short handled)
Pin maul (7 Ib)
Crowbar
Hand lamp/torch
Padded lifting strop (adult)
Padded lifting strop (child)
Hand-powered lifting arrangement
Lightweight rigid collapsible ladder (at least 3 metres)
Lightweight rope ladder (10 metres)
First-aid kit
Sealed blankets or thermal protective aids
Sets of waterproof jackets and trousers
All crew members must take part in drills and instruction sessions in all aspects
of use of the equipment.
92
Safety: Legislation
I suggest that the contents of the lockers should be included in the SOLAS
monthly checklist of life-saving appliances (Chapter III, Regulation 19 -
Operational Readiness, Maintenance and Inspections) and the contents will
be examined by a Department of Transport surveyor during the annual survey
for the issue of a passenger ship safety certificate. A ship is liable to be detained
for non-compliance of these Regulations.
If a ship does not comply with the Regulations the owner and master are
liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding level 5 on the standard
scale, or on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for a term not exceeding
two years, or a fine or both. 'All rea~onable steps' is a defence.
Merchant Shipping (Operations Book) Regulations 1988,SI 1988
No.1716
Operative 3 April 1989, the Regulations apply to all UK ships of Classes II and
Il(A), i.e. passenger ships engaged on short international voyages.
Every ship shall be provided by the owner with an 'Operations Book' in
which shall be set out instructions to ensure the safe'~ efficient operation of
the ship. The owner shall designate a person who shall be responsible for
monitoring the safe and efficient operation of the ship (the Regulations do not
go into details regarding who the 'designated' person should be, but someone
of the experience and standing of a Fleet Manager or Marine Superintendent
would be suitable). The owner shall also ensure means for amending and keep-
ing up to date the Operations Book. The master and designated person shall
each keep a copy of the Operations Book and of the Master's Standing Orders
(if the later have not been incorporated into the Operations Book). The Opera-
1 tor's Book and Standing Orders (if any) shall be produced on demand to a
I surveyor of ships.
I The master of every ship shall operate his ship in accordance with the
I instructions in the Operations Book; however, he may deviate from the
4 instructions in the interests of safety.
6 The owner shall ensure that the desi~nated person is suitable for the duty
2 and is provided with sufficient authority and resources to carry out the duty;
3 contravention is an offence with the penalty on summary conviction of a fine
1 not exceeding the statutory maximum (a) and on conviction on indictment by a
1 fine. Contravention of the other requirements by the owner, master or desig-
I nated person (as the case may be) can lead to a fine not exceeding £2,000 on
6 summary conviction. 'All reaonable precautions' is a defence. A ship may be
4 detained for non-compliance.
M1353 should be closely studied for guidance in implementing this Regula-
tion. This notice draws attention to M1188, 'Good Ship Management' and the
ICSjlSF 'Code of Good Management Practice'. A 'Suggested Outline of
93
 Safety: Legislation
Shipboard Operations

Contents for Operations Book' is contained in the Annex and the following UK Anti-Pollution Regulations
headings are suggested:

Introduction The Merchant Shipping (Prevention of Oil Pollution) Regulations

Shipboard Organization 1983, Sf 1983 No. 1398 '
Shipboard Operations: General
Shipboard Operations: In Port Operative 2 October 1983. These regulations have eight parts and eight sched-
Preparing for Sea ules. The parts are:
Shipboard Operations: At Sea
Emergencies and Contingencies 1 General. ."
2 Surveys, Certificates and Oil Record Book.
3 Requirements for Control of Operational Pollution - Control of Discharge
Other relevant M notices of Oil.
4 Requirements for the Segregation of Cargo Oil and Ballast Water.
Some other M notices have particular importance for short sea ferry opera-
5 Requirements for Minimizing Oil Pollution from Oil Tankers due to Side
tions.
and Bottom Damage.
M1337. This notice draws attention to the Merchant Shipping (Weighing of 6 Offshore Installations.
Goods Vehicles and Other Cargo) Regulations 1988, SI 1988 No.127s and the 7 Reporting of Discharges.
Merchant Shipping (Weighing of Goods Vehicles and Other Cargo) (Applica- 8 Powers to Inspect, Deny Entry, Detention and l?enalties.
tion to non-UK ships) Regulations 1988 which became operative on 1 Febru-
These regulations, a total of 164 pages, give effect ~ MARPOL 73 (includ-
ary 1989. The purpose of the Regulations is to require owners to ensure that all
ing Annex 1, Prevention of Pollution by Oil, but no other Annex) as amended
goods vehicles whose actual or maximum gross weight exceeds 7.5 tonnes, and
all other individual cargo items exceeding 7.5 tonnes (except buses) are indi- by the Protocol of 1978.
vidually weighed before loading. The Regulations follow a recommendation in
the Report of the Court of Formal Investigation into the loss of the Herald of
Surveys
Free Enterprise (Report of Court No.8074). That Report pointed out that
accurate control over the stability of the ship can only be achieved from a The United Kingdom has adopted mandatory annual surveys in substitution
detailed knowledge of the weight and disposition of the cargo. The M notice for unscheduled inspections of all ships requiring an International Oil Pollu-
gives guidance for the operational implementation of the Regulation. tion Prevention Certificate (IOPP). Annual and intermediate surveys are not
required for ships with a United Kingdom Certificate (UKOPP).
M1299. This notice amplifies and provide general guidance on access opening The thoroughness of severity of all the above surveys will depend upon the
indicator lights, supplementary emergency lighting and television surveillance condition of the ship and its equipment. The initial survey should include a
systems for ro-ro passenger ships. thorough and complete examination of a ship and its equipment to ensure that
M1316. The main purpose of this notice is to draw the attention of all con- the IOPP/UKOPP Certificate may be issued for the first time. The initial
cerned to the relevant statutory requirements on emergency information for survey will:
passengers. 1 Examine plans, specifications and technical documentation to verify that the
M1315. Following the European Gateway and Herald of Free Enterprise casual- Regulations are being complied with and to confirm that the oil pollution
ties, the advice on the stowage of lifejackets in passenger ships has been prevention equipment is type approved.
reviewed and the new guidance is contained in this notice. 2 Confirm that required Certificates, Oil Record Books, Manuals and other
documents are on board.
M1326. With thelntroducion of the Merchant Shipping (Closing of Openings 3 Inspect the construction and installation of the ship and equipment to
in Hulls and in W~tertight Bulkheads) Regulations 1987, a greater number of ensure that all aspects are satisfactory.
watertight doors will be closed at sea for longer periods. This notice draws
attention to the dangers of operating such doors incorrectly. The annual survey for an IOPP Certificate must be held within three months
95
94
 Shipboard Operations
before or after the anniversary date of the IOPP Certificate. In general, the
annual survey should consist of:
(a) an examination of Certificates, a visual examination of a sufficient extent of
the ship and equipment (and certain tests) to confirm that everything is
being properly maintained; and
(b) a visual examination to confirm that no unapproved modifications have
been made.
The UKOPP and IOPP Certificates are valid for a period of five years. The
initial and any renewal surveys must be carried out in accordance with the
detailed procedures specified in MI076.
Oil Record Book
Most ships must be provided with an 'Oil Record Book Part I (Machinery
Space Operations)', and every oil tanker of 150 GRT and above shall be pro-
vided with an 'Oil Record Book Part II (Cargo/Ballast Operations)'. The book
must be completed whenever any of the following operations takes place:
(a) Machinery space operations in all ships
I ballasting or.cleaning of oil fuel tanks
2 discharge of ballast or cleaning water from (I)
3 disposal of oily residues such as sludge
4 overboard discharge of machinery space bilge water
(b) Cargo/ballast operations on oil tankers
I loading of oil cargo
2 internal transfer of oil cargo during a voyage
3 discharging of oil cargo
4 ballasting of cargo tanks and dedicated clean ballast tanks
5 cleaning of cargo tanks including crude oil washing
6 discharge of ballast except from segregated ballast tanks
7 discharge of water from slop tanks
8 closing of slop tank valves after discharge operations
9 closing of isolation valves to dedicated clean ballast tanks
IO disposal of residues
The term, 'dedicated clean ballast tanks' means tanks that are dedicated
solely to the carriage of clean ballast, they are an alternative to segregated
ballast tanks but the regulations concerning their application are particularly
tortuous.
In the event of any oil discharge into the sea for the purpose of securing the
safety of a ship or saving life or in the event of a discharge due to an accident or
exceptional cireustances, a statement must be made in the Oil Record Book
regarding the i~cident.
Details of each operation should be put in the book as soon as the operation
is completed and the entry signed; each completed page should be signed by
96
Safety: Legislation
the master. The book should be kept readily available for inspection by any
authorized person and it should be kept for three years after completion. It
should be noted that the Department of Transport has given authority to the
Harbour Master, or any other person employed by a Harbour Authority, to
inspect the Oil Record Book of a ship in a British harbour and to make a copy of
any entry in the book.
Discharge of Oil or Oily Mixture into the Sea by Tanker
Such a discharge can only be carried out if the following conditions are com-
plied with;
1 The tanker is proceeding on a voyage.
2 The tanker is not within a special area (basically the Mediterranean, Baltic,
Black and Red Seas and the Gulf area).
3 The tanker is more than 50 miles from the nearest land.
4 The instantaneous rate of discharge of oil content does not exceed 60 litres
per mile.
5 the total quantity of oil discharged does not ex~eed 1/30,000 (new ships) or
1/15,000 (existing ships) of the particular ca~o of which the residue
formed a part.
6 The tanker has in operation an oil discharge monitoring and control system
plus an approved slop tank arrangement as stipulated by Regulation 15.
Oil Discharge Monitoring and Control Systems for Retention of Oil on Board
The details of these systems are contained in Schedule 4 and should be studied
in full. The system shall record continuously:
(a) The discharge of oil in litres per mile and the total quantity of oil dis-
charged; or
(b) instead of the total quantity of oil discharged, the oil content of the effluent
and rate of discharge.
The record shall be 'indentifiable as to the time and date' and must be kept for
at least three years. The system shall come into operation when there is any
discharge of effluent into the sea and must automatically stop any discharge
when the rate of discharge of oil exceeds 60 Iitres per mile:
The specifications for oily-water separating equipment and oil content
meters are given in Schedule 3. Separating equipment must be capable of
producing an effluent containing not more than 100 ppm of oil irrespective of
the oil content of the feed supplied to it. Filtering equipment must be capable
of reducing the oil content in the effluent to not more than 15 ppm. Oil content
meters must be capable of measuring a range of oil content and an alarm must
be provided which will indicate when the oil content of the effluent exceeds
97
 Shipboard Operations
15 ppm. The figure of 15 ppm is used to determine whether ballast is clean or
not. Rule 1(2) states that if ballast is discharged through an approved system
and that if the oil content of the effluent does not exceed 15 ppm that figure
'shall be determinative that the ballast was clean'.
In general, the system will be designed so that no ballast discharge over-
board can take place unless the monitor is operating normally. The system
should have a minimum number of discharge outlets and the sampling points
(for monitoring purposes) should be so arranged that discharge can only take
place via only one sampling point at a time.
A system must comprise the following:
an oil content meter
a flow rate system to indicate the quality of the effluent per unit time
a device to give the vessel's speed in knots
a sampling system to convey a representative sample of the effluent to the
oil content meter
a control unit to process signals, activate alarms and operate recorders
with means to prevent effluent discharge before the meter is working
and with a manual override system.
Reporting of Discharges
Although the regulation specifically applies to British ships it can be said that
in general reports must be made:
(a) by all ships within 200 miles ofland
(b) by all oil tankers when fully or partly loaded
(c) by all ships of 10,000 GRT and above
The master must make a report whenever 'an incident involves any dis-
charge or probable discharge of oil or oily mixtures as a result of damage to the
ship or its equipment or for the purpose of securing the safety of the ship or
saving life at sea'. The types of incident include collision, grounding, fire,
explosion, structural failure, flooding, cargo shifting, and any breakdown
which impairs steering gear, propulsion plant or generators or which impairs
the safety of navigation.
The report should, in general, be made to the nearest coastal State via coastal
radio stations. It should contain the following particulars:
1 Name of ship, call sign, frequency or radio channel kept open.
2 Date and time of incident.
3 Position and ixtent of pollution including, if possible, estimated amount
and surface area of spill.
4 Present position of vessel if different from (3).
5 The rate of release if the discharge is continuing.
98
Safety: Legislation
6 Wind direction and speed, and the condition of any current or tide affecting
the spill movement.
7 General weather conditions and the sea state at the ship's present con-
dition.
8 Type of oil discharged. ~.
9 Types and quantities of all oils still on board (including the ship's fuel).
10 Type of ship, size, nationality and port of registry.
11 Course, speed and destination if still proceeding on voyage.
12 Brief description of the incident, including any damage sustained and the
cause of any discharge .. ~
13 Ability to transfer cargo or ballast or bunkers.
14 Any action being taken by the ship.
15 Forecast of likely movement and effect of pollution with estimated timing.
16 Assistance which has been requested or which has been provided by other
ships or agencies.
After the initial report a further updating report must be sent to the authority
which received the first report.
,
Ships of less than 400 GRT (other than oil tankers) \ ...
Ml240 should be read for this information as the purpose of the notice explains
the extent to which the Merchant Shipping (Prevention of Oil Pollution)
Regulation 1983, as amended, applies to the above vessels.
Inspections
It should be noted that these Regulations apply to United Kingdom ships and
non-British ships in UK waters. Regulation 32 states that inspections can be
carried out to verify 'that there is on board a valid IOPP Certificate in the form
prescribed by the Convention or UKOPP Certificate in a form prescribed in
Schedule 1'.
A ship can be denied entry or be detained if these Regulations are not fully
complied with.
Penalties
The penalties can be divided into two basic 'categories'.
(a) If any ship puts effluent over the side which can cause pollution the owner
and the master 'shall be liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceed-
ing £50,000 or on conviction on indictment to a fine'.
(b) Failure to comply with the other requirments of these Regulations shall
make the owner and the Master liable to a fine not exceeding £1 ,000 on
summary conviction or 'on conviction on indictment by a fine'.
'All reasonable precautions' and 'all due diligence' are a defence.
99
Shipboard Operations Safety: Legislation

The Prevention of Pollution (Reception Facilities) Order 1984,SI
1984No. 862
Operative 25 July 1984,this Order gave effect to the provisions of regulation 12
of Annex I and Regulation 7 of Annex II of MarpoI73/78. It requires harbour
authorities and terminal operators to provide reception facilities for ships
which are using the harbour or terminal for a primary purpose other than using
the reception facilities. The facilities must be adequate to meet the needs of
ships using them without causing undue delay to ships. M1338 gives very
comprehensive instructions and guidelines for the practical application of this
Order. Oily residues reception facilities have been required since 2 October
1984 and noxious liquid substances residues and mixture reception facilities
have been required since 6 April 1987.
Part of the instructions are based on the IMO publication Guidelines on the
Provision of Adequate Reception Facilities in Ports; Parts I and II.
Over The Side Is Over!
This was the title of a UK Department of Transport poster to draw owners'
attention to new regulations which brought Marpol Annex V into force in the
UK.
ensure that the regulations are being complied with. It is therefore important
that all tanker management staff are conversant with Marpol 73/78 and the
national legislation which implements it for individual countries - British
regulations can be accepted as being typical of such national legislation. The
continuous flow of regulations does make it difficult for management to have
the required level of legislative knowledge for efficient operation. I can only
point you in the right direction; in addition to the above, mangers should have
knowledge of:
The Merchant Shipping (Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances
in Bulk) Regulations, SI 1987 N~.551
The Merchant Shipping (Reporting of Pollution Incidents) Regulations, S.I.
1987 No. 586
Ship and shore management should keep an up-dated file of M Notices. A
particluar notice which lists the 'Principal Acts and Regulations on Merchant
Shipping' is issued at regular intervals and that notice should be up-dated
when new regulations come into force.
,
\ .•.

Merchant Shipping (Prevention of Pollution by Garbage)

Regulations 1988.SI 1988No. 2292
Operative 31 December 1988, these Regulations give effect to Regulation 1-6
of Annex V and apply to United Kingdom ships anywhere and to non-British
ships in UK waters. The Regulations stipulate the requirements as to the
disposal of garbage from ships into the sea outside Special Areas and the more
stringent requirements as to disposal within Special Areas.

Merchant Shipping (Reception Facilities For Garbage) Regualtions

1988.SI 1988No. 2293
Operative 31 December 1988, these Regulations give effect to provisions of
Annex V with regard to garbage reception facilities and they apply to every
harbour authority or terminal operator in the United Kingdom. The Regula-
tions empower harbour authorities and terminal operators to provide recep-
tion facilities for garbage from ships and require such facilites to be adequate.
Reasonable charges can be made for the use of such facilities.

Marine Pollut~on Statutory Instruments

In May 1989 there were twenty-five statutory instruments relating to marine
pollutlon. Thus ship's officers and shore managers have an onerous task to
100 101
 Ship Maintenance: Corrosion Prevention
The loss of electrons converts a metal into its compounds. Thus the anode
corrodes while' the cathode remains unchanged. Corrosion on board ship
means the loss of electro~;from metallic structures to the environment, i.e.
3 water and air, with the result that oxides (usually 'rust') form on the metal
surfaces. ~.
A concentration corrosion cell is shown in Figure 3.2. The break in mill
Ship Maintenance: Corrosion scale or a paint film exposes a small portion of the ship's plate to the
atmosphere; thus an electron flow occurs. The unbroken surface acts as the
Prevention cathode and the electrons flow away from the break in the paint film towards
the cathodic area. Thus corrosion. occurs at the exposed metal, the metal
being the anodic portion of the celL This process is known to mariners as
'pitting'. If all the ship's metal surfaces were left unprotected, corrosion
Corrosion
would proceed at a relatively uniform rate all over the ship; the main engines
would fall to pieces before the ship would rust away. However, for various
There are many definitions of corrosion but seamen can consider it as the reasons we paint the ship's structure and we must therefore prevent the
deterioration of a metal due to an electrochemical reaction with its formation of corrosion cells.
en vironmen t.
Most metals are unstable and have a tendency to return to their natural
state. Such metals tend to react with their environment and produce
compounds, e.g. iron oxide or 'rust'. The process involves the movement of
electrons and it is this electrochemical reaction which causes the main
problems of corrosion on board ship.
If two electrically connected metals, each of a different potential, are
immersed in a common electrolyte, electrons will flow from one metal to the
other. The two metals are electrodes. The one which loses electrons is known
as the anode and the one which receives them, the cathode. This combination
of metals, electrolyte, and electron flow is known as a galvanic cell and is
shown in Figure 3.1

Corrosion should not be confused with erosion, which is the destruction of

material by the mechanical movement of liquid or gas. The effect of erosion is
increased if solid particles of matter are contained in the medium flowing
though a pipeline. Crude oil which contains impurities will cause internal
erosion in a pipeline quicker than refined oils. Turbulence at sharp bends
adds to the erosion process and most pipeline leaks occur at such locations.
Abrasion will remove protective coatings and expose metal. surfaces to the
atmosphere, thereby creating corrosion cells. Most of the ship's side rusting
is caused by abrasion/corrosion.
The rate of 'rusting' varies with humidity. Unfortunately for the mariner
the salt-laden humid atmosphere which surrounds his vessel is more
conducive to rust than any other environment on earth. Corrosion will not
occur unless oxygen and water are both present. It may be of some use to
consider the process as a 'corrosion triangle' similar to the fire triangle:

103
 Ship Maintenance: Corrosion Prevention
The alkyd vehicle combines drying oils with synthetic resins based on
alcohols and acids.
Some of the basic ingredients found in binders are given below.
Drying oils-linseed, tung, soya bean
Natural resins-copal, damar, rosin ~"
Synthetic resins-phenolic, vinyl, epoxy, polyurethane, silicone

(c) The solvent is the volatile component of paint and its function is to make
the paint flow for ease of application. It is generally the action of the solvent
evaporating that makes paint adhenl to a surface.

Modern paint types will be discussed in a later section.

Candidates for Certificate of ProficiencyjHND Nautical Science, when
answering examination questions on corrosion protection, should remember
that paint is still the most important protection system for ships. A general
Basic composition of paint
answer on anti-corrosion systems should commence with a discussion on paint
before moving on to describe other methods.
Some modern paints are of a complex nature but traditional paints have three
basic components:
(a) pigment Cathodic protection ' \,
(b) binding agent or vehicle
(c) solvent Corrosion is difficult to control on underwater areas of the ship's structure as
and possibly a drying agent. inspection presents problems and even when corrosion is detected corrective
action would sometimes be impossible. All corrosion is basically 'galvanic'
(a) The pigment gives the paint its colour and covering capacity. In a primer but most mariners use the term 'galvanic corrosion' when discussing the
it should be the main contributor to the corrosion-preventing properties of problem of dissimilar metals being located close to one another when both are
such paint and also enhance the adhesion of the top coats. Pigments are in an electrolyte. The corrosion rates of metals and alloys which are
generally dry powders which are held in suspension in the paint and vary submerged in sea water vary considerably and extensive research has been
from natural minerals to man-made organic compounds. They can be divided conducted on the problem. Metals which corrode rapidly are known as
broadly into: anodic or ignoble metals and those which resist corrosion are termed cathodic
colour pigments such as or noble. In Figure 3.3 the ignoble metal, steel, is corroding while the noble
white-white lead, zinc oxide, titanium dioxide
black-carbon
primers such as red lead, zinc chromate, calcium plumbate
metals such as aluminium and zinc
The pigment is held in suspension in a solution of a binding medium.

(b) The binding medium is the most important component of paint and as well
as determining its consistency and application gives the paint its physical and
chemical properties. The possible variation in binder properties is limitless
and the studen{might be wise only to consider the two basic types of
oleoresinous andialkyd binders.
The oleoresinous vehicle combines drying oils with natural and some
syn"thetic resins.

104
Shipboard Operations Ship Maintenance: Corrosion Prevention
metal bronze is protective. The corrosion rates of metals are shown in tables the metal is protected, the flow of electrons being from the anodes to the
which are known as 'Galvanic Series': Table 3.1 considers metals and alloys ship's structure. This method can be used in ship's tanks, especially the cargo
which are commonly used in shipbuilding. and ballast spaces of tankers, or on the hull. As the anodes supply the power,
Table 3.1 there is no costly outlay for equipment, the installation is simple, no
Metals and alloys commonly used in shipbuilding
supervision is required, and the current cannot be supplied in the wr<1ng
Ignoble or anodic end (corroding) Magnesium direction. The effectiveness of the method depends on the correct current
Zinc
Aluminium flow being maintained and a formula is used to calculate the amount of anode
Iron, steel required for a given protection area for a given time. If the estimation is
Lead, tin incorrect the anodes may dissolve completely between dry docks or repair
Nickel periods and protection is lost. It is t~refore essential that anodes in cargo and
Mill scale ballast tanks are inspected at regular intervals and a record of weardown kept.
Copper
High duty bronzes If possible, a few unused anodes should be kept in a convenient location so
Stainless steels that weardown comparisons can be made easily. The securing arrangements
Titanium of tank anodes should be checked as vibration sometimes loosens them. Hull
Noble or cathodic end (protected) Platinum anodes should also be checked for weardown, contact damage, vibration
damage, and to check that no overenthusiastic sailor has painted them. The
Any metal in the above series will therefore be subjected to accelerated turbulence around the stern could cause uneven weardown and the increased
corrosion when located in an adjacent position to a more noble metal. The oxygen supply provided by turbulence could accelerate the wastage rate.
underwater areas most likely to be affected by this process are: Sacrificial anodes are made of alloys of zinc, aluminium, or magnesium but
(a) the stern region due to the bronze propeller the latter should not be used in cargo tanks becausi'of the 'spark hazard'
(b) the vicinity of engine room inlets and discharges which could be caused by one falling and hitting the tank structure.
(c) valve fittings in tanks The effectiveness of galvanic protection depends on the current flow and
The most efficient system for combating underwater corrosion is 'cathodic with anodes the current available depends on the anode area. The number
protection'. The basic principle of this method is that the ship's structure is required to protect the hull area of large ships could cause too much
made cathodic, i.e. the anodic (corrosion) reactions are suppressed by the turbulence, the total weight would be excessive, and the anodes would be too
application of an opposing current and the ship is thereby protected. costly and cumbersome to fit. The impressed current system would therefore
Cathodic protection, which is only possible when metals are immersed in an be used.
electrolyte, is provided by two systems (1) sacrificial anodes, and (2)
impressed current. 2 Impressed current systems can only be used to protect the immersed external
hull. Anodes are fitted to the hull which is protected from corrosion by
maintaining a voltage difference between the anodes and the hull. An AC
current from the ship's electrical system is fed into a rectifier and DC power is
supplied to the anodes. A silver/silver chloride reference cell on the hull
measures the current density in the sea water, i.e. the voltage difference
between itself and the hull. The reference cell indirectly regulates the power
to the anodes by means of a controller which amplifies the micro-range
reference cell current and compares it with a predetermined fixed potential
difference. The 'difference' between the two readings is fed back to the
rectifier which then alters the current being supplied to the anodes until the
predetermined and reference cell potentials are equal. Figure 3.5 shows an
impressed current system.
A potential difference within the range of 180-250 mV would be suitable
for most ships but current density tables relating to the area of the wetted hull

107
 Ship Maintenance: Corrosion Prevention
are bridged by an electrolyte are liable to bimetallic corrosion. Thus, such
corrosion wiHoccur between metals which are not in direct contact with each
other. However, many mariners use the term to describe the reaction which
occurs when two different metals are in direct contact. Many corrosion and
breakdown problems occur on board ship because metallic parts have been ~.
coupled without adequate insulation or protection being provided. The rate
of corrosion in the ignoble metal will depend upon the relative sizes of the
anodic and cathodic materials. A small anode attached to a large cathode, e.g.
a steel flange in a copper pipe, will result in rapid corrosion of the anode. If
design requirements are such that two dfssimilar metals are in close proximity
to one another the following procedures should be observed:
1 The more noble metal should be used for actual connections.
are used to determine the number of anodes and the potential difference 2 Both metals should be covered by a paint film to a very high standard.
required to protect a vessel. Non-consumable relatively noble metals such as 3 The metals must be efficiently insulated from each other.
lead/silver are used for the anodes which are cast in fibre-glass bodies. The
Areas liable to bimetallic corrosion are:
bodies are bolted to flat bars which are welded to the shell plating, the cables
from the anodes being led through the hull via special ducts which are built to I Valve fittings in tanks.
stringent construction requirements. The anodes are insulated from the hull 2 Aluminium superstructures attached to steel decks.'
\,
by shields which are fitted to prevent high-density currents stripping the hull
paint. Due to the size of VLCCs (very large crude carriers) a second power
unit is located forward but the anodes for that unit must be recessed to
prevent them being damaged by the anchors. Three factors determine the
position of the anodes:
1 They must be located where there is the least risk of contact damage.
2 They must interfere as little as possible with the water flow around the ship
and to the propeller.
3 The correct currrent density must be maintained.
The impressed current system is more expensive to install than sacrificial
anodes but as the latter must be renewed, the eventual cost of both systems
would appear to be similar. The impressed current method requires trained
personnel to supervise the power units. Log sheets containing the daily
readings of volts, millivolts, and the current in amps must be maintained and
the reference reading of millivolts should be compared with the predeter-
mined value. Although the units are automatic, they must be put on manual
control when alongside in port as the system may attempt to protect the jetty
structure. The anodes and reference cells must be inspected frequently for
damage and also to ensure that they have not been painted over.

Bimetallic corro~ion

Strictly speaking, any two different metals which are in electrical contact and

108

Design faults
The designers and builders of ships occasionally neglect the operational and
maintenance requirements of ship's staff. The necessity to inspect and
maintain all parts of the ship's structure is sometimes forgotten by designers
who provide inadequate access and maintenance arrangements. Void spaces
under special cargo tanks or chambers are particularly difficult to work in and
ventilation arrangements for spaces which are seldom entered are often so
inadequate that heavy condensation causes excessive corrosion. The design
of areas that require special paint coatings often induce cracks in the coatings,
which are then difficult to inspect and repair because of the original design.
When possible, crevices or any other moisture-collecting locations should be
avoided as the development of anodic breaks in protective films on metals in
stagnant areas can cause excessive general corrosion and pitting. Most
mariners will have had to contend with some of the following design faults:
I Tanks which will not drain properly due to the incorrect positioning of
drains or suctions.
2 Scuppers whjch cannot be cleared easily and in which debris can readily
accumulate. '.
3 Pipelines with excessively sharp bends which cause erosion/corrosion.
4 Channels and gutters without drain holes.
5 Inaccessible areas which cannot be painted.
110
Ship Maintenance: Corrosion Prevention
6 Lagging which is a moisture trap.
7 Areas under deck machinery and equipment with inadequate drainage
facilities.
8 Incompatible bimetallic couplings. ~.
Plate preparation during building and repair periods
The initial surface preparation of n~w plate, whether for building or repair
purposes, is of paramount importance as it determines the life of the
protective paint system which is subsequently applied and affects the
maintenance of the paint coatings. In the case of underwater hull plating it
can affect the roughness of the hull, which is one of the determining factors of
the ship's speed, fuel consumption and operational costs.
The use of high-performance synthetic resin paints requires a very high
standard of plate preparation. As well as being very expensive, such paints do
not have the tolerance of poor surface preparation which was one of the
advantages of oleoresinous paints. All contaminants such as grease, dirt,
salts, atmospheric pollutants, and rust and mill scale tmlst be removed from
the plates prior to painting.
Mill scale
This is a bluish-black iron oxide layer which forms on steel plates during hot
rolling at the mill. The scale is very corrosion resistant and the anodic process
of corrosion cannot take place where the scale is pore-free and adherent.
However, the mill scale will not be continuous over a surface, fissures will
appear at welded seams, and pieces of the scale will become detached during
handling. Severe corrosion will occur at those places as the anodic reaction is
only possible in the areas where the steel is exposed. The scale is conductive
and the cathodic process (the consumption of oxygen) will take place readily
over the whole unbroken surface. As the total amount of corrosion will be
determined by the consumption of oxygen on the entire surface, intensive
and rapid pitting can occur. Until the early 1960s mill scale was removed by
the process of weathering. Shipyards stockpiled large amounts of plate which
were left in open stockyards for several months so that atmospheric exposure
caused rusting which pushed the scale off the metal. This method is no longer
satisfactory and other preparation techniques must be used.
Flame cleaning
Mill scale and steel have different coefficients of expansion. Thus when steel
is heated the scale flakes off. The plate surface is rapidly heated by an
HI
Shipboard Operations
oxyacetylene flame and the loosened scale/rust mixture is brushed off. Steel
can be damaged by rapid heating and the process has to be controlled
carefully and monitored to ensure that the temperature does not exceed
150°C. The principal advantage of this method is that it leaves the surface
absolutely dry and primer can be applied when the plate is still warm, around
30-40°C. This advantage is usually lost as the process is not totally effective
and residue rust/scale deposits still require to be removed by other methods.
Although there is little health hazard associated with flame cleaning,
exposure to the high temperature and flames must be avoided. To cover large
areas multi-flame heads are required and flame cleaning cannot be carried out
on certain vessels, e.g. tankers in repair yards.
Acid pickling
The handling process can be difficult and it is not suitable for shipyards
which have a large throughput of heavy steel plates. The method is
sometimes used for individual plates and small complicated sections. It is
ideal for the preparation of thin plate used in the construction of smaller craft.
Sulphuric and hydrochloric acid solutions are generally used but the
solutions must also contain a wetting agent and an inhibitor to reduce metal
loss. After pickling it is essential that the plates receive a thorough rinse in
fresh water. One of the disadvantages of this system is that it leaves the plates
wet. However, a method has been devised in which hot liquids are used and a
coat of primer can be applied when the plate is still warm. Dissimilar steels
should be pickled separately.
Blast deaning
/
This method is now standard practice in all major shipyards and is generally
considered to be the best way of removing mill scale, rust and most
contaminants. Most units consist of a heater or drier, a blaster, and an
automatic paint sprayer. One disadvantage of the system is that the blasting
'activates' the steel, making it highly susceptible to the corrosion process.
Thus the primer must be applied as soon as possible and only small areas can
be cleaned at anyone time. Large fixed plants are capable of cleaning 500
m2/hour but this rate is severely reduced for ship's side dry dock operations.
Removal of the abrasive can be a problem. In modern units the abrasive,
scale and rust falls into a container from which it is removed to a separator.
The abrasive is then re-used but this process, plus the maintenance of the
entire unit, add to the cost of the operation.
Steel shot and grit are two abrasives which are widely used. Round shot can
hammer mill sqale into the plate causing peening; this may be defined as
being the deposition in powder form on a plate of a coating metal, in this case
mill scale. Successive shot blasting can then build up a work hardened surface
112
Ship Maintenance: Corrosion Prevention
which curls up into hackles. These miniature ridges can be difficult to cover
with paint and may form rust spots. Grit is recommended by some shipyards
as it chips the corrosion off, rather than hammering it into the surface, the
plate is only slightly roughened and this improves the paint adhesion.
Thin plate can be distorted by blasting and the use of the wrong size of grif
can produce an inferior surface. The operators of blast plants must be highly
skilled as the cleaning process varies with the condition of the surface being
treated. The dust produced by blast cleaning is a health hazard and suitable
precautions must be taken to eliminate that hazard. The use of sand may
cause silicosis but it is no longer used'in the United Kingdom.
Causes of paint failure
Mariners are engaged in a constant battle against corrosion and often feel that
they are on the losing side in a war of attrition. The ocean is a relentless enemy
and the salt-laden elements constantly expose weaknesses in paint systems in
their quest to turn steel into rust. Many factors contribute to paint failure and
experienced mariners will probably be able to add to t~ following list:
1 Poor surface preparation.
2 Painting in an unfavourable environment. As the ideal conditions fall
within a range of 10°Cand 32°C and a relative humidity below 90 percent
mariners will seldom find themselves in ideal conditions.
3 Underestimating the corrosive nature of sea air and not applying enough
paint coats.
4 Using paint which is too thick or too thin.
5 Incorrect mixing of two-pack paints.
6 Prolonged exposure to the environment, e.g. engine fumes.
7 Expansion and contraction of the metal surface which loosens inelastic
paint.
8 Excessively high temperature which causes cracking.
9 Paint application by incorrect methods, e.g. wrong nozzle size on a
spray gun or using a roller for paint which must be applied solely by a
spray gun.
a
10 The use of incompatible coats, e.g. an incorrect primer for following
coat.
11 The use of unsuitable paints in specific areas.
12 Poor design, e.g. areas difficult to paint.
13 The use of unsuitable barrier paints beneath anti-fouling.
14 Chipping of paint surfaces during normal working operations.
15 Abrasion due to the vessel landing heavily on the quayside.
16 Insufficient drying time between coats.
113
Shipboard Operations
Shipboard preparations for painting
If the paint surface is undamaged, only the following steps are necessary.
1 If the surface is contaminated, a solvent cleaner should be applied.
2 The surface should then be washed down with a warm detergent solution
and rinsed off with a copious amount of fresh water. It is essential that all
traces of salt are removed from the old paintwork.
3 The surface must be thoroughly dried before painting commences.
4 If the previous paint still retains a hard gloss texture, it should be
roughened and an undercoat applied.
Epoxy paint is difficult to 'touch-up' and it may be necessary to recoat
entire plates, the appropriate undercoating being first applied.
If the paint surface has broken down to a significant degree then the
complete surface should be cleaned to bare metal. The chipping hammer and
wire brushing method does not produce a satisfactory surface for the
adhesion of modern paints. The use of hand hammers invariably produces
tiny ridges in the steel and thus increases considerably the area of steelwork
which is vulnerable to corrosion. The chipping also produces small hollows
which are difficult to cover effectively with paint and which become mois-
ture traps. Chipping can therefore be a prime factor in initiating the
pitting process. Use should be made of modern methods of surface pre-
paration.
Power wire brushing
A rotary wire brush is driven by electricity or compressed air and the brush,
which is circular and usually hand held, produces a good surface when used
against moderate rust patches.
Power discing
A similar unit to the above, but the head is a rotary abrasive impregnated
nylon disc or a backing disc with detachable abrasive paper. The power disc is
probably the slowest cleaning method but it produces a good surface on small
moderately rusted areas. It can be used to good effect when roughening epoxy
paint surfaces to provide better adhesion when touching up.
Air hammer
Powered by compressed air, some 'windy hammers' are fitted with
reciprocating heads, the size of a small hammer. When cleaning irregularly
shaped surfaces, a set of needles can be inserted instead of the hammer, but
the needles do have a tendency to break. The cleaning rate is moderate but it
114
Ship Maintenance: Corrosion Prevention
can be used effectively against heavy scale and the needles can clean areas of
pitting. Operators should wear ear protectors as the noise produced can be
considerable and the sleeping requirements of watch-keepers should be kept
in mind. ,
High-pressure water blasting
A sophisticated and increasingly popular method of rust removal, it produces
a 'white metal' finish suitable for modern paint. One leading manufacturer
uses a diesel engine to drive ultra-higb pressure pumps capable of producing
a pressure of 10,000 psi and a water flow of 10 gallons a minute. The water
flows from the pump by a hose and is blasted out through a hand-held
pistol-grip gun which directs the jet directly against the surface to be cleaned.
The gun nozzles can be changed by hand and special purpose guns can be
used for difficult areas and pipe cleaning. The guns are fitted with fail-safe
triggers.
The power unit which has wheels or skids can be moved about the ship and
the method is very effective for descaling decks. Sand can be injected with the
water to increase the efficiency of the operation. Water blasting is perhaps
the fastest of the 'on board' descaling methods and i'r- produces excellent
surfaces.
Safety precautions should be observed when using all power equipment
and safety hats, goggles, gloves and safety shoes should be used by operators.
Modem paint types
Alkyd
The vehicle in this type of paint is based on alcohols and acids. It gives an
improved drying time over vegetable oils; thus alkyds are mainly finishing
paints suitable for surfaces exposed to the atmosphere. The performance is
poor if the surface is immersed. Alkyd paints should only be used on
superstructures and not under water.
Bitumen or pitch
The paint is made by dissolving bitumen or pitch in solvents such as naphtha
and white spirit and may be used as a superstructure paint but more
commonly for internal surfaces exposed to a high degree of wetness such as
fresh-water tanks. When pigmented with aluminium paint it is often used for
plating which is constantly under water and for outer shell plating.
Chlorinated rubber
This paint is used where good chemical and water resistant coatings are
115
Shipboard Operations
required. Normally single pack it consists of pigments of plasticized
chlorinated rubbers. The paint dries by the evaporation of the solvents and
the temperature at the time of drying is not as critical as with some other paint
types. It is often used when ships are being built in winter or in poor climatic
conditions. It is designed for use in high-build systems, i.e. intended for
application with airless spray which gives very high film thickness (80-100
microns) and substantially reduces the number of coats required. This type
of paint is particularly resistant to acids and alkalis and is often used to protect
outer shell plating. Maintenance is assisted by its good adhesion to previous
coats of the same material but it cannot be applied to conventional paint
surfaces. This paint .can also be used for superstructures but in some cases
cracking has occurred after a few years.
Coaltar epoxy
A two-pack paint in which the components are pigments (bitumen or coaltar
pitch blended with resin), epoxide resins, and curing agents. The paint
provides hard thick films in which the chemical-resistant qualities of epoxy
resin are combined with the water impermeability of coaltar. It is widely used
in immersed conditions but it can be susceptible to atmospheric corrosion
and is easily damaged.
Epoxy
Epoxy resins are derived from chemicals which are extracted from petroleum
and natural gases. The epoxy resin paints have extremely good chemical,
water, and abrasion resistant qualities but are very expensive. They are
generally two-pack (two components) consisting of an epoxy base and a
hardener or curing agent. Drying is caused by the chemical action of the
polyamine or polyamide hardener with the epoxy resin base, i.e. the paint is
of the reaction-drying type. The paints ar~ very hard when cured and give
long-term protection against corrosion. Their mechanical resistance prop-
erties are superior to chlorinated rubber and vinyl paints. Initial drying,
which is by solvent evaporation, takes place in between four and six hours,
but this is followed by the chemical cure of the binder, the rate of which is
dependent on the temperature. Drying and hardening will only occur
satisfactorily in temperatures above lOoe and in relative humidities below 80
percent. One often has to wait for considerable periods of time on board ship
before suitable weather conditions are available for the application of this
type of paint .• Due to the expense involved, and the short pot life, only
sufficient paint for a half day's use should be mixed at anyone time. The
penetration quality is rather poor and first-class surface preparation is
essential to obtain a good performance from this paint, touching up is
difficult and the previous coat must be roughened. Gloss finish tends to
116
Ship Maintenance: Corrosion Prevention
'chalk' and epoxy is to be preferred as a matt deck paint than as a decorative
bulkhead paint. Epoxy paints are difficult to maintain but if applied under
suitable conditions the performance is superlative.
Oleoresinous ~.
An improvement on oil-based paints, the vehicle consists of drying oil and
natural or synthetic resins, including phenolic resins, which are often
synthesized from several different oils and resins. These paints have
improved drying time and give a betLerperformance than oil-based paints but
are not as sophisticated as the chemical-resistant paints.
Phenolic
Phenol is derived from coaltar and produces a water-resistant paint. Paints
produced from 100percent phenolic resins have excellent chemical resistance
and a very hard finish. Although often used to coat tanks on chemical
carriers, unmodified phenolic paints are sometimes used on weather deck
plating and give good corrosion resistance. Modifiedphenolic paints are often
used in order to reduce costs. \ ..
Polyurethane
Usually a two-pack paint, an alkyd polyester resin is mixed with an isocyanate
hardener and the ensuing reaction produces polyurethane paint. These
paints have many good qualities, abrasion resistance, hardness, a high gloss,
chemical resistance, and when well cured have very good water and weather
resistance. Polyurethane paints are used for tanks coatings but white
polyurethane is good external superstructure paint as it remains bright for
long periods and is not subject to rapid yellowing. This type of paint is
approximately four times the cost of alkyd paints but the superior
performance and reduced maintenance costs make it attractive to mariners.
Unfortunately the paint is very sensitive to moisture and high humidity
during application and can be difficult to use in the marine environment. The
hardness does cause a tendency to chip or crack but the advantages of this
paint vastly outweigh its disadvantages.
Primers
Steel plate must be protected from corrosion while the ship is being built and
prefabrication primers must also be rapid drying, have a non-toxic vapour,
not affect weld quality or speed, be suitable for spray application, and be a
suitable first coat for the ship's paint system. The most successful
anti-corrosive primers are those which are pigmented with iron oxide or zinc
dust and which contain corrosion inhibitors such as zinc chromate or zinc
117
Shipboard Operations Ship Maintenance: Corrosion Prevention

phosphate. Zinc dust silicate paints are used both as prefabrication primers
and as long-term anti-corrosive paints for dry cargo holds, cargo tanks, and Preservation of woodwork
ballast tanks. Such coatings resist high humidity, high temperatures,
The use of wood is very limited on modern ships but it is still used for deck
condensation and abrasion, thus are very suitable for use in marine
sheathing and other purposes on some ships. Wood decays mainly due to the '
environments. The paints have exceptional durability and good protective
action of wet and dry rot and it is generally the latter which causes problems
properties and are frequently used in tanks which carry latex, and alkalies.
on board ship, being caused chiefly by warmth and damp. To preserve
Zinc silicate paints can be overcoated with finishing paints to give increased
well-seasoned wood a coating of raw linseed oil should be allowed to soak
performance.
into the pores; this forms a more effective seal than boiled oil. All joints in
The most effective primers which the mariner can use for routine
woodwork should be filled with a suitable composition to prevent the
maintenance are those which contain chemical corrosion inhibiting pig-
lodgement of moisture. Dry rot may be detected by sounding with a hammer
ments. Calcium plumbate is a good alternative to red lead. When u.sed with
or by boring; the dullness of the sound, or the musty smell and dusty
an alkyd base it is quick drying and has excellent adhesion. The major
appearance of the borings, are sufficient indications of decay.
disadvantage is that it has toxic properties. One of the best primers avaiLble
The contact of wood with steel, unless the wood can be made a complete
is zinc chromate which is particularly suitable for use on zinc, galvanized
and watertight sheathing, frequently promotes the corrosion of the steel. All
steel, aluminium and other non-ferrous metals. It is suitable for brush or
woodwork connected to steel when watertightness cannot be ensured should
spray application and is non-toxic.
be readily removable to facilitate inspection. To ensure watertightness, deck
Mariners must ensure that any primers used are compatible with following
bolts should fit tightly in their holes, the heads must be well grommeted and
coats, e.g. a vinyl primer must be used underneath a vinyl topcoat. Zinc-rich
bedded in white lead with close-fitting dowels over. Carelessness in caulking
two-pack primers include vinyl, methane, polyester, silicote, and alkyd
wood decks may lead to the formation of moisture traps wh1'chwill eventually
paints. One of the most popular types is a zinc-rich epoxy primer which is
spring the bolt fastenings and cause them to leak.
rapid drying and has excellent corrosion resistance. One-pack zinc-rich
The origins of leaks through wood sheathing are sometimes difficult to
polyurethane primers give good performance and, although mainly used on
trace and it may be necessary to inject red lead or another composition
ship's machinery, may become increasingly popular due to easy applica-
between the surfaces to stop the leakages. After ships have been in service for
tion.
a time, particularly in the tropics, the planks of sheathing often show signs of
Vinyl shrinkage. Local treatment by caulking may spring adjacent planks. It is
better to clean out seams and butts and carefully recaulk using a sufficient
The resins are produced by the polymerization (the combining of small number of threads of oakum or a propriety filler. If the appearance of the
molecules to form large molecules) of organic compounds in the vinyl group. sheathing does not warrant extensive overhaul every third or fourth seam, or
Th~ paints have a low solids content due to the relatively low solubility of the those that show signs of retaining moisture, should be hardened or recaulked
resins and this results in thin dry films. More coats are therefore required to from butt to butt for the length of the deck. After a long period of drying,
build up an adequate paint thickness and this increases the application costs. wood decks may be treated with a coat of raw linseed oil and driers in the
Adhesion is poor if surface moisture is present; therefore good weather is proportion of twenty to one.
required during the application and because of this the paint is not popular in New wood should be deeply impregnated with preservative which is
the United Kingdom. Adhesion to bare steel is also poor and the paint must applied by pressure treatment. When the vessel has been in service for some
be applied over a pre-treatment primer such as zinc chromate in a time fresh preservation can be applied by brush.
polyvinylbutyral resin which uses phosphoric acid as an etchant. Vinyls are
usually pigmented with aluminium, zinc chromate or red lead and are not
generally suitable for brush application. The paints are one-pack and dry by A irless spray guns
loss of solvent. D~spite the disadvantages vinyls are excellent paints where
The airless spray is probably the most efficient and quickest mechanical
resistance to abrasion, chemicals, and water is required.
, system which the mariner can use for paint application on board ship. Paint is
delivered to the gun by means of an air or electrically operated fluid pump.
Atomization of the paint takes place at the gun's tungsten carbide tip solely as

118 119
Shipboard Operations
a result of high pressure. The fluid pressure at the gun may be as high as 3000
psi.
Various types of airless sprays are used on board ship and operators should
acquaint themselves with the manufacturer's instructions on the correct
usage of the equipment prior to the operation, and how to avoid risks in use.
Operators should realize that different paint manufacturers' instructions
should be closely adhered to. The gun should be kept perpendicular to the
surface being sprayed. Avoid 'arcing' the gun as it produces an uneven coat.
At the end of each stroke care should be taken to avoid swinging the gun out
of its direction at right angles to the face of the work. The trigger should be
released towards the end of the stroke so that the paint is feathered off and
successive strokes should be overlapped. If the gun is held too close to the
work surface the paint will ripple or run; if it is held too far away the paint will
not be applied uniformly. If the atomizing pressure is too low the finished
work has the appearance of orange peel, and if the pressure is too high the
operator will be lost in a cloud of paint fog. Excessive high pressure will
deliver the paint too quickly, causing sagging and paint wastage.
Safety is of paramount importance when using the airless spray and
incorrect procedures or horseplay could result in a lethal accident. The gun
must not be aimed at any part of the body as the paint can penetrate the skin
or cause serious eye injuries. Safety procedures can be found in Chapter 14of
the 'Code'. Smoking and the use of unapproved lights should be prohibited in
any space in which spraying is taking place. Suitable protective clothing such
as a combination suit, gloves, cloth hood, and eye protection should be worn.
A dust mask, air-fed hood, or suitable respirator must be worn. If a spray
nozzle clogs, the trigger should be locked in a closed position before any
attempt is made to clear the blockage. Before the nozzle is removed, or any
other dismantling attempted, pressure must be relieved from the system. A
gun having a reversible nozzle requires special care to ensure that hands are
clear of the nozzle's orifice when a blockage is being removed by blowing
through.
The spray system should be inspected regularly for defects and the
pressure should not exceed the recommended working pressure of the hose.
Static electricity may be generated by the pressures necessary for airless
spraying and it is possible that sparking may occur between the gun and the
object being sprayed; both must therefore be grounded. The hose usually
contains a static electricity conductor; if not, a static wire from the gun must
be attached to a suitable earth connection.
The airless spray is suitable for most paints but those containing lead,
mercury, or similar toxic compounds should not be sprayed in interiors.
Conventional cat-go spaces should be given primer coats of yellow zinc
chromate, followed by top coats of bright aluminium containing an
oleoresinous low-acid base.
120
Ship Maintenance: Corrosion Prevention
The tween deck spaces of a refrigeration vessel present a particular
problem as the paint must be quick drying (non-oleoresinous), long lasting,
high reflecting, capable of withstanding low temperatures, and should help to
provide insulation by having low thermal conductivity. The paint should also
be fire resistant, non-tainting, and should contain no toxic gases for safety in
application. The product used is a two-pack polyurethane paint which is
mixed with a chlorodifluoromethane solution (Refrige 22). The mixture reacts
chemically to produce a paint with the following excellent characteristics:
ease of application and very prIKtical with a spray gun
good durability
chemically inert
affords insulation by its expanded plastic type insulating material
bonds well to steelwork to give good corrosion protection
impervious to water transmission
fire resistant
non-toxic
A suitable wash primer should first be applied, then a sufficient number of
coats of the above mixture. Heating of the area is not ~e'luired if the ambient
temperature is above 15°C;therefore large areas can be conveniently sprayed.
Personal protection advice for painters
The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 places a duty on suppliers of
substances for use at work to ensure as far as is reasonably practicable that
those substances are safe and without risk to health when properly used.
Members of the Marine Coatings Group of the Paintmakers Association of
Great Britain Limited now label all drums of paint with a two-digit number.
This is known as the 'Personal Protection Advice (PPA) Number' and by use
of a table it informs the operator what protective equipment should be worn
when applying the paint. As an example, the code number '1/6', when
referred to a table, informs the operator that if he is spraying the paint in a
confined space he must wear gloves, eye protection, skin protection, and an
air-fed hood/mask. The PPA instructions should be strictly observed.
Shipboard paint systems
The paint system applied to any part will be dictated by the environment to
which that part of the structure is exposed. Traditionally the painting of the
external ship structure was divided into three regions.
121
Shipboard Operations
1 Below the light load line where the plates are continually immersed in
water.
2 Between the light and statutory load lines, i.e. the boot topping area where
immersion is intermittent and much abrasion occurs.
3 The topside and superstructure which are exposed to an atmosphere laden
with salt spray and are subject to damage by cargo handling and general
'wear and tear'.
However, now that high-quality paints are being used for the ship's bottom,
the distinction between hull regions need not be so well defined, the boot
topping area is often omitted and one system used for both the bottom and the
water line regions.
Internally by far the greatest problem is the provision of suitable coatings
for various liquid cargo and water ballast tanks.
Below the waterline
The ship's bottom has priming coats of corrosion-inhibiting paint applied,
followed by an antifouling paint. Coatings used for steel immersed in sea
water are required to resist alkaline conditions. To put it more technically, an
iron alloy immersed in a sodium chloride solution, having the necessary
supply of dissolved oxygen, gives rise to corrosion cells with caustic soda
being produced at the cathodes. In addition, the paint should have a good
electrical resistance so that the flow of corrosion currents between the steel
and sea water is limited.
Such requirements make the standard non-marine structural steel primer,
red lead in linseed oil, unsuitable for ship use below the waterline. Suitable
corrosion-inhibiting paints for ships' bottoms are pitch or bitumen types,
chlorinated rubber, coaltar epoxy resin, or vinyl resin.
The antifouling paints are applied after the corrosion-inhibiting coatings
and should not come into direct contact wid} the steel hull, since the copper
and mercury compounds present in the paint may cause corrosion.
Antifouling paints consist of a matrix or vehicle in which the toxin is evenly
mixed but there are two basic types: (a) only the toxin is dissolved into the sea
water, (b) both the toxin and its vehicle are dissolved.
Most long-life antifouling vehicles are now formulated to maintain an
unbroken surface as they release their toxic material and this presents a
smoother hull surface than would otherwise be possible. Skin friction is
believed to account for 80 percent of resistance to movement through water.
Shipowners are increasingly aware of the importance of hull smoothness--
corrosion, flaking and blistering, and fouling alI cause hull roughness
problems. Research has produced two completely new antifouling systems:
(a) reactivatable, and (b) self-polishing paints.
122
Ship Maintenance: Corrosion Prevention
The toxic properties of antifouling paints, which kilI or repel the infectious
stages of fouling organisms, will eventually become exhausted. A leading
paint manufacturer has developed a method of using reactivatable paint by
means of which vessels can be kept at sea for up to five years without fouling
occurring. A high-quality anti-corrosive paint is followed by thick coats 'Of
antifouling. When the toxic level of the outer layer becomes too low, the
surface is reactivated by removing the outer layer and exposing fresh
antifouling. The coating is cleaned and reactivated by divers using special
automatic equipment and is carried out at approximately yearly intervals. Up
to three reactivations can be achieved from the initial application.
The same manufacturer produces a self-polishing antifouling which uses a
specialIy formulated organo-tin-acrylcopolymer as a binder which slowly
dissolves in sea water. The antifouling agent is thus released at a constant rate
during the period between drydockings and water turbulence smooths any
roughness peaks on the film surface. Self-polishing paints have a life of
approximately four years.
The most serious factor leading to hull roughness seems to be the sandwich
coatings which build up after a number of drydockings, a heavy layer
consisting of alternate coats of primer and antifouling. One of the great
advantages of reactivatable and self-polishing paints is'that it is not necessary
to use a sealer or primer before applying fresh antifouling, thus sandwich
coatings do not build up. However, if the above systems are being applied to a
ship which has been in service for a number of years it must be blast cleaned
before the new system is applied.
Topsides
The modern practice requires a paint system for the hulI above the waterline.
These systems are often based on vinyl and alkyd resins or on polyurethane
resin paints.
Superstructures
Red lead or zinc chromate based primers are commonly used with white
finishing paints. These are usually oleoresinous or alkyd paints which may be
based on 'non-yellowing' oils. Linseed oil based paints which yellow on
exposure are generally avoided on modern ships. Zinc chromate paints
should be used on aluminium superstructures.
Two modern paint systems are shown in Tables 3.2 and 3.3.
123

4 II A well-documented plan ensures that new personnel are aware of the
Ship Maintenance: Planned
Maintenance
Reasons for planned maintenance
1 The most important facet of planned maintenance must be 'preventive
maintenance'. This is the maintaining of the vessel and its equipment in
good operating condition by the necessary continuous assessment and
action. The old adage 'prevention is better than cure' is extremely
important to mariners due to the isolated nature of the employment and to
the lack of immediate repair and spares facilities. Good preventive
maintenance means that large sums of money are not wasted on
emergency spares, overtime, emergency services such as tugs, delays to
the ship, and on operational incidents. Equipment, such as a component
part, is replaced before the entire unit breaks down. After a certain period
of time it may be cheaper to replace some components rather than
constantly repair them. In general, systematic maintenance should mean
fewer breakdowns and repairs.
2 Planned maintenance ensures the reliability of equipment, the equipment
operates efficiently when it is required to do so and the ship's staff can rely
on it in an emergency.
3 A plan ensures that the crew is working to maximum efficiency and
working in most weathers and conditions.
4 The plan continually assesses the efficiency of equipment and all aspects
of its maintenance.
S A good plan ensures that no areas of the vessel or items of equipment are
neglected or overlooked.
6 Well-maintained equipment presents fewer hazards to the crew.
7 Well-maintained equipment will last longer and so reduce capital outlay
for the ship~wner.
8 The ship win be ready to undergo surveys at short notice.
9 The ship will be up to standard should any snap inspections be conducted
by appropriate authorities.
126
Ship Maintenance: Planned Maintenance
10 Planned maintenance ensures that the rate of deterioration of equipment
is continually monitored, assessed, and to some extent controlled.
maintenance situation.
12 The use of planned maintenance means that equipment can ~be
overhauled at convenient times. Such maintenance can be 'running', i.e.
the unit is still in service, or 'shut down'. In the latter case it is important
that the maintenance is carried out at an appropriate time and that the
necessary spares for such work are available.
13 Planned maintenance can redute or obviate the need for costly shore
labour.
Construction of a planned maintenance schedule
Some companies operate sophisticated systems which go into elaborate and
minute details of the day-to-day maintenance of the ship's equipment. One
should not disparage such systems as they are of great assistance to the keen
officer. However, some schemes tend to inflict an inordinate amount of
paperwork on the Chief Officer and many officers ~I that some schemes
control the men, instead of the men controlling the scheme. Planned
maintenance need not involve extensive paperwork but some basic points
should be borne in mind:
I A plan must be adaptable to various weather conditions.
2 The plan must be flexible so that changes of orders or cargoes do not upset
it unduly.
3 The length of voyages, routes, and trades that the vessel is involved in
must be considered.
4 The maintenance of safety equipment and emergency team training
should be integrated with the overall maintenance plan.
S The plan should be constructed so that the appropriate equipment is
brought up to optimum condition for statutory and classifications surveys
such as 'Safety Equipment', 'Load Line', and 'Lifting Appliances'.
6 Drydocking and repair periods should be integrated with the plan.
7 Manufacturers' advice should be complied with and all manufacturers'
maintenance logs should be completed.
8 The plan should include the availability of appropriate equipment for
breakdown maintenance due to unforeseen circumstances.
9 Provision must be made for spare part replacements due to wear and tear
maintenance. There should also be a method for ordering spares as soon
as replacement items are used.
10 The plan must be carefully thought out, well controlled, and an efficient
recording system must be kept up to date.
127
Shipboard Operations Ship Maintenance: Planned Maintenance

The plan should be broken down into various 'time phases'. Each schedule Monthly inspection and greasing where necessary
will, of, course, be tailored to fit each particular ship but a schedule could be Lifeboat falls for broken strands
based on the following three categories: CO2 cylinders in gang release system
(a) Short-term maintenance Fire detection system
(b) Long-term maintenance Breathing apparatus and associated equipment ~.
(c) Maintenance due to operational requirements Ladders on masts and ventilation posts
The following is a very basic planned maintenance schedule for a general Radar mast rigging
cargo vessel. Fire gauzes
Freeing ports
Scuppers '"
Planned maintenance schedule for a general cargo vessel Hatchway non-return valves
Ship side guard rails
(a) Short-term maintenance
(b) Long-term maintenance
Weekly inspection and greasing (when possible)
Winches and windlass Three-monthly inspection and/or overhaul
Oil baths, if any, in winches and windlass All cargo gear
Wheels on steel hatch covers Navigation light connections
Door hinges on mast houses Hold ventilation systems ,
Ventilation system flaps and ventilators \ ..
Cleats on external weathertight doors Six-monthly inspection and/or overhaul
Anchor securing arrangements Cargo winches
Booby hatches to cargo holds Strip all mooring rollers
Sounding and air pipes Fresh-water tanks
Fairleads, rollers All running gear, strip blocks and derricks
Derrick heels Cofferdams and void spaces
Forepeak and afterpeak
Fortnightly inspection and greasing Remove ventilator cowls and grease the coaming, test damper flaps and
Accommodation ladder and gangway locking screws
Lifeboat falls and blocks Hold equipment such as spar ceiling, limber boards, double-bottom
Davit pivot points manholes, wells, bilges and strum boxes
Fire hydrants and monitors
Fire hose box hinges Yearly
Quick release gear on bridge wing lifebuoys Derust and repaint derricks
All lifebuoys End-for-end lifeboat falls
Liferaft securing arrangements Watertight seals on hatchways
Securing bolts on international shore connection Loosen spare anchor securing bolts, lubricate all anchor parts and
Steel hatch cross joint and quick-acting cleats re-secure
Hatch gypsy Qrive wheels and followers Rotationiil cleaning and painting of storerooms, alleyways, cabins and
Hatch contactor panel fuses, electric cables and connections, motor mess rooms
heaters ! Strip the windlass and aft mooring winch
All external butterfly nuts Standing rigging
All external electric cables and deck-lighting arrangements

128 129
 Shipboard Operations Ship Maintenance: Planned Maintenance

(c) Operational maintenance
To be carried out when necessary
Anchor cable markings
Check mooring ropes and wires hefore and after use
All gantlines before being used on stages
Pilot ladders and hoists, gangways, accommodation ladders, and
associated equipment before and after use
Check anchors and cables stowed properly
Test fire fighting appliances before entering port
Test hand and emergency steering arrangements betore approaching
coasts or heavy traffic areas
Cargo securing arrangements
All cargo gear and hatch closing arrangements before and after use
Clean holds, remove all stains and touch up the ship's side. Test tween
deck scuppers by pouring water down, test gas smothering pipes with
compressed air, clean tween deck hatch trackways
Check the hydraulic oil in any cargo or hatch systems
Fumigate and spray holds as necessary
Regulations applicable to the maintenance of cargo-handling
equipment
The use of common sense is probably the best operational and maintenance
guide that mariners have but in addition all maintenance should be based on a
knowledge of the appropriate statutory regulations and requirements. The
appropriate regulations for cargo-handling equipment are the Merchant Ship-
ping Hatches and Lifting Plant regulations operative 1 January 1989, which
were discussed in Chapter 2.1 consider it essential that all personnel involved
in cargo-handling operations and maintenance should study M1347 as the
Annex contains the revised Chapter 17 of the Code which set out the principles
and guidance for putting the Regulations into practice. Only a few brief points
are considered below.
additon: 'Safety devices fitted to lifting appliances should be checked by the
operator before work starts and at regular intervals thereafter to ensure that
they are working properly'. Wire ropes should also be regularly inspected and
treated with suitable lubricants. Particular care should be taken with the appli-
cation of the lubricant to ensure that it penetrates the wire so that inte1'nal
corrosion, as well as external corrosion, will be prevented. Wire ropes should
never be permitted to dry out.
Testing oflifting plant
'"
No lifting plant on board shall be used:
(a) after installation, or
(b) after any repair or modification which is likely to alter the safe working load
(SWL), or affect the lifting plant's strength or stability, without being
first tested by a competent person.
No lifting appliance shall be used unless it has been suitably tested by a
competent person within the preceding five years.
Most lifting appliances will be tested by means of a static test by dynamome-
ter or by the application of a proof load. This is the ohl{ time that the SWL can
be exceeded as Chapter 17 states that 'a mass in excess"of SWL should not be
lifted unless':
(a) a test is required;
(b) the weight of the load is known and is the appropriate proof load;
(c) the lift is a straight lift by a single appliance;
(d) the lift is supervised by the competent person who would normally super-
vise a test and carry out a thorough examination;
(e) the competent person specifies in writing that the lift is appropriate in
weight and other respects to act as a test of the plant, and agrees to the
detailed plan for the lift; and
(0 no person is exposed to danger.
Chapter 17 also states that where proof loading is part of a test the test load
applied should exceed the SWL as specified in the relevant British Standard,
or in other cases by at least the following:

SWL Lifting appliances Single sheave ,Multi-sheave

Routine maintenance ( tonnes ) cargo and cargo and
pulley blocks pulley blocks
It is clearly pointed out that the 'requirement for maintenance means that the
0-10 SWL x 1.25 SWLx4 SWLx2
lifting plant should be kept in good working order, in an efficient state and in SWLx4 SWL x 2
11-20 SWL x 1.25
good repair'. ThIs means that the principle of systematic preventive mainten- 21-25 SWL + 5 SWLx4 SWL x 2
ance should be"adopted. There should, therefore, be very regular routine 26-50 SWL + 5 SWLx4 SWL x 0.933 + 27
inspections of all equipment by an experienced person with the inspections 51-160 SWL x 1.1 SWLx4 SWL x 0.933 + 27
being at intervals related to the character and usage of the equipment. In 161 + SWL x 1.1 SWLx4 SWL x 1.1

130
131
 Shipboard Operations
Ship Maintenance: Planned Maintenance
Such tests would normally be conducted by personnel from a repair or ship
thoroughly examined
yard or from a reputable firm of ship riggers. A 'competent person' would
Angle to the horizontal or radius at which test load applied
probably be someone of managerial status from such a firm.
SWL at the angle or radius
Test load (tonnes)
Examination of lifting plant Name and address of the firm or competent person who witnessed test-
ing and carried out thorough examination
Lifting plant must be thoroughly examined by a competent person after one of
Signature and declaration of competent person
the above tests. In addition, no lifting plant shall be used unless it has been
Date
thoroughly examined by a competent person at least once in every 12 month
Place
period. In the latter case a Chief Officer could be considered to be a competent
person. Chapter 17 states that a thorough examination 'means a detailed exam- Reports of the '12 monthly' thorough examinations should be written in a
ination by a competent person, supplemented by such dismantling as the com- 'Register of ship's lifting appliances and cargo handling gear' in a format in
petent person considers necessary, and access to or removal of hidden parts accordance with ILO Convention No. 152. Part 1 of the Register contains
also at the discretion of the competent person in order to arrive at a reliable entries with regard to 'Thorough examination of lifting appliances and loose
conclusion as to the safety of the plant examined'. gear'. Part 1 contains 5 columns:
A competent person is defined in Chapter 17 as someone over 18 and of 'such
1 Situation and description of lifting appliances and loose gear which have
practical and theoretical knowledge and actual experience of the type of
been thoroughly examined.
machinery or plant which he has to examine as will enable him to detect defects
2 Certificate numbers.
or weaknesses which it is the purpose of the examination to discover and to
3 Examination performed, e.g. Initial '
assess their importance in relation to the strength, stability and functions of the
12 monthly \ ..
machinery or plant'.
Five yearly
Repair I damage
Certificates and Reports Others
4 Declaration by competent person, signed and dated.
The master shall ensure that a certificate or report shall be supplied within 28
5 Remarks (to be signed and dated).
days following any test or examination and shall be kept in a safe place on board
ship for a period of at least 2 years from receipt of the certificate or report of the Part II should contain details of regular inspections of loose gear.
next following test or examination. Certificates are thus required to be written In addition to any of the foregoing, any competent person discovering a
within 28 days. Certificates or reports should be kept readily available and defect affecting the safety of plant should ensure that a suitable person is
should be available to any dock worker or shore employer using the ship's informed of the defect so that the defect can be remedied.
plant.
M1347 contains examples of certificates, which should be in the format Rigging plans (ships' derricks)
recommended in ILO Convention No. 152. For example, the certificate of test
and thorough examination of lifting appliances should contain the following Rigging plans shall be available and contain the following information:
information: (a) position and size of deck eye-plates
(b) position of inboard and outboard booms
Identity of national authority or competent organization (c) maximum headroom (i.e. permissible height of cargo hook above hatch
Certificate number
coaming)
Name of ship
(d) maximum angle between runners
Official number
(e) position, size and SWL of blocks
Call sign .~
(f) length, size and SWL of runners, topping lifts, guys and preventers
Port of registry
(g) SWL of shackles
Name of owner
(h) position of derricks producing maximum forces
Situation and description of lifting appliances which have been tested and (i) optimum position for guys and preventers to resist such maximum forces
132
133
 Shipboard Operations
(j) combined load diagrams showing forces for a load of I tonne or the SWL
(k) guidance on the maintenance of the derrick rig
Maintenance schedule for cargo-handling equipment
1 All grease nipples on winches, blocks, derrick heels, crane 'turntables',
and similar equipment should be attended to weekly.
2 Inspection of ancillary equipment such as chains, rings, hooks, swivels,
blocks, and shackles every 3 months.
3 A thorough overhaul of the above equipment every 6 months. The derricks
or derrick cranes should be stripped of all the ancillary equipment and the
gear taken apart, examined, greased, and re-assembled.
All grease nipples should be extracted and examined.
All items of equipment should be examined to ensure that the SWL and
identifying number are legible.
The location and identifying number of each individual item should be
checked against the rigging plan location and number of that item. If any
piece of equipment is replaced the rigging plan must be amended
accordingly. It is essential that the actual position of all the cargo handling
equipment corresponds with the position shown on the rigging plan. The
file containing the certificates should be examined to ensure that each item
does have an appropriate certificate.
Winches should also be overhauled every 6 months with the co-operation
of the engineer officers.
4 The lifting appliances, e.g. derricks, should be de-rusted, overhauled, and
painted every 12 months. Particular attention should be paid to the goose
neck swivel and it may be necessary to lift the derrick so that the goose neck
can be overhauled.
S All equipment, including wire runners and winches, should be inspected
before, during and after use. If any item appears suspect it should be
replaced immediately by equipment which has an appropriate certificate.
The rigging plan should be amended immediately.
Care of cargo blocks
Frequently check the swivel head for free movement by hand; grease the
shank and bearihg. Examine the side plates for distortion or buckling; a
runner could become caught between a sheave and a distorted side plate, thus
causing a serious accident. Sheaves should turn freely when rotated by hand
134
Ship Maintenance: Planned Maintenance
and they should be examined for cracks and bush wear. The grooves of the
sheaves should be checked for wear which will quickly ruin a new runner.
Axle pins should be secure and unable to work adrift; the thread in the pin
should be checked for damage. If possible avoid painting blocks as this
practice clogs grease nipples and reservoirs, covers statutory markings, and
hides defects. The surfaces of blocks should be oiled frequently. Self-
lubricating blocks should have the reservoirs cleaned out and refilled with a
suitable lubricant. Conventional blocks should be lubricated daily when in
use. Check all split pins and inspect the distance pieces.
~
Overhauling the derrick heel goose neck
If possible this operation should be carried out when the vessel is at anchor as
the derrick must be lifted in order to inspect part of the goose neck. If
conducted on passage the weather conditions should be ideal, the derrick
should be well secured when it is unshipped, and due regard should be had to
unforeseen athwartships movement of the vessel. Before starting the job a
temporary secure crutch for the derrick heel should be made so that the
derrick is not left suspended on the lifting tackle. In~xperienced personnel
should be instructed on their role in the operation and all applicable safety
precautions should be taken.
1 Securely lash the derrick head in its crutch.
2 Remove and overhaul the derrick heel block.
3 Secure a purchase of appropriate SWL to a suitable position on the mast
or samson post and to the derrick. A direct lift can often be obtained over
the derrick heel by unshipping the derrick topping lift block and securing
the purchase by a strap to the heel of the derrick.
4 If the goose neck securing arrangements are similar to those shown in
Figure 4.1, the split pins should be withdrawn and paint and corrosion
removed from around the bolts. On some ships the bolts nuts may be
secured by an additional locking or ring nut.
S Lubricate and remove the vertical and horizontal pivot bolt nuts.
6 Heave tight, preferably by hand, on the lifting purchase and take the
weight of the derrick.
7 Lubricate, free, and remove the pivot bolts. A gentle tapping with a
hammer may be necessary to dislodge the bolts.
8 Unship the derrick heel and secure it in the temporary crutch.
9 Clean all surfaces thoroughly and check all parts for signs of wear or hair
cracks. Particular attention should be paid to the bolts.
10 Thoroughly lubricate all areas and re-assemble the goose neck area to its
operational condition.
135
 Ship Maintenance: Planned Maintenance

3 When the derrick is repaired it must be re-rigged and tested as stated in

the regulations. The test should be conducted by an approved shore
establishment such as a shipyard or a company which carries out derrick
work.
When the test and thorough examination are completed the standard certifI-
cate entitled 'Certificate of Test and Thorough Examination of Lifting Appli-
ances' will be issued. The certificate should have four columns which give the
following information:
(a) Equipment tested, position on the ship, identification marks of the
equipment '"
(b) Angle to the horizontal in degrees during the test
(c) Proof load applied
(d) SWL at the angle shown
The certificate is signed by a responsible representative of the firm which
carried out the test. The name, address, position, and qualification of the
representative are shown on the certificate, also a statement by that person
corroborating the fact that the test was carried out and that a thorough exam-
ination afterwards showed that the equipment had withstood the proofload. A
'Certificate of Test and Thorough Inspection of Loose ~r' will probably also
be required.

Safety precautions when overhauling cargo appliances

Chapters 15 and 17 of the 'Code' should be consulted.

Working aloft

1 Only experienced seamen should be sent aloft. Seamen with less than 12
months' sea time or who are under 18 years of age should only be sent aloft
under adequate supervision.
2 Safety harnesses must be worn.
3 Shut off power to the whistle, post notices in the radio room, and instruct
the radio officer not to transmit. Request the engineers to reduce steam
and smoke emissions.
4 If work is taking place near radar scanners, the radars should be isolated
and warning notices put on the sets.
5 Before the men proceed aloft all supporting equipment, such as bosun's
chairs and gantlines, should be inspected and load tests applied.
6 If possible, safety nets should be rigged.
7 Tools should be sent up in suitable containers.
8 The containers should be secured aloft so that tools not in use can be
stowed in the containers. Tools should not be left unsecured on areas such
as mast tables.
137
Shipboard Operations
9 Suitable clothing should be worn, it must not impede movement but
should not be loose. Non-slip protective shoes should be worn and a
safety helmet.
10 If possible do not raise men in bosun's chairs. If it is necessary to do so
they must be raised by hand. Under no circumstances should men be
raised by power.
11 Working on blocks invariably means greasy hands; care must be taken
when handling tools. Equipment belts might be of use to stow frequently
used tools.
12 All shackles which do not have locking pins should be seized.
13 Blocks should be sent down separately on individual gantlines.
Working on deck
1 Protective clothing must be worn.
2 Derrick blocks are heavy. They should be lifted correctly with sufficient
men to do the job properly.
3 Do not stand underneath men working aloft, especially when blocks are
being sent down.
4 Use proper supports if working a short distance above the deck. A much
abused forty gallon oil drum is not a proper support.
S Portable ladders should be lashed before being used.
6 New wire should not be used directly from a coil. Flake 'up and down' on
the deck before use.
7 Frequently remove oil and grease marks from the deck.
When work is completed all safety devices, such as split pins, should be
inspected.
Care and maintenance of mechanical steel hatch covers
Weather conditions and operational problems will probably ensure that a
strict adherence to the following schedule is impossible; it should be accepted
only as a guide. The schedule directly applies to the single-pull hatch cover
type and should be adapted for other systems such as hydraulic folding covers
and piggy-back covers.
Weekly
Clean and grease the eccentric wheels.
.'
138
Ship Maintenance: Planned Maintenance
Fortnightly
Clean and lubricate all quick-action cleats, cross-joint wedges, gypsy drive
wheels and followers, and the balancing rollers. Request the duty engineer to
isolate the contactor panels and check the fuses, cables and connections}.and
the heaters. All other electrical maintenance should be carried out by an
electrical officer.
Monthly
Check the hatch coaming non-return valves by pouring water into the
drainage holes in the coaming top. Inspect the drainage channels between the
sections to ensure that they are not clogged with dirt. Hose test the covers
with a water pressure of approximately SO psi and inspect for leaks. Check all
drainage channels and coaming trackways for signs of corrosion.
Six-monthly
Remove all corrosion from the external and internal surfaces of the covers.
Look for signs of rusting underneath the hatch cover neoprene watertight
~. ,
Yearly
Check the seal for resilience and signs of perishing. When the hatch covers
, are secured the seal makes firm contact with steel compression bars welded on
top of the coaming. Check the bars for signs of damage, apply chalk to the
bars, close the covers and secure them. Open the hatch and check that the seal
has been marked by the chalk; the seal will have to be renewed in any sections
which are unmarked.
Operational maintenance and safety precautions
If the hatch has motorized panels the towing chains may need adjusting after
a period in service. Before closing the hatch ensure that the trackways are
clear of debris, that all cleats are in the proper stowage position, and that the
panel safety securing chains are released. Before opening the hatch, free all
side securing cleats, remove all cross-panel wedges on top of the hatch, turn
the eccentric wheels and check the locking pins, and remove the safety
locking pins. When the covers are moving all personnel should keep well
clear and never stand on top of the panels. A restraining wire in good
condition should be used to prevent the panels 'running away'; modern
motorized panels have a braking system to prevent such an occurrence .
Follow all the manufacturer's instructions regarding safety and maintenance.
139
Shipboard Operations
Care and maintenance of pilot ladders and hoists
Before including the pilot ladder and hoist in a maintenance schedule an
officer should check that both comply with the following regulations:
SOLAS 1974, Chapter V, Safety of Navigation, Regulation 17;
The Merchant Shipping (Pilot Ladders and Hoists) Regulations 1987
In particular the following points should be considered when making an
initial inspection of the pilot ladders:
I The ladder must be in one continuous length. The practice of having a
short ladder for the loaded passage, which was then shackled to another
length to make a long ladder for the light ship passage, is not permitted.
2 The steps must be made of hardwood or other material of equivalent
strength and the four lowest steps may be of rubber or similar material.
3 The steps must be in one piece and if made of wood must be knot free.
They must have a non-slip surface and the dimensions should be not less
than 480 mm long, liS mm wide, and 25 mm in depth; non-slip grooving
is not included in these dimensions.
4 All the steps should be the same distance apart, the equal spacing should
not be less than 300 mm and not more than 380 mm, and they must be
secured in such a manner as to remain horizontal.
5 Check the ladder for replacement steps as no ladder is permitted to have
more than two replacement steps which are secured in any way that differs
from the original method. If the replacement steps are secured to the side
ropes by grooves, such grooves must be in the long side of the steps.
6 Spreaders, which should be of the same material as the rest of the ladder
and between 1.8 and 2 metres long, should be at such intervals as to
prevent the ladder from twisting. However, the fifth step from the bottom
should be a spreader and the intervals between any spreaders must not
exceed nine steps.
7 The side ropes must consist of two continuous manila ropes on each side
with a diameter of not less than 18 mm.
Any ladder which does not comply with SOLAS standards must be
replaced as soon as possible. The regulations also contain certain safety
provisions regarding the rigging, use, and access from pilot ladders and the
crew should be instructed on the following procedures:
1 Two man ropes of not less than 20 mm in diameter should be provided
securely rigged to the ship.
2 A safety line with a harness, a lifebuoy with a light, and a heaving line
should be kept near at hand ready for use. Do not attach the heaving line
to the lifebuoy.
140
Ship Maintenance: Planned Maintenance
3 The ladder should be rigged:
(a) clear of any discharges
(b) clear of the finer lines of the ship and as near midships as possible, but
not under any overhanging parts of the ship's hull structure
(c) so that each step is firmly against the ship's side ~.
4 Th~ person using the ladder should not climb less than 1.5 m and not
more than 9 m. If the distance from the sea level to the point of access to
the ship is more than 9 m, an accommodation ladder must be rigged so
that the pilot can transfer to the accommodation ladder. The pilot
ladder's upper end must extend at least 2 m above the accommodation
ladder's lower platform; the latter should be rigged as near to the
mid-length of the ship as is practicable, it should lead aft, the lower end
should rest firmly against the ship's side, and the falls should be bowsed
ID.
S The area should be well lighted.
6 The deck area should be free of grease.
7 A boat rope should be kept at hand.
8 The ladder should not be secured to the side rails but to cleats or eye pads
on deck. '
9 Safe access must be provided from the head of the ~l1ot or accommodation
ladder to the deck. If access is by means of a gateway in the rails or
bulwark, adequate handholds shall be provided. If access is by means of a
bulwark ladder, it must be securely attached to the bulwark rail or
landing platform and to the deck. Two handhold stanchions, which are
not part of the bulwark ladder, must be rigidly secured to the ship's
structure. Each stanchion must be at least 40 mm in diameter, and be
secured to the ship at its base and at a higher point; it must extend at least
1.2 m above the top of the bulwark, and the stanchions should be spaced
between 0.7 and 0.8 m apart.
10 The rigging of ladders, and the actual embarkation or disembarkation,
must be supervised by a responsible officer.
II It must be possible for the ladder to be rigged either side of the ship. Thus
if the ship is carrying deck cargo, means must be provided to enable the
pilot to board on either side. Each pilot ladder must be kept clean and in
good order and must only be used in pilot operations, or by officials and
other persons while a ship is arriving at or leaving a pori.
Pilot hoists are sometimes fitted on vessels which have a very large
freeboard when in ballast conditions. The hoists are built to stringent
specifications and must be of a type approved by the Secretary of State. A
hoist and its ancillary equipment must be of such a design and construction as
to ensure that it can be used in a safe manner. A safe access from the hoist to
the ship must be provided. The hoist must only be used in pilot operations, or
141
Shipboard Operations
by officials and other persons while a ship is arriving at or leaving a pOrt.
A hoist must be clearly marked with the maximum complement it is
permitted to carry, it must be located clear of the finer lines and as close as
practicable to midships but not underneath any overhanging parts of the
ship's hull structure, and the operator at the control point must be able to see
the whole operation. A copy of the manufacturer's maintenance manual,
which contains a maintenance log, must be kept on board and an officer must
enter a record of maintenance and repairs in the manual. The hoist must be
well maintained and kept in good order. The construction of the hoist
consists of three main parts:
(a) a mechanically powered winch
(b) two separate falls
(c) a ladder consisting of a rigid upper part on which a person stands and a
flexible lower part of a short length of pilot ladder which enables a person
to board from or disembark to a launch
(a) The source of power can be electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic. The source
of power must not cause a hazard to a ship carrying flammable cargo and if
pneumatic must be provided with an exclusive air supply. The winch must
include a brake which can support the working load in the event of a power
failure and hand gear capable of lowering a person 'stranded' in the same
circumstances. Engagement of a manual crank handle must automatically cut
off the power supply and the hoist must have a safety limit (cut-off) device
and an emergency stop. In addition, the person being carried must be able to
operate an emergency stop switch. The speed of the hoist should be between
15 and 30 m per minute and the falls must wind evenly on to the winch
drums. The controls must be clearly marked and the hoist securely attached
to the ship's structure (not to the side rails). The means of access must be by a
platform guarded by handrails, and any electrical appliance associated with
the ladder section must not be operated at a voltage exceeding 25 volts.
(b) The falls must be of flexible steel wire rope of adequate strength and
which is resistant to the corrosion-inducing environment in which ships
operate. They should be securely attached to the winch drums and to the
ladder and must be of such a distance apart as to reduce the possibilities of
twisting. The falls must be long enough to do the job in all service conditions
and still leave three turns on the winch drum.
(c) The ladder section must have a rigid part at least 2.5 m long with
sufficient non:·skid steps to provide safe and easy access and with safe
handholds. A~preader with rollers is fitted at the lower end to enable the
ladder to roll freely on the ship's side and an effective guard ring is fitted to
provide physical support for the person on the ladder. Adequate means for
142
Ship Maintenance: Planned Maintenance
communication and the emergency stop switch must be provided on the rigid
part. The flexible lower part must be eight steps long and constructed to the
same specifications as for a normal pilot ladder.
Every new hoist must be subjected to an overload test of 2.2 times the
working load and after installation on board an operating test of 10 percent
overload must be carried out. The Chief Officer should bear in mind that a
hoist is examined under working conditions at each survey for the renewal of
the 'Safety Equipment Certificate' and should carry out maintenance
accordingly. He should also note that regular test rigging and inspection,
which should include a load test to 150 kg, must be carried out every six
months and an entry to that effect made in the ship's official log book.
As with the pilot ladder, certain operational procedures regarding the hoist
should be brought to the crew's attention:
1 Any crew member involved in any operational aspect of the hoist must be
given relevant instructions.
2 The hoist should be rigged well in advance of the time at which it is to be
required and tested before use. '
3 A competent officer must supervise the rigging, teifing, and operation of
the hoist.
4 The operational area must be adequately illuminated.
5 The pilot ladder should also be rigged and ready for use.
Q A safety line and harness, a lifebuoy with light, and a heaving line must be
kept at hand ready for use.
7 The position on the ship's side where the hoist is lowered should be
marked.
8 An adequately protected stowage position must be provided for the hoist.
Mariners should bear in mind that a ship may be detained if the pilot
ladders or hoist do not conform with the regulations. The owner and master
can be guilty of an offence if the equipment is not provided or up to standard
and an officer can be guilty of an offence ifhe does not supervise or maintain
equipment properly.
M898, 'Pilot Ladders and Mechanical Pilot Hoists', should be studied in
full. The International Maritime Pilots' Association requires that all vessels
brought into service after 1July 1980provide a pilot access point on each side
of the vessel.
Problem of 'frozen' fairleads
Fairlead rollers which become rusted and will not turn are usually the
143
Shipboard Operations
consequence of neglect but the problem can occur on well-maintained ships
when weather and operational conditions do not permit the weekly greasing
programme to be carried out. Rollers which a~e seized cause excessive
damage to mooring ropes and must be overhauled as soon as possible. The
basic design varies from ship to ship but most roller fairleads are similar to the
type shown in Figure 4.2. However, some fairleads have upper and lower
spindle bolts instead of the one 'through' spindle in the diagram.
The grease reservoir covers should be removed, the old grease taken out,
and the reservoirs filled with a release and penetrating oil. All surfaces in
contact with another surface should be given a liberal application of oil and
left to soak overnight. The following morning use a gantline size rope to put a
round turn on the roller, lead the rope to a winch, and heave gently. This is
usually sufficient to free all but the most obstinate roller.
If this is unsuccessful, the roller must be efficiently secured and the spindle
withdrawn. Care should be taken when loosening the nuts; use plenty of
release oil and only apply gentle persuasion such as tapping with a hammer.
On some vessels it may be possible to heat the nuts in order to expand them
and to loosen the rust. The engineers will probably be able to lend specialized
tools for withdrawing the spindles. On removing the roller it will be observed
that the rust will be concentrated on the horizontal surfaces and on the
spindle. Remove all corrosion and check that the grease tracks are
undamaged. It may be necessary to renew the spindle nuts and washers and
possibly even the spindle itself. The horizontal surfaces should be protected
by several coats of primer followed by two topcoats and heavy duty grease
should be applied to the spindle. Grease nipples should be unscrewed and
cleaned. When the roller is reassembled check that grease can be forced
through the grease nipples on the appropriate surfaces. Resume the weekly
greasing schedule.
144
Ship Maintenance: Planned Maintenance
Planning for heavy weather damage
The emergency team or damage control party should be trained to deal with
damage caused by heavy weather as on most ships this is the most frequent
type of damage to be encountered. A useful exercise is to inform the party
that heavy seas have carried away some of the ship's side rails and have also
fractured a hold ventilator at deck level. A variation of the following
procedure could be used to assign duties to crew personnel:
1 Temporary guard rails shoula be constructed by using suitable size wire
rope with supports such as spare gangway stanchions, dunnage or timber
(8 x 8 cm is a useful size), or angle bars. It may be possible to weld sockets
to the deck in order to provide support for the timber or the angle bars
could be welded directly to the deck. At least two guard rails, the upper at a
height of 1 m, should be set up as tight as possible. The area in the vicinity
of the damaged rails should be fenced off and warning notices posted.
2 Sound the bilges in the immediate area and carry out a damage check.
3 Remove any loose portions of the ventilator shaft but leave any sound parts
to help support a cement box. '
4 A wooden frame should be built around the bas~f the shaft or around the
hole if the complete ventilator has been washed overboard. The frame
should be constructed of short lengths of wood approximately 3 x 10 cm
to a height of 30 cm and the corners of the frame may be supported by the
use of angle bars. The planks should be joined by vertical flat bars and once
again, if possible, angle bars can be welded to the deck to support the
frame. If necessary the frame may be tommed off to hatch coamings or
mast houses by lengths of 8 x 8 cm (3 x 3 in) timber.
SIt may be necessary to construct a temporary base for the cement by
placing wood underneath the hole in order to support the wet cement
during the drying period. If possible this should be done from the tween
deck and toms can be left in position to support the box.
6 Drill the ends of any cracks which may appear in adjacent deck plating to
prevent any extensions occurring. The holes and cracks should be filled
with plastic steel compounds.
7 Dry the box and surrounding area. Lime and soda may be used as drying
agents.
8 Mix cement in the proportion of three parts of fine sand to one of cement
and fill the box. If the weather is inclement, it may be necessary to rig
temporary protection to enable the sand to dry out.
9 Inspect the damage area at frequent intervals.
If the ship has the facilities a doubling plate could be welded or fitted over
the ventilator hole. If welding equipment is not available it would be
necessary to remove the tween deck ventilator shaft. One doubling plate with
145
Shipboard Operations
pre-drilled bolt holes must be placed over the deck opening and a similar
plate held against the underdeck frames. Bolts of suitable length can then be
inserted through both plates and secured. The deck doubling plate should be
made watertight by use of a suitable compound.
The above operations can only be carried out when the ship is hove to or
Ship Maintenance: Planned Maintenance
labelled and retained by the Chief Officer and replaced before the dock is
flooded.)
5 All sea valves and sea chests to be inspected, overhauled and painted.
6 Inspection and overhaul of rudder and propeller.
7 Inspection, overhaul and load test of all lifting appliances. $

when the weather conditions are suitable. 8 All tanks, holds, compartments, and their closing appliances to be
At the next port the damage should be repaired by a reputable company. inspected and overhauled.
As the watertight integrity of the ship has been affected and also the 9 All anodes to be inspected, the location and weight or size to be
conditions of freeboard assignment, the damage and the repairs must be ascertained. '.
inspected by a surveyor from the assigning authority. 10 Survey of ship's bottom (known as 'sighting the bottom') to be
conducted.

Repair and drydock lists (b) Repair items

1 Renewal of piping.
An important aspect of planned maintenance is continuous repair assessment
2 Cargo-handling equipment.
and the preparation of a drydock repair list. The ship's staff should
3 Hatch-closing arrangements.
systematically compile comprehensive and accurate details of all items
4 Bulkhead leaks.
requiring overhaul and repair. The description of the nature of the repair
5 Hull structure damage. ' ,
should be precise. If a Chief Officer on a tanker stipulates 'Repair number 3
6 Replacement of ship's side rails ...
main cargo pump', the pump will be stripped, the parts will be machined,
7 Instrumentation and control equipment refurbishing.
overhauled, and repaired if necessary, and the pump will be re-assembled
8 Electric cables.
and restored to an 'as new' condition. If the only problem with the pump had
9 Heavy weather damage.
been a leaking gland the Chief Officer will have caused the company
10 Overhaul of fire-fighting and life-saving appliances.
considerable expense and will deservedly receive an admonition from the
Superintendent. The specification for a repair item should include accurate
dimensions, descriptive details, owner's spares available, information (c) Modification items
regarding parts which the ship's staff suspect may need renewal, information 1 Fire-fighting systems such as foam or carbon dioxide.
pertaining to the location of the item, and any access problems or possible use 2 Fire detection system.
of staging. Sketches should be made when appropriate and it is often helpful 3 New piping and structural arrangements, e.g. 'segregated ballast tank'
to attach photographs from the ship's 'instant print' camera. system.
Some companies require the repair list to be presented under separate 4 Inert gas systems.
headings such as: 5 Life-saving appliances arrangements.
(a) standard items 6 Conversions or restructuring in order to comply with any new mandatory
(b) repair items equipment requirements.
(c) modification items

(a) Standard items

Organization o£the ship's stalfin repair yards
1 Hull cle~ning, surface preparation, painting.
2 Inspectic)D and overhaul of anchors and cables, including ranging and Most shipyards will provide the following basic facilities:
marking. access
3 Inspection, cleaning and painting of cable lockers. water for the ship's fire main
4 Plugs to be taken from all bottom and peak tanks. (The plugs should be electricity

146 147
Shipboard Operations
compressed air
fire watchmen
steam
daily garbage removal
means of keeping the ship's refrigeration unit in operation
telephone
protective coverings for alleyways and furniture
toilet facilities (within a reasonable distance from the ship)
means of providing heat in accommodation areas
tugs and riggers when moving the vessel
facilities for cleaning and removing residues of slop tanks
liability and insurance cover
If the vessel has a full crew on stand-by the above points should be
considered when the crew utilization plan is being prepared. One of the Chief
Officer's (or Safety Officer's main preoccupations should be safety. In some
shipyards the amount of maintenance work which the ship's staff are
permitted to carry out is limited; therefore, full use should be made of the
availability of crew so as to ensure a high standard of safety. It is essential that
an officer liaises with the shipyard staff to check what maintenance may be
carried out by the ship. However, the following routine work and precautions
should be carried out:
1 Personal safety The crew should be instructed on general safety
requirements and the procedures to be taken in the event of an accident or fire
breaking out. Protective clothing should be worn by all personnel; particular
attention should be paid to the wearing of safety helmets and shoes.
/
2 Access Although the dock company will normally provide the access
facilities, a ship's watchman must be in attendance at all times. An officer
must check that the access arrangements are suitable and he should apply the
ship's access equipment criteria, which are discussed in Chapter 2, to any
shore gangways. The ship's officers must consider themselves to be at all
times responsible for the ship's access arrangements. The ship's watchman
should be instructed on his duties and responsibilities. Notices should be
posted at the gangway so that personnel can readily ascertain the methods for
summoning fire and ambulance services. The location of the nearest
telephone should be stated and a list of relevant telephone numbers should
also be given.
3 Hot 'Work,-. Before any hot work is commenced a reliable person must
inspect the immediate area for flammable material. Adjacent areas must also
be inspected, especially if a bulkhead is to be welded, and any materials likely
to constitute a fire hazard must be removed.
148
Ship Maintenance: Planned Maintenance
4 Fire precautions The vessel's own pumps will be inoperable in drydock
and the fire patrol should check that the fire main is kept pressurized by water
supplied by the shore, using the international fire connection if necessary. No
fire-fighting appliances, such as portable extinguishers, should be sent ashore
until replacements are supplied. M825, 'Precautions to be taken to prevent
the accidental release of CO2 fixed fire smothering systems', should be
studied. This notice states that CO2 systems have been accidentally activated
during repair periods with the consequent endangering of lives and lists
precautions which should be observed to prevent such occurrences.
It is generally accepted that all fixed systems should be locked to prevent
accidental release. The keys should be held by the duty officer. The fire patrol
must be aware of the duty officer's location and should report to him at
suitable intervals.
M825 also emphasizes that shipowners should 'be aware that responsibility
for fire protection and initial fire-fighting measures' generally remains with
the vessel. If the responsibility has been delegated to the repairers there must
be a written agreement to that effect and the terms of agreement should be
made known to all the parties concerned.
The fire patrol must be instructed on the alarm 'P4;~cedures and initial
measures to be taken in the event of a fire being discovered. The patrol should
realize the importance of carrying out an inspection immediately after repair
staff have left the vessel at the end of a shift. Fires have broken out in areas
recently vacated by workmen.
5 Tank inspections Cargo and bunker tanks are particularly dangerous
areas due to the possibility of a flammable or explosive atmosphere being
present. All tanks which have been sealed for some time may be deficient in
oxygen or contain an excess of hydrogen. Before work commences the tanks
will have been cleaned and ventilated and a chemist will have issued
certificates permitting 'hot' or 'cold' work in such compartments. In
addition, a chemist should inspect the cargo compartments on tankers every
morning before work commences and also in the evening to ensure that the
tanks are in a suitable condition for either hot or cold work. A card, which
gives details of the twice daily inspection, is usually attached to the tank
entrance lid. An officer should be detailed to check that such inspections have
been properly carried out.
6 Deck 'Watch There should be sufficient crew members on board at all
times to ensure that a 'deck watch' is maintained. At night the watch would
assist in dealing with any emergencies and during normal working hours can
load stores, prepare the vessel for surveys, and assist during the actual
surveys. Experienced Chief Officers know that a myriad of small jobs
149

Shipboard Operations
frequently arise during repair periods and that it is necessary to have a petty
officer and some men available to deal with such problems.
7 Keeping a clean ship It is extremely difficult to keep a ship clean and
tidy during a repair period. However, a confused muddle of gear lying about
the decks is a safety hazard and efforts must be made to keep the decks clear.
Equipment can often conceal dangers; deck clutter is a particular danger on
tankers when many tank openings are left uncovered as an aid to ventilation.
A crew member could be instructed to make a twice-daily check that all
openings into which a person could fall are fenced to a height of 910 mm.
Other crew members may be required to assist with the daily garbage removal
and with cleaning up oil spills on deck.
All movable items of ship's equipment should be locked in the storerooms
and one man should be put in charge of stores. All items of ship's gear which
are issued to drydock staff to enable them to carry out repair work should be
signed for and a careful note made of the issuing details.
All the ship's toilets should be locked as unauthorized use is a health hazard
and could be detrimental to the relationship with the repair staff. If possible,
shower areas and similar facilities should be locked to prevent them being
used as urinals.
8 Ship's lighti"g The watchman, or other crew members, should check
that the vessel is adequately lighted and that the numerous cables lying about
the various decks are not a safety hazard.
9. Portable heaters are often used in the accommodation and the fire
p~trol should check frequently the areas in which heaters are being used.
10 Safety checklist Some yards have a ship/shore 'Safety Checklist'
which is somewhat similar to the list used in oil terminals. An officer should
carry out the first check and a responsible person should carry out subsequent
checks at suitable intervals.
The above duties should be discussed at the daily staff meeting and should
be incorporated into the crew's duties for that day.
Delegation of repair period duties
The Chief Officer would be foolish if he attempted to carry out many of the
routine duties himself; indeed, it would be impossible for him to do so.
Before commencing the repair period the Chief Officer should have a staff
150
Ship Maintenance: Planned Maintenance
meeting during which he can instruct the other deck officers, the petty
officers, and the cadets on their responsibilities. The Chief Petty Officer
should give advice on which crew members should be watchmen, should be
in charge of stores, take part in fire patrols, and the other routine tasks. The
Safety Officer should have a cadet to assist him in his extensive duties 'and
safety should be his main preoccupation. All the officers should have their
general duties outlined:
ensuring the safety and security of the vessel
checking the appropriate nUI1lbersof men involved in the various jobs
and the time spent on those jobs
inspecting completed work before 'boxing up' commences
witnessing tests
assisting with and conducting surveys
checking on materials consumed on specific jobs
checking on the location of ship's tools and the use of ship's spares
The officers should have copies of the repair lists and should familiarize
themselves with any particular job which they are monitoring. Repair items
should be identified with the working specification numbers and officers
should be conversant with the nature of any repair ~ork being carried out.
The Radio and Electronics Officer will probably be able to assist with the
monitoring of any work being conducted on the electronic navigation
equipment. A deck officer is usually involved with supervising the
application of any protective or special coatings. He should ensure that the
surface has been properly prepared, that the paint has been adequately
mixed, and should note the spraying pattern, the film thickness, and the
amount of paint used.
When making out the duty roster the Chief Officer should, if possible, give
his personnel adequate shore leave. During the repair period the Chief Officer
should have a daily conference with the repair staff and with his own staff.
The use of portable radios aids the smooth running of the repair operation.
Preparing a vessel for a repair period after discharging a sulphur
cargo
A vessel cannot enter a drydock until all the sulphur residues have been
removed from the hold. The main hazard during cleaning is the risk of dust
explosion. Fine grain sulphur presents an additional hazard in that the
explosive mixture can be ignited by static electricity. The permit to work
system must be used throughout the operation of hold cleaning. To prevent
the hold atmosphere becoming dust laden the initial cleaning should be a
151
Shipboard Operations
wash down with hoses producing a good pressure. Attention should be paid
to areas which are inaccessible or difficult to reach; box beams are particularly
difficult to clean. The mixture of water and sulphur can cause corrosion
problems and the operation must be carried out as quickly as possible. If the
residues are being pumped overboard in port, permission should be obtained
from the appropriate authority before pumping commences. The holds must
be adequately ventilated during the cleaning process.
After hosing, it will be necessary to sweep the holds and to remove residues
from the bilges. The hosing down operation may have to be repeated until a
suitable standard of cleanliness is obtained. The ship will be inspected by a
drydock representative before permission is given to enter the repair area. All
pumps and lines should be thoroughly cleaned at the end of the operation and
personnel must wear protective clothing and face masks during the cleaning
process. As with all cargoes of this nature the 'IMDG Code' should be
consulted. The Code recommends that fine grained sulphur should not be
carried in bulk.
Inspecting the forepeak tank on new building or before leaving
drydock
The following operation should be conducted by several people and
'Dangerous Spaces' procedures should be observed:
1 Check that no rungs are missing from any ladders.
2 As many welds as possible should be checked. It is practically impossible
to check all the welds iil the forepeak of a large vessel but weld failure can
occur in peak tanks and must be guarded against.
3 Inspect any protective coating and ensure that areas which are difficult to
reach have been adequately covered.
4 If sacrificial anodes have been fitted, check that the anode positions agree
with the plans and that the anodes are secure.
5 Ensure that the sounding pipe is correctly located and that the striker
plate has been fitted. Have a sounding rod lowered through the pipe and
view it touching the striker plate.
6 Check that the drain is correctly located and in the position indicated on
the plan. Make sure that the screw drain plug actually moves and that it
has not been tack welded in position.
7 Check that the air pipes and filling pipes have been fitted with appropriate
plugs .. ~
8 Make sure that all loose equipment and shipyard rubbish has been
removed.
9 The pumping arrangements should be given a thorough inspection.
152
Ship Maintenance: Planned Maintenance
Check the pump for any loose bolts and defective workmanship. Inspect
valve suctions, extended spindles, and strum boxes. Look for inappro-
priate or poorly insulated bimetallic connections. When satsified with
the standard of workmanship, give the pump a dry run by slowly start-
ing it and feeling for air movement in the suction. The tank should then
be filled to a depth of approximately 1 m and pumped dry. The pump
should be checked for operational deficiencies and the pipe connections
checked for leaks.
10 The Chief Officer should be present with the Surveyor at the 'Tank Test'.
Extension pieces are fitted to tIte filling pipes and the tank slowly filled
untila head of8 feet or 2.45 m above the top of the tank is obtained. Great
care should be taken to avoid over-pressurizing the tank. Bulkheads,
cofferdams, watertight seals on the manhole covers, and all areas adjacent
to the fore peak should be checked for leaks. The water in the tank should
then be dropped to the operational level. This test may be carried out
afloat so as to reduce the stress on the ship's structure.
A note for potential candidates for DoT Certificate of
ProficiencyjHND Nautical Science \,
Valuable maintenance experience can be obtained while at sea by noting the
planned maintenance schedule of the vessel on which you are serving and by
constructing your own schedule.
A copy of the vessel's overall paint system should be made together with
any maintenance problems associated with that system.
The construction of repair lists should be discussed with the Chief Officer
and the Second Engineering Officer and a drydock repair list made for the
vessel.
Inspect the vessel's cathodic protection system and note what attention and
maintenance it requires.
Check the maintenance and safety requirements of the cargo access
equipment.
Carry out a similar check for the ship's cargo-handling equipment.
Inspect the pilot operation equipment and check that the maintenance
standards and operational procedures are in accordance with the appropriate
regulations.
Further reading
ARMSTRONG, M. C. Pilot Ladder Safety (International Maritime Press:
Woollahra, Australia, 1979).
153
Shipboard OperatlOns
BUXTON, I. L. Cargo Access Equipment for Merchant Ships (Spon: London,
1978).
THOMAS, B. E. M. Management of Shipboard Maintenance (Stanford
Maritime: London, 1980).
5
r

Oil Tankers: Cargo Operations

"",

Pipeline systems

Pipelines are simply what their name suggests, lengths of steel pipes which
connect groups of cargo tanks to one another and by which those tanks are
loaded and discharged. Short lengths are bolted together by means of flanges
or expansion joints. The latter consists of an oil-tight metal collar which
surrounds the ends of two lengths and as the ends of th •..•engths do not touch,
any horizontal thermal expansion or contraction will not damage the
pipeline. Figure 5.1 shows a cross-section of an expansion joint. Lines pass
directly through bulkheads, once again being secured by oil-tight flanges,
and any sharp turns are constructed by bolting short curved lengths of pipe,
known as bends, into the system. Branch lines are short lengths of pipes
which serve individual tanks, the ends of such pipes expanding into a shape
known as 'bellmouth', 'elephant's foot', or simply 'tank suction'. The tank
main pipelines connect with cargo pumps and the deck pipelines, the
diameter of the pipes varying from 25-30 cm (10-12 in) to 91 cm (36 in)
depending upon the size of the vessel.
Shipboard Operations
The various valves fitted within the pipeline system fall into five basic
categories:

Manifold valves Cargo is loaded or discharged via shore hoses or metal

loading arms which connect to athwart ships deck pipelines known as
manifolds . Valves which are constructed in the lines close to the connecting
flanges route the cargo as desired by the ship's officers.

Drop valves Each of the main tank pipelines has a counterpart on deck and
loading lines which lead vertically from the deck lines to the tank lines are
known as drop lines. Each main line has one or two drop lines and drop valves
control the flow of oil in those lines. Refer to Figure 5.2 and locate the drop
valves and the other valves mentioned in this section.

Master valves At each place where a fore-and-aft pipeline passes through a

tank bulkhead a valve is fitted in the line. This is known as a master valve and
separates tanks served by the same fore-and-aft line. Tanks are usually
constructed in sets of three transversely and are numbered from forward, e.g.
the foremost three tanks are called 'One Port' (IP), 'One Centre' (IC), and
'One Starboard' (IS). The three tanks as a set are known as 'One Across'
(IX). Thus to separate the cargo in IX from 2X the master valves in the lines
at the athwart ships bulkhead between the tanks must be closed.

Crossover valves Athwartships tank lines joining the main lines are known
as crossover lines and the crossover valves separate the main lines from each
other as well as separating individual tanks. Thus 2P can be separated from
2C by a crossover valve. Briefly, master valves separate in a fore-and-aft
direction and crossovers in athwartships direction.

Tank valves Close to each bellmouth is located a valve which controls the
flow of oil into and out of that tank.

These valves are operated either manually from the deck above or
automatically from the cargo control room. Manual valves are operated by
turning a wheel on a deck stand; this turns a metal extended spindle rod
which opens the valve in the pipeline. Automatic valves are activated by an
hydraulic oil pipeline system similar to that which operates steering gears.
Many manual valves are of the 'gate' type; a threaded spindle when turned,
vertically moves ~. steel plate which is fitted in grooves in the pipeline, thus
opening or closing the valve. Automatic valves are often of the 'butterfly'
type; these are circular valves which turn on a central spindle. When open the
plate is parallel to the pipe direction and the oil flows past it; when closed the

156
Shipboard Operations
whereby one main serves the forward tanks and the outer pumps and another
the after tanks and inner pumps, both ring mains being connected with each
other in three wings by short lengths of pipes.
Ring main systems are generally found on older product carriers
('products' refers to oils such as petrol which have been refined from crude
oil) where versatility is required for the carrying of various grades of
products. Versatility is the keyword for this system; with both ring mains
being connected to each other any pump can discharge any tank. It also
assists the loading and transporting of grades as one can ensure good pipeline
segregation of cargo. A high standard of tank and line cleanliness is essential
for carrying products and the circular layout aids tank and line washing. A
major disadvantage of the system is that it is expensive to build due to the
extra lengths of piping required and the necessary proliferation of joints,
bends and valves. An offshoot of this is the problem and expense of the
maintenance of joints, etc. Erosion of bends is a problem, due to the
turbulence produced by the oil changing direction, and leaks on the external
radius of bends are not uncommon on older ships. If the cargo is pumped by a
'roundabout' route line friction slows the pumping rate, e.g. in Figure 5.5 a
slow rate can be expected if the vessel discharges 5P with the starboard pump.
Line washing can take longer due to the number of pipes involved and it is
essential to ensure that all crossover lines are washed through by pumping sea
water across from one main line to another.

Direct line system

The system is common on VLCCs (very large crude carriers) as it facilitates

quick loading and discharging, the cargo being natural unrefined oil. The
shorter pipe lengths and fewer bends ensure that there is less loss of pressure
due to pipeline friction during both operations and when discharging the
direct line to a pump provides better suction (Figure 5.6). The system is
cheaper to construct than ring main and requires less maintenance. Leaks are
minimized as there are fewer bends to erode and the fewer the joints the fewer
should be the leaks from that source. Line washing time is also considerably
shortened. However, as there is no circular system lines can often be difficult
to wash and one simply has to flush the lines into tanks with sea water. Due to
the fact that one has fewer valves some pipeline leaks will be difficult to
control and the effect of such leaks cannot be as readily minimized as with
other systems. The layout lacks versatility and fewer grades can be carried
due to the prob}em of line and valve segregation.
A common layout on many tankers incorporates the better features of both
the ring main and direct line systems. Examples of this combined system can
be seen in Figures 5.2 and 5.7.

160
Shipboard Operations
centimetres of oil in the tanks. The oil stripped out is pumped to an aft cargo
tank, known as the slop tank, and from there it is pumped ashore by a main
cargo pump. The stripping lines and pumps are also used in tank washing and
ballast operations.

Lining up pipelines and cargo operations

Cargo calculations are not dealt with in this chapter as there are several good
tanker books already available which give instruction on that complex area of
tanker operations. The quantity of cargo in a tank is obtained by measuring
the amount of space above the oil level which is not occupied by cargo. This is
known as taking the ullage or ullaging and is the distance from the top of the
cargo to the deck level. The ullage is then applied to the tank calibration table
to obtain the cubic capacity or volume of the space occupied by the cargo in
that tank. Corrections for specific gravity (or relative density), temperature
and trim are then applied to the volume to find the weight or quantity of the
cargo.

Loading
Constant reference should be made to Figure 5.2 while reading this section on
lining up.

Loading one grade The shore loading arms or hoses will be connected to
the manifold flanges which have been selected for the cargo. The oil can
either be loaded through the drop lines which lead directly from the cargo
lines on deck to the main lines in the tanks or via the pumproom lines to the
tanks. The former method is to be preferred as it lessens the chances of oil
leaking through faulty pumproom valves, th~nce overboard. Valves in the
deck lines can be used to isolate pumprooms, e.g. in a tanker with an aft
pumproom these valves would be aft of the drop lines but forward of the
pumproom. With this system there is no need for a complicated lining up of
valves in the pumproom.
If the vessel is loaded through the pumproom all pumps must be isolated
by closing the valves on the suction lines to them and also the valves on the
deck delivery lines coming from the pumps (refer to Figure 5.9).
Hand-operated valves which are to be kept shut during loading should
have their wheels lashed in the closed position. This serves the dual purpose
of warning crew'members not to open the valves and of preventing such
valves 'walking pack' or opening due to vibration or cargo pressure.
Overboard sea discharge valves which are located in the pumproom are the
valves through which the clean ballast is discharged prior to loading. When
When all the preparations have been completed and the appropnate tank
valves opened, the manifold valves will be opened and loading commenced.
It is general practice to commence loading into one or two tanks only, so as to
ensure that the vessel has been lined up properly. A man should be stationed
at the manifolds, ready to instruct the shore to stop loading in the event of a
leaking connection or any other safety or cargo hazard. It is also common
practice to load 'groups' of tanks, e.g. the wing tanks can be loaded first and
then 'topped-up' during the loading of the centre tanks. The term
'topping-up' is used to describe the operation whereby the oil level in a tank is
slowly brought up to its final ullage. Tanks should also be 'stepped down' to
further spread out the time of the topping-up period, i.e. if it was possible to
view a group of tanks from the side they should have the appearance of stairs
(Figure 5.10). These procedures space out the topping-up operations and
prevent 'panic stations' when quite a few tanks require topping-up at the
same time. Accidents sometimes occur when changing over from full tanks to
empty ones. Empty tanks must always be partially opened some time prior to

165
164

Loading more than one grade The number of grades carried will depend
very much on the design of the vessel. Many ships can carry only two or three
grades but product carriers are usually multi-grade. Product carriers are
often divided into two classes, those which carry 'white' or 'clean' oils and
those which carry 'black', 'dirty' or grades of crude oils. White or clean oils
are highly refined products such as motor and aviation spirits and black or
dirty products are diesel, fuel and furnace oil.
The ideal arrangement is to have a separate pipeline and a separate pump
for each grade; this is seldom possible. However, compatibility charts are
available which give instructions as to whether certain grades may be loaded
through the same line. Thus some slight contamination is permissible and
several grades may be loaded via one line. Any such instructions must be
adhered to as consignees are very strict with regard to contamination
standards. There should be a two-valve separation, if possible, between
different grades.
Bulkhead leakage is a problem when carrying grades. When carrying
incompatible grades the one most likely to be adversely affected by mixing
should be loaqed to a higher level than the less vulnerable grades in adjoining
compartments. Thus diesel oil should be loaded to a higher level than furnace
oil (both black oils); any leak of diesel would enhance the furnace oil.
Similarly, kerosene (paraffin) should be loaded higher than motor spirit;
although both are white oils, any contamination of kerosene by motor spirit
could be disastrous for an unfortunate householder or camper.
Discharging
While the shore hoses are being connected the tanks should be ullaged, water
dips, temperatufes and samples taken, and the 'pumps warmed through.
Water dips ascerooin the amount of water, if any, which has settled out of the
cargo during transit. A tank is 'sounded' by manually lowering a metal rod
with a paste smeared upon it to the bottom of the tank. If water is present the
166
Oil Tankers: Cargo Operations
colour of the paste changes, thus indicating the water level. Tank calibration
tables convert this figure to the amount of water in a tank.
The pipeline suction valves to the pumps and on the deck delivery lines
should be opened, leaving the tank and manifold valves to be opened just
before discharging commences. Once again it is a safe practice to commen}:e
discharging from one tank only in order to ensure that the ship and shore lines
have been set properly.
Sometimes more than one grade will have to be discharged using the same
pump. Some contamination will result but by working with the terminal
representative this can be kept to an acceptable minimum. As above, the
vulnerable grade should be discharged first. If a pump is to be used for diesel
oil and marine fuel, then the diesel should be discharged first.
A discharge plan must be adopted which will allow the main pumps to
work for as long as possible while permitting the stripping pumps to drain
some tanks when there is still a considerable amount of cargo in other tanks.
Most of the tanks should already have been drained before the final tanks are
pumped dry. A good stern trim must be maintained during the discharge in
order to assist tank stripping.
,
B~ti~ ,
It is best to ballast the vessel when the discharge is completed. However, it
may be necessary in exposed locations to ballast during discharge. The tanks
to be ballasted must be completely i~olated from the cargo and a two-valve
separation should be regarded as a minimum separation in any pipeline which
contains both water and oil. It is sometimes possible to commence ballast
without using the pumps, i.e. 'running in' the sea water. This can result in oil
escaping overboard and the author would not use that method. Cargo pumps
used for ballasting should be started at a slow rate before opening the sea
valves.
At some terminals de-ballasting is concurrent with loading; extreme care
must be taken during the operation. During the voyage clean ballast will have
been pumped into some cargo tanks and all pumps and lines will have been
thoroughly cleaned. Part of the ballast will be run out before berthing,
leaving only sufficient on board to keep the vessel manageable. At the end of
the de-ballasting operation the tanks will have been fully drained and the
main cargo pumps and lines will also have been stripped.
Under current regulations some ships will have permanent clean ballast
tanks. These are known as segregated tanks and are served by pumps and a line
system which are entirely separate from cargo pumps and lines. Cargo and
segregated ballast systems are usually worked simultaneously.
167
 Oil Tankers: Cargo Operations
Shipboard Operations
emergency procedures in the event of fire and with the 'Ship/Shore Safety
General precautions during cargo operations Check List'.

Adherence to safety procedures is of paramount importance on tankers; your

life depends on such adherence. Much of the rest of this chapter will be Ship/Shore Safety Check List '
concerned with safety. Make safety a way of life or your career could be a way
of death. This is a joint list provided by the terminal and which is signed by a ship and a
The Chief Officer should have a detailed cargo operation schedule or plan terminal representative. It states the general precautions required before
available so that personnel are fully aware of what exactly is happening. loading, discharging, ballasting, tank cleaning and gas freeing when
Officers must be conversant with the maximum loading rates of cargo. For alongside and should be adapted for use when any of the above operations are
some cargoes the rate is limited for intrinsic safety reasons. However, the ship carried out at sea. An example of such a list is given below.
generally stipulates the rate; this should not exceed the capacity of the ship's
vapour lines to clear cargo gases or inert gas. Loading or discharging rates 1 Appropriate personnel notified that cargo operations are about to
should be agreed between ship and shore. Pipelines and hoses should never commence.
be over pressurized. Cargo-handling signals must be agreed and understood 2 Sufficient personnel available to maintain an efficient deck watch and an
between ship and shore personnel. Arrangements for indicating the following anti-pollution patrol.
must be made: 3 Warning notices displayed, e.g.
(a) Stand By Warning
(b) Commence Operation No Naked Lights '
(c) Slow Down NoS moking '\...
(d) Stop Loading or Discharging No Unauthorized Persons
(e) Emergency Stop 4 Fire appliances ready for immediate use.
The loading rate must never be controlled by operating the manifold valves 5 Moorings tight and emergency towing wires correctly positioned.
but should be reduced by shore personnel. 6 Agreed ship/shore communication systems working.
Manual ullaging and tank sampling should be carried out only through the 7 No unauthorized persons on board.
sighting ports constructed in the tank lids and these should only be opened 8 No unauthorized work to be carried out.
long enough to do the job. Personnel should stand at right angles to the wind 9 No unauthorized craft alongside.
direction to avoid inhaling gas. Manual steel ullage tapes and metal sampling 10 No naked lights and no smoking unless in designated areas.
cans should never be used while a distillate (clean) oil is being loaded. This is 11 Safe lighting available, e.g. gas-tight torches, etc.
to avoid the risk of sparks since the distillate oil may be statically charged and 12 Galley precautions observed.
non-conductive ullage tapes, etc. must be used. Gauges which are fixed to the 13 Cargo tank lids closed.
ship's structure, such as 'Whessoe', are considered to be non-conductive. 14 Sea valves and overboard discharge valves when not in use closed and
When loading, sufficient ullage should be left to allow for the expansion of lashed.
cargo which is being transported to warmer climes. 15 Cargo lines properly set. All valves not in use closed and lashed.
It should be remembered that bunkers are often taken during cargo 16 Shore connections properly secured and supported.
operations. The appropriate safety and stability precautions should be 17 Manifold drip trays in use.
obs~rved. 18 Tank venting system checked and properly set.
Procedures for line and hose clearance will depend upon the shore facilities 19 Tanks inerted and inert gas system checked.
available, but whatever method is used all precautions against spillage must 20 All doors and ports to accommodation closed and any ventilators suitably
be taken. ,~ trimmed.
Attention sho~d be given to the tank pressure relief valves but these will 21 Air conditioning unit on internal air re-cycling.
be considered later. 22 All necessary spark arrestors in good condition and in place.
Comply strictly with the terminal 'Fire Notice' which gives details of 23 Safe ship/shore access.

168 169
 Shipboard Operations
24 Ship ready to move under own power.
25 Emergency shut-down procedure understood.
26 Portable radio transceivers which are used for communication to be of an
approved type.
27 Ship's main radio aerials earthed.
28 Appropriate flag and light signals to be shown.
29 All deck scuppers plugged to prevent oil leaks overboard.
Safety guides
The International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) publishes a booklet, Safety in
Oil Tankers, which contains a synopsis of safety hazards and procedures. It
should be read.
The tanker officer's companion, though, should be the International Safety
Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT). Published by the ICS and the
Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF), this guide replaces
the ICS Tanker Safety Guide (Petroleum) and the OCIMF International Oil
Tanker and Terminal Safety Guide. The contents of the guide are in two parts:
Part l--Operations This covers operational procedures and is designed to
provide guidance in safe practices. This guide has a more practical approach
than the earlier guides; it has been produced by and for operators who are
aware of short cuts that are taken, the hazards that are encountered, and the
fact that most accidents are caused by human error.
Part 2-Technical Information Contains additional information, mainly the
t~eory behind the procedures in Part 1.
The general scope of the guide is to make recommendations for practices to
be adopted by tanker and terminal personnel to ensure safety in operations
relating to the carriage by sea and the handling at terminals of crude oil and
petroleum products.
The basic approach of Part 1 has been to arrange the material so that each
chapter is concerned with a particular type of operation. However, some
chapters deal with precautions that are generally applicable and these should
be followed as well as those for the operation concerned. Each chapter has a
small introductory paragraph describing the scope of its contents and, where
appropriate, drawing attention to related chapters.
The guide is an excellent publication and is much more practical and
seamanlike than many of the plethora of publications which have inundated
seamen in recent years. Officers serving on tankers must have a working
knowledge of it,s contents. The first two chapters deal with the general
hazards of petroleum and precautions on tankers. Port procedures,
precautions at a berth, shore liaison, cargo and ballast handling, tank
170
Oil Tankers: Cargo Operations
cleaning and gas freeing, etc., are dealt with in subsequent chapters. Due to
recent accidents particular attention should be paid to:
Chapter 9: Fixed Inert Gas Systems
Chapter 10: Entry Into Enclosed Spaces ,
Useful information is also given on combination carriers, packaged goods
and, in particular, Chapter 13: Emergency Procedures. The chapter number
would not appear to mollify the anxieties of superstitious seamen.
The guide has received international recognition from IMO, and has been
accepted worldwide as the standard safety manual for the tanker and oil
industries. However, the guide received some slight criticism in a report from
the Tanker Accident Working Group (November 1981). The Group found
'that some of the recommended safety precautions have either been ignored
or misunderstood' and that 'in some respects ISGOTT is not sufficiently
explicit'. I have no doubt that these statements are true but safety lies mainly
in the hands of the operators. If precautions are ignored the end results are
accidents!
,
\ ...
Main sources of ignition on tankers
It should be pointed out that oil does not burn. The main problem is the gas
which evaporates from the oil mixing with air to produce a flammable
mixture. Thus we must avoid igniting the mixture by paying attention to the
sources enumerated below.
Smoking
Secret smoking is dangerous and a policy of controlled smoking is advisable.
Smoking should be banned in areas such as pumprooms, stores and
workshops but approved in specially designated locations such as mess
rooms. Care must be taken in selecting these areas with regard to ventilation
intakes, ete.
Electrical equipment
Every piece of electrical equipment is a fire hazard, especially generators and
motors where arcing can occur at brushes, etc. This equipment is usually
found in accommodation and work spaces, so care must be taken to prevent
the entry of gas into such spaces. Equipment such as torches, and
tank-cleaning and gas-freeing appliances must be of approved design and
must not be defective.
171
Shipboard Operations
Metal
Metal striking metal can cause an incendive spark, so one should be wary of
using chipping hammers, etc. Never carry out work when flammable gas may
be present. Non-ferrous tools, also known as 'non-sparking' tools, can be
hazardous; when these tools impact with iron oxide, a very rapid reaction can
take place between the metal tool and the oxygen in the iron oxide resulting in
a thermite spark. I would not advise the use ofthese tools as it gives people a
false sense of safety.
Domestic equipment
Electric shavers, cooking appliances, music centres, etc. can ignite
flammable vapours. Keep an eye open for the transistor mister (or sister)
sunbathing on deck while listening to a radio!
Aluminium
Aluminium equipment knocking against rust can cause a heat (thermite)
flash. Similarly, aluminium paint over rust may generate heat if struck by an
object. Never use aluminium paint in pumprooms, etc, and beware of all
equipment (including shovels) made of alloy.
The galley
Check whether the galley appliances present fire hazards and note any port
regulation regarding galleys.
Lightning
The most likely place to be struck is at the top of a vent riser on a mast,
thereby igniting tank vapour. Due to the use of inert gas this hazard has been
considerably reduced. One should note, though, that a recent incident has
occurred when a ship with a non-operational system was struck by lightning,
causing death and the ultimate scrapping of the vessel.
Spontaneous combustion
Oily or paint-soaked rags and waste will generate heat if left in a pile. Keep
storerooms clean.
Sparks ~ Some causes of static charging are given below. The word 'petroleum'
Funnel sparks, especially when manoeuvring, can be hazardous. Make sure
that all anti-spark gauzes or flame screens are kept in excellent condition.
172
Oil Tankers: Cargo Operations
Bunker barges can also produce sparks especially if one observes, as I have, a
bunker barge crew member lighting a cigarette on deck!
Tank anodes
,.
Zinc anodes should be the only type to be fitted on tankers as magnesium
anodes can produce incendive sparks and aluminium anodes can produce
thermite sparks if both are dropped from a height. Zinc anodes are free from
such a hazard.
Ship to shore electric currents
The ship and the shore form two electrodes of a very large electrolytic cell due
mainly to the differences in the electrolytic environment of the two
structures. If the shore cargo arm is all metallic, it provides a very low
resistance connection between ship and shore and an incendive arc can occur
if the large current is broken during disconnecting operations. This is
avoided by inserting an insulating flange within the length of the arm or at the
flexible hose connection to the shore pipeline.
,
Static electricity ' ...
This is a major hazard and requires a section devoted solely to it.
Static electricity
Definition: the electric charge produced on dissimilar materials through
physical contact and separation. Certain operations produce accumulations
of electric charge which may be released suddenly in electrostatic discharges,
thus producing a spark which can ignite a flammable vapour. When two
dissimilar materials come into contact, charge separation can occur at the
interface, i.e. one material becomes positive and the other negative. If the
materials are separated the energy expenditure in pulling the charges apart
appears as a voltage between the separate charges. If a convenient path
presents itself, the rejoining of the charges results in an electric current
which, if the voltage is substantial, may be sufficienuo break down the
atmosphere and cause a rapid discharge in the form of a spark. Similarly,
when charges are separated, a voltage distribution can be set up throughout
the neighbouring space, e.g. a cargo tank, and this is known as an
electrostatic field.
should be taken to mean crude oil and liquid products derived from it. When
petroleum flows through a pipeline, a preponderance of molecules of one sign
173
Shipboard Operations
occurs at the interface between the petroleum and the pipe, and the oil
becomes charged.
Loading overaU
There is some confusion concerning this term. I have heard it being used to
describe the operation of loading all tanks at the same time. The ISGOTT
definition states that it is 'the loading of cargo or ballast "over the top"
through an open ended pipe or by means of an open ended hose entering a
tank through a hatch or other deck opening, resulting in the free fall of
liquid'. Lubricating oils are sometimes loaded by the latter method but
whether one loads over the top or aU tanks at the same time, both methods
deliver charged petroleum (caused by pipeline flow) throughout the vessel.
Loading in this manner also entraps air in the oil in the tank, which bubbles
back to the surface causing a charged spray. In addition to static hazards the
general turbulence involved increases cargo evaporation, thus causing high
vapour concentrations in the ullage space.
Settlement of water through petroleum
An electric double layer occurs at the water/petroleum interface. The relative
motion of the water, and petroleum of low conductivity, will cause separation
of the outer and inner charged layers and a voltage will build up. This can
occur during tank washing and is a hazard particularly associated with slop
tanks.
Splashing
When petroleum is splashed on another material each droplet leaves a film of
liquid adhering to the surface ofthe material. This film will contain the outer
layer of the electric double layer while the droplet itself will carry away the
inner layer causing the droplet to become charged. If the droplets, in the form
of spray, settle on an unbonded conductor a large charge can accumulate and
can result in a spark discharge to a bonded structure.
Air release in cargo tanks
The passage of air through oil does not generate static electricity but when the
bubbles of air burst at the surface they give rise to a spray of liquid particles
which may become charged as in splashing.
Steam i
Water droplets issuing at high velocity through a nozzle become charged
(similar to petroleum flow in a pipe) and this can produce a charged mist.
174
Oil Tankers: Cargo Operations
This is a hazard associated with tank washing using hot water or when
steaming a tank.
Inert gas ,
A similar process to that described for steam can apply to high-velocity
discharge of inert gas into a tank. This applies in particular to carbon dioxide
when charged frozen particles are formed due to the rapid cooling which
takes place.
Precautions to prevent ignition due to static charging
1 The following must be made of non-conductive material:
(a) hand-held ullage tapes
(b) ullage sticks
(c) sampling containers
Polypropylene ropes can accumulate charges and should never be used to
lower sampling containers, etc. into tanks. Use-natural fibre lines.
2 During tank washing never introduce metal objeCts into the tank other
than grounded washing machines and do not disconnect tank hoses from
their hydrants until the hoses have been pulled out of the tank.
3 Water in suspension in petroleum produces a high static charge which is
most likely to be present at the beginning of loading. A slow initial rate will
reduce the static.
4 Do not load overall.
S Do not load white oil into many tanks at the same time.
6 After discharge do not ballast a white oil tank until it has been
thoroughly stripped.
7 No unearthed conductor capable of collecting a charge should be inserted
into a tank being loaded.
8 It is recommended that at least thirty minutes must elapse after completion
of loading before hand-held or other conductive equipment is used. The
author would recommend that such equipment not be used under any
circumstances.
9 Compressed air or inert gas should not be used for line clearance
unless precautions are taken to prevent the air or gas entering the
tank.
Cargo pumps
There are two basic types of cargo pumps on oil tankers, positive
displacement and centrifugal, both of which are usually driven by steam.
175
Shipboard Operations
Reciprocating positive displacement pumps
This type of pump moves a certain amount of liquid with each pump cycle.
The pump piston draws liquid through a non-return suction valve into a
cylinder which is known as a 'bucket'. The cylinder is full at the end of the
suction stroke and on the reverse stroke the liquid is expelled from the
cylinder through a non-return discharge valve. Most pumps are 'double-
acting' to ensure a steady flow of oil, i.e. the piston and cylinder are arranged
so that whether the piston is moving up or down a flow of oil comes from the
pump. Most pumps of this type are duplex, having two buckets and two
pistons, which ensures that suction is not lost at the end of a stroke. The drive
unit is an integral part of the pump, such pumps being situated in the pump
room.
Positive displacement pumps move a low volume of oil at relatively high
pressure. Their use on tankers is generally restricted to stripping pumps. A
typical stripping pump on a VLCC would move 400 tonnes of oil each hour at
a working pressure of approximately 100 psi or 7 kg/cm2•
Centrifugal pumps
An impeller, which is inside a casing, physically moves the oil by means of a
'throwing' movement which is similar to the expelling of water from a bicycle
tyre when cycling in wet weather. The oil is 'sucked' into the casing via a
suction valve from the tank main lines and is pumped to the deck lines via a
discharge valve. The pump provides a continuous flow of oil and it is powered
by a steam turbine drive unit which, for safety reasons, is installed in the
engine room. The impeller is turned by means of an extended rotating shaft
which penetrates the engine room/pump room bulkhead through a gas-tight
seal.
Centrifugal pumps move large volumes of liquid at a relatively low
pressure and consequently are generally used as main cargo pumps (MCPs).
A typical main cargo pump on a VLCC can move 4,000 tonnes of oil each
hour with the pump running at 1,400 revolutions per minute at an operating
pressure of approximately ISO psi or 10.5 kg/cm2•
Pumproom routines
A mud box is usually located forward of the pump suction valve and it should
be opened and ipspected at frequent intervals. Particular attention should be
paid to the perforations in any strainer plate. Loose nuts and similar objects
are occasionallytound in strainers and mud boxes. Valve glands, pipe joints
and flanges should be checked for tightness and sharp bends in piping should
176
Oil Tankers: Cargo Operations
be inspected when possible for signs of internal erosion. The nuts on any
inspection plates should be checked for tightness and all pumps should be
given a visual examination before being operated. Strict safety precautions
should be adhered to before carrying out any pumproom maintenance.
The build-up of an explosive air/hydrocarbon gas mixture during cargo'
pumping operations must not be permitted and precautions must also be
taken to prevent a heat source developing. Inspect all pipe joints, valve
glands, pump glands, and pump seals for oil leaks. Ensure that all pump
bearings are correctly lubricated and check pump casings to ensure that the
pumps are not overheating. Check the mechanical seals through which a
pump shaft penetrates a pump casing to ensure that the seals are not leaking
and that they remain cool. If a pump produces excessive noise or vibration it
should be stopped and an engineer should inspect it.
All main cargo pumps have an 'Emergency Shut Down' device, often
known as the 'Trip', and all officers should be conversant with emergency
shut down procedures.
Cavitation ' "-
Cavitation occurs in a centrifugal pump when the impeller rotates without
actually transferring a liquid. The impeller may also rotate in a partial
vacuum due to a low oil flow or in an oil/gas mixture. The gas may be vapour
from the cargo or inert gas from the tank space above the cargo level, hence
the term 'gassing-up'.
Gassing-up can occur when the oil level in the tanks is low. The actual
discharge rate of a pump is affected by its net positive suction head (NPSH),
i.e. the height of the cargo above the centre of the pump below which. the
pump will not operate properly. Thus when cargo is low in a tank the pump
cannot discharge at a high flow rate and may cavitate. If the pump is 'running'
too fast a whirlpool effect may be produced around the tank suction which
permits vapours to be drawn into the pump and gassing-up will occur. Many
tanker officers use the terms 'cavitation' and 'gassing-up' as interchangeable
terms for one phenomenon.
The term 'volatility' refers to the tendency for a liquid to produce gas by
evaporation. Cargoes with high volatility such as naphtha are often difficult to
discharge as the pumps have a tendency to gas-up throughout the operation.
The term 'viscosity' refers to the resistance of a fluid to shear forces and hence
to flow. It is possible to obtain a good flow or discharge rate with cargoes of
medium viscosity as the impellers can get a firm 'grip' on the oil. There is a
tendency for pumps to cavitate when discharging cargoes of low viscosity as
impellers may rotate without transferring the oil.
If cavitation occurs and suction is lost, a centrifugal pump will overspeed
177
Shipboard Operations
and may be damaged if the situation is not rectified immediately. When the
oil level in a tank falls the speed of the pump discharging that tank should be
slowed accordingly. The reduced flow rate should prevent excessive
turbulence within the pump and minimize the whirlpool effect in the tank. It
may be necessary to partially close the tank suction valve to further reduce the
flow rate from that tank. The discharge valve from a centrifugal pump may
also be partially closed as the action of the pump pushing against the
increased discharge head or pressure will reduce cavitation. The manifold
valves should never be partially closed in an attempt to reduce cavitation.
If a pump is discharging a set of tanks, one full tank should be kept in
reserve and when the cargo in the other tanks falls to a low level the reserve
tank should be opened to ensure a good flow rate. Thus by judicious use of the
back-up tank the other tanks can be discharged by a main cargo pump to a
very low level. This reduces the amount of cargo which the stripping pump
must transfer and therefore reduces the overall stripping time. Most tankers
have three or four main cargo pumps and it is important that all the
centrifugal pumps are operated at the same speed. If one pump runs at a
slower speed than the others it will not transfer the cargo and will thus
cavitate and overheat. Pump seals and glands should be inspected for air
leaks into the pump as such leaks will increase the possibility of cavitation.
Some vessels have a 'vac-strip' system incorporated with the cargo
pumping system in the pump room. Air and vapour are prevented from
entering the cargo pump by the installation of a small separator tank on the
suction side of the pump. In the tank air and vapour are automatically
separated from the oil before the cargo reaches the pump and thus the
pumping performance is not affected. The 'vac-strip' system also automati-
cally controls the speed of the pump so that it remains compatible with the
amount of cargo reaching the pump.
Cargo operations when not secured alongside
Tankers frequently load or discharge at single buoy moorings (SBMs). The
vessel is secured from the focsle head to a large buoy and a floating hose for
transferring the cargo is hoisted by the ship's lifting appliances and connected
to the manifold. Tankers may also work cargo at berths in which the securing
arrangements consist of the vessel's anchors forward and a number of wires to
buoys aft. Lightering operations are sometimes carried out whereby the
discharging ves.sel is anchored and a specialized service ship is secured
alongside to receive a cargo. The procedures for conducting the latter
operation, knoWn an a 'ship to ship (STS) transfer operation', are found in
the ICS/OCIMF guide Ship to Ship Transfer Guide (Petroleum).
A high operational and safety standard is maintained during STS transfer
178
Oil Tankers: Cargo Operations
operations and spills seldom occur. However, if a spill does occur in British
waters the following authorities are involved.
1 The Department of Transport has the overall responsibility for dealing
with the incident and the department has a 'Marine Pollution Control Unit',
(MPCU) on twenty-four hour availability at various locations around the
United Kingdom.
2 HM Coastguard is in control of communications and is responsible for
alerting the various authorities.
3 The major oil companies have oil spill units with dispersant spraying
vessels. These vessels work in close liaison with the Department of
Transport controlled dispersant spraying tugs and planes.
4 Oil which reaches the shore is the responsibility of the local authority.
Procedures if a spill occurs when discharging at anchor
The procedures will vary slightly from country to country and the emergency
procedures should be discussed with the local liaison officer. Some areas
prohibit the use of the ship's dispersant chemical whHe other areas require
the ship to cover the adjacent sea area with a foam blanket to reduce the
possibility of a spark igniting the cargo vapour. The following procedures
should therefore be considered as guidelines only:
1 The discharging vessel should immediately operate the emergency cargo
shut-down procedure.
2 Inform the Captain and sound the Emergency Squad alarm.
3 Sound or activate any pre-arranged accidental spill signal (e.g. to port
authorities or other ships).
4 Locate the emission site and attempt to stop the oil emission.
S Notify the appropriate authorities.
6 Spray the area with locally approved dispersant with the permission of the
Control Unit.
7 If permission is given, spray the sea with foam to reduce the fire and
explosion risk.
8 The main engines should be available but inform the engineers as to the
nature of the emergency.
9 Instruct an officer to keep a note of all activities together with the times of
such activities.
10 If oil has been spilled on deck organize some ofthe crew in a cleaning-up
operation.
11 The following information should be collated:
(a) the estimated amount of oil spilled
(b) the type of oil
(c) the nature of the oil
179
Shipboard Operations
(d) if an oil boom surrounds the ship or not
(e) the weather, sea, and tidal conditions
(£) the position of the ship and the distance from shore
When time permits entries should be made in the 'Official Log' and the
'Oil Record Book'. Permission should be obtained before resuming cargo
operations.
Oil record books
MI089 'Requirements for ships to keep oil records' should be studied in full.
The notice reminds mariners that oil tankers registered in the United
Kingdom must carry an oil record book in which details of the following
operations or incidents must be recorded:
1 The loading, discharge, and voyage transfers of oil cargo, cleaning and
ballasting of cargo tanks, discharge of dirty ballast and water from the slop
tank, discharge of oily bilge water from machinery spaces and the pump
room whether in port or at sea, and the disposal of oil residues.
2 Any occasion when oil or an oily mixture has been discharged in order to
maintain the safety of a ship or to prevent damage to any vessel or cargo or
to save life.
3 Any occasion when oil or an oily mixture has been discovered escaping, or
to have escaped, from a ship due to damage or to leakage from that ship.
Oil Tankers: Cargo Operations
must be provided with an oil record book. Regulation 20 of Annex 1 to
MARPOL 73 states the occasions when records must be made and Appendix
III of Annex I to MARPOL 73 states the required 'layout' or 'form' of the oil
record book. The Protocol of 1978 enumerates the supplements which must
be added to the oil record book. '
The Merchant Shipping (Prevention of Oil Pollution)
Regulations 1983
The following M notices should be consulted with reference to the above
regulations.
MI076. This contains guidelines for the conduct of initial, mandatory
annual, intermediate and renewal surveys (required by MARPOL 73/78).
The UK conducts annual surveys in substitution for unscheduled inspec-
tions of ships requiring an International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate.
M1077. The notice defines oil as 'petroleum in any form including crude
oil, fuel oil, sludge, oil refuse and refined products other than petrochemicals
listed in a merchant shipping notice'. The notice lists .such petrochemicals.
It should be noted that the above regulations apply 10 ships other than
tankers as well as to tankers.

In addition, the Master of every vessel which engages in an oil transfer

operation within United Kingdom waters must keep a record of the following
particulars:
(a) the name and port of registry of the vessel
(b) the date and time of the transfer
(c) the place of the transfer
(d) the amount and description of oil transferred
(e) from what vessel or place on land, and to what vessel or place the oil was
transferred
The record of each operation must be signed and dated by the Master.
Full details of oil record books and oil transfer operations are found in the
Prevention of Oil Pollution Act 1971, Oil in Navigable Waters (Records)
Regulations 1972, and Oil in Navigable Waters (Transfer Records)
Regulations 1957.
Under the pr6visions of the International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships 1973 (MARPOL 73), as modified by the Protocol of
1978, which came into force on 2 October 1983, every oil tanker of 150 tons
gross tonnage and above and every ship of 400 tons gross tonnage and above

180 181

6
Oil Tankers: Routine Operations
Inert gas system
Regulations
For United Kingdom ships the requirements for inert gas systems are found in
the following regulations:
The Merchant Shipping (Fire Protection) (Ships Built Before 25 May
1980) Regulations, which became operative on 12 August 1985 and
which apply to ships built before 25 May 1980
The Merchant Shipping (Fire Appliances) Regulations 1980, as subse-
quently amended, which apply to ships built on or after 25 May 1980
The Merchant Shipping (Fire Protection) Regulations 1984, which apply
to ships built on or after 1 September 1984
The 1978 Protocol to SOLAS came into force on 1 May 1981. By the
requirements of that Protocol all existing tankers of 70,000 metric tons dead-
w~ight and upwards had to have an inert gas system by 1 May 1983; existing
crude carriers of 20,000 metric tons deadweight and upwards, and existing
product carriers of 40,000 metric tons deadweight and upwards had to have an
inert gas system by 1 May 1985. 'Existing tanker' for the purpose of the Proto-
col refers to ships which were in existence on the date of entry into force of the
Protocol. All new tankers of 20,000 metric tons deadweight and upwards shall
have an inert gas system. 'New tanker' for the purposes of the Protocol means a
vessel for which the contract was placed after 1 June 1979, or was in an early
stage of building on 1 January 1980, or which was delivered after 1 June 1982.
Inert gas systems are mandatory on all tankers using crude oil washing and
by May 1985 all product carriers of 20,000 metric tons deadweight and
upwards fitted with tank washing machines greater than 60 m3/hour were also
required to ~;iVe inert gas systems.
Manuals '
Students should refer to Inert Gas Systems for Ships Carrying Petroleum
182
Oil Tankers: Routine Operations
Products in Bulk published by IMO, and Inert Flue Gas Safety Guide
published by ICS and OCIMF.
Principle of inert gas system (IGS)
,.
Three factors contribute to an explosion within a cargo tank:
1 Hydrocarbon gas.
2 Oxygen in sufficient quantity to support combustion.
3 An ignition source.
To prevent an explosion it is necessary to obviate at least one of the factors.
The introduction of inert gas into a cargo tank reduces the oxygen content to a
low level and also reduces the hydrocarbon gas concentration in the
atmosphere to a safe proportion. Thus two factors have been made innocuous
and protection against a tank explosion has been achieved.
Benefits of inert gas
1 It prevents explosions in cargo compartments.
2 It can be used as an extinguishing agent and thus can"be installed as a fixed
fire-fighting system. '-
3 Inerted tanks are maintained at a slight positive pressure. During dis-
charging operations this pressure slightly increases the discharge rate.
4 The presence of inert gas in cargo tanks reduces the loss of cargo due to
evaporation.
S Inert gas in a cargo tank makes it possible to transport certain cargoes
which react when mixed with oxygen, e.g. certain chemicals which can be
contaminated by oxygen or which have a violent reaction to oxygen.
6 The installation of an inert gas system complies with certain mandatory
regulations which then makes it possible for a ship to use the crude oil
washing technique.
7 The reduction of oxygen content to a certain proportion in a tank
atmosphere also causes a reduction of the corrosion process.
Ordinary air contains about 21 percent oxygen. Combustion can occur in a
cargo tank if an air/hydrocarbon mixture exists and the gas concentration is
within the flammable range. If the oxygen content of the tank is reduced to 11
percent combustion cannot occur regardless of whatever the hydrocarbon
concentration might be. To provide a good margin of safety inert gas systems
are required to maintain tank atmospheres at an oxygen content not
exceeding 8 percent by volume. Inert gas systems on British ships are also
required to 'be capable of delivering inert gas with an oxygen content of not
more than S percent by volume' to the supply main to the cargo tanks.
The figure of S percent oxygen content is intended primarily to be a safety
183
Shipboard Operations Oil Tankers: Routine Operations
standard but there is a marked reduction in tank corrosion once that (a) to cool the flue gas
proportion is attained. (b) to remove most of the sulphur dioxide
The purpose or function of an inert gas system is therefore to reduce the (c) to remove most of the soot particles
oxygen content of cargo compartments by the introduction of inert gas into The designs of scrubbers vary considerably but in all scrubbers flue gas is
those compartments. brought into contact with large quantities of sea water by which the gaS'is
The gas used is the ship's funnel gas which is cleaned, cooled and cooled and cleaned. Before entering the scrubbing tower the gas receives an
distributed to the cargo tanks. initial cooling by being passed through a water spray or by being bubbled
through a water seal or 'trap'. The trap also prevents any flue gas which may
Components of inert gas plant leak through the isolating valves entering the scrubbing tower so that
maintenance can be carried out in safety.
Reference should be made to Figure 6.1 which shows a schematic diagram of
The tower can be thought of as a sort of sandwich layer cake made up of the
an inert gas plant.
following components (from bottom upwards):
(a) venturi nozzles and slots
(b) perforated impingement plates
(c) trays of packed stone or plastic chippings
(d) water sprays
The flue gas enters the bottom of the tower and moves upwards through
down-flowing sea water, the layered arrangements ensuring maximum
contact between water and gas. '
Demister trays, which consist of polypropylene 'mat1resses' , are located at
the top of the tower to remove water droplets from the gas.
The sea water which cleans the gas becomes acidic and is led overboard
from the bottom of the scrubber by corrosion-resistant piping.

Blowers These are electric motor driven centrifugal blowers which deliver
the clean, cool inert gas to the cargo tanks via the distribution system.

Components of inert gas distribution system

Reference should be made to Figure 6.2 which shows a schematic diagram of

the distribution system. The gas is distributed through a pipe in which are
fitted pressure control arrangements to regulate the flow of gas to the main
distribution pipe on deck and to prevent any backflow of gas in the event of a
mechanical failure in the plant.

Gas pressure regulating valve This valve is usually part of an automatic

Flue gas isolating valves These valves are located in the pipes which re-circulating unit whereby gas which is not required in the cargo tanks is
permit the hot, dirty flue gases to be delivered to the scrubber. The valves re-routed back to the scrubber.
isolate the scrubber from the flue gas uptakes when the plant is not in use. If
is
the boiler gas not required for the inert gas process it flows up the funnel Deck water seal This is the principal barrier against backflow. In the basic
piping and is c:xpelled to the atmosphere. type of seal, the 'wet seal', the inert gas bubbles through water from a
submerged inlet pipe. If the pressure ofthe gas in the cargo tanks exceeds the
Scrubber The scrubber has a three-fold purpose: pressure of the gas in the inlet pipe, water is forced up that pipe and any

184 185

backflow is thus prevented. The disadvantage with the wet seal is that the gas
must pass through a demister pad (which is within the seal unit) to reduce the
possibility of water droplets being carried over.
Deck non-retum valve A mechanical valve which also prevents backflow
but in addition prevents any cargo flowing to the deck seal if the cargo tanks
have been overfilled.
Deck isolating valve This isolates the deck main from the rest of the
system when the plant is shut down. It also permits maintenance work to be
carried out on the non-return valve.
Pressure vacuum breakers These liquid-filled breakers are fitted in the
deck gas main to prevent the cargo tanks from being subjected to an excess
positive pressure and to an excess negative pressure.
Deck supply main This runs forward from the deck isolating valve and
delivers the inert gas during operational phases of the voyage.
Branch lines These pipes deliver the inert gas from the deck main to
individual cargo tanks. Another branch line is in the form of a mast riser to
allow the venting of gas to the atmosphere.
Basic requirem~nts of inert gas system
The regulations~hould be studied in full but each system must be capable of:
1 Maintaining the atmosphere of a cargo tank at an oxygen content not
exceeding 8 percent by volume and at a positive pressure at all times.
186
Oil Tankers: Routine Operations
2 Delivering inert gas to cargo tanks at a rate of 25 percent more than the
maximum discharge rate of the cargo pumps.
3 Delivering inert gas with an oxygen content of not more than 5 percent by
volume.
At least two blowers are required to be fitted which together must be
capable of delivering the above rate of inert gas to the tanks. Instrumentation
must be provided:
1 To indicate continuously the temperature and pressure of the inert gas at
the discharge side of the blowers.'
2 To indicate continuously and record permanently:
(a) the pressure of the inert gas supply main forward of the non-return
devices
(b) the oxygen content of the inert gas in the supply main on the discharge
side of the blower
3 On the bridge to indicate the inert gas pressure forward of the non-return
devices (this should be in the form of a meter).
4 In the machinery control room to indicate the oxygen content of the inert
gas on the discharge side of the blower (this should be in the form of a
meter). "
Audible and visual alarms should include:
1 Low water flow rate to the scrubber.
2 High water level in the scrubber.
3 High gas temperature at the discharge side of the blowers.
4 Failure of a blower.
5 Oxygen content in excess of 8 percent.
6 Failure of the power supply to the gas pressure regulating valve.
7 Low water level in the deck seal.
8 Low gas pressure in the deck supply main.
9 High gas pressure in the deck supply main.
Some of the above alarms also initiate automatic shut-down devices within
the system.
All tankers fitted with an inert gas system must also have a closed ullage
system.
Basic operating procedure of plant
1 Open and secure the scrubber and water seal overboard discharge valves.
2 Start the water supply systems to the scrubber and deck seal at least 15
minutes before commencing the operation.
3 Ensure that the flue gas is of a suitable quality.
187

Shipboard Operations
4 Open the flue gas isolating valves.
5 Open the·blower suction and delivery valves.
6 Start the blowers.
7 Ensure that the gas regulating valve is open and open the deck main
isolating valve.
8 Open the mast riser to allow inert gas to vent to the atmosphere in case it
is of poor quality.
9 Check all monitors and when satisfied open the branch line valves to the
cargo tanks and close the mast riser valve.
When all the tanks are at the required pressure, shut the deck isolating
valve, shut down the blower and close the suction and delivery valves, and
close the flue gas isolating valves. The scrubber water should be run for an
hour to flush out the tower and drain line, and the blower impellers should be
washed with the fresh-water spray to remove grime.
Use of inert gas system during tanker operational cycle
Tank washing on the ballast voyage When the vessel sailed from the
discharge port all the tanks would have been fully inerted and under positive
pressure. Tanks may have to be washed during the voyage for the provision of
clean ballast and before each tank is washed the oxygen content must be
measured at a level of I metre below the deckand also at a level half-way down
the ullage space. This precaution should be carried out at several locations
within each tank. Washing must only commence when the oxygen content of
the tank atmosphere is 8 percent or lower. The use of portable atmosphere
sampling equipment is described under 'Entry into Enclosed Spaces' in
Chapter I.
The inert gas plant should be started shortly before the tank washing
operation commences so that the tanks are under positive pressure. It may be
necessary to vent some of the gas to atmosphere via the mast riser to avoid
overpressurizing the tanks. On some vessels inert gas will leak to the
atmosphere during the washing procedure as it may be necessary to open
some tank apertures. Two basic points must be strictly observed on all
vessels:
I The oxygen level of the inert gas being delivered must never exceed
8 percent.
2 The pressule of the atmosphere in the tank must always be positive.
If either of tht;se two basic criteria is not met, tank washing must be stopped
immediately .. The oxygen content and the gas pressure should be
continuously recorded during the washing process.
188
Oil Tankers: Routine Operations
Changing ballast Before commencing to take in clean ballast to the washed
tanks the supply of inert gas to those tanks must be shut off. Arrangements
must be made to vent the inert gas in the clean tanks to atmosphere when the
ballast water is loaded. This venting is carried out through the inert gas mast
riser or by use of an individual tank venting system. As the 'dirty' ballast is
pumped out, or transferred to the slop tank, the tanks which have been used
for the dirty ballast must be inerted. When the change of ballast operation is
completed, riser valves should be shut, and all tanks brought to a slight
positive pressure. "
At the loading port The inert gas system must be in operation before the
pumps start to pump out the ballast and should be left in full operation until
the discharge of ballast is completed. The following points should be
observed:
I All cargo tanks should be common with the inert gas main.
2 All mast riser isolating valves should be closed.
3 All monitors and controls must be operating efficiently.
When the ballast has been discharged and all th~'tanks are fully inerted
the system must be shut down and secured before loading commences. The
following checks should be made:
I That the deck isolating valve is dosed.
2 That the mast riser venting valves are open.
3 That any stop valves in branch lines are open.
The inflowing cargo will displace the inert gas from the tanks being loaded
and the gas will vent to the atmosphere. When loading is completed the riser
valves should be closed.
The loaded passage A positive inert gas pressure should be maintained
during the loaded voyage to prevent oxygen entering the cargo compartments
and to compensate for any loss of inert gas. The plant may therefore be run
for a short period every few days to 'top-up' the inert gas in the cargo tanks.
The complete system should be checked a few days before entering the
discharge port.
The discharge port It may be necessary to depressurize the cargo tanks
upon arrival to permit manual ullaging and for water dips to be taken. The
tanks must be re-pressurized before discharging commences. The discharge
of cargo procedures are similar to those which were observed for the
discharge of ballast at the loading port. Some vessels will conduct crude oil
washing during the discharge and the same basic safety parameters which
189

Shipboard Operations
were observed during the water tank washing on the ballast voyage must be
adhered to. The oxygen content and the pressure of the inert gas in the deck
main must be recorded continuously during the discharging operation.
If some cargo tanks require to be ballasted at the end of discharge the
standards which were maintained during loading must once again be applied.
Tank washing
Cargo tanks are cleaned for several reasons, the most frequent being the need
for clean ballast. When a ship has discharged her cargo she is too light to sail
in safety and ballast must be pumped into some cargo tanks. In order to avoid
pollution at the loading port, some tanks must be washed during the voyage
and filled with sea water; thus we obtain clean ballast. The dirty ballast is then
disposed of by using the 'Load on Top' method which will be described later.
Crude oil leaves sediment on tank bottoms which is known as sludge.
Washing is the main method to prevent sludge accumulation.
Tanks are also washed when a change of cargo occurs, when tanks need
inspecting, or to meet repair work and shipyard preparation requirements.
Washing is carried out by the use of cleaning machines which deliver sea
water through two nozzles 180 apart, under high pressure, and in rotating
0
arcs which should cover all of the tank. The water is supplied by a special
pump or by the main cargo pumps and the delivery line to the machines has a
branch line which is routed via a heater when hot sea water is required. For
safety and operational reasons the use of hot sea water should be avoided if
possible.
There are two basic types of machine:
Portable machines These are screwed on to 2.5 inch rubber hoses which
are connected to hydrants on the wash water line. The machines are then
hung through special openings in the deck. A bonding wire runs through the
rubber hose from the coupling at the machine to the hydrant coupling; this
provides electrical continuity to prevent static build-up. Portable machines
are generally oflow capacity from approximately 32m3lhour, to high capacity
of 75m3/hour, depending on machine size and operating pressure (which can
be as low as 4.0 kg/cm2).
Fixed machines These are similar in construction but connected to
permanent supply pipes which 'hang' approximately two metres below the
deck and which have a permanent pipeline system above deck used solely for
the purposesiof the machines. These machines are high-capacity high-
velocity and while some portable machines can operate at pressures up to 150
psi (l0.5 kg/cm2) fixed machines often exceed that pressure. A fixed machine
190
Oil Tankers: Routine Operations
3
operating at a pressure of 10 kg/cm2 can deliver 150m of liquid each hour
through a 38 mm diameter nozzle or 100m3/hour through a 29 mm diameter
nozzle.
Tank washing with water ~.
The general safety precautions stated earlier must be carried out and it is
advisable to use a check list or permit-to-work form.
The washing operation can be carried out by using the following method:
1 The plates are removed from the deck openings.
2 The portable machines are connected to the hoses, hung through the
openings and the pumps started.
3 The tank is washed in various steps depending upon its size. A typical
sequence would be to wash in, say, three stages called drops:
First drop four metres below the deck. The machines are hung at this level and
remain until this part of the tank is thoroughly washed.
Second drop about halfway down the tank. The hoses are lowered without
turning off the water. ,
Third drop just above the tank bottom framing. The ~ ..achines are kept at this
level until the bottom is clean.
4 The stripping pump is started at the commencement of the operation and
the washings pumped to the slop tank. It is essential that no build-up of
water occurs, otherwise the bottom will not be cleaned.
5 When the tank is clean, the pumps are stopped and the hoses hauled on to
the deck before disconnection takes place.
The time of the operation depends on several factors, e.g. cargo carried,
tank condition, power of machines, water temperature, blind spots, etc. If
you are lucky the operation may only take 3-4 hours. However, spot washing
may be required to clean 'awkward' corners and machines may be left
running at the bottom drop to remove built-up deposits of sludge. Fixed
machines work in pre-set cycles of 1-2 hours and can wash a tank efficiently
in 3 hours.
A name which is synonymous with tank washing is that of Butterworth
who have been manufacturing machines for many years. Figure 6.3 shows a
Butterworth portable tank washing machine and Figure 6.4 shows a fixed
washing machine.
Tank washing atmospheres
In order to understand this section you must have knowledge of certain
definitions.
191
Flammable range (also known as explosive range) Petroleum vapours are
only flammable when mixed in a certain volumetric percentage with air. The
percentage of the flammable mixture varies with different products. For
crude oil the range is 1-10 percent hydrocarbon gas with air, and with
kerosene 0.6-6 percent. You must know the flammable range of your cargo.

Lowerllammable limit (LFL) The concentration of a hydrocarbon gas

(i.e. gas from,. petroleum) in air below which there is insufficient gas to
support combustion. In non-technical terms the mixture is too lean.
,

Upper flammable limit (UF L) The concentration of gas in air above which
there is insufficient air to support combustion. The mixture is too rich.

192
Shipboard Operations
Reference should be made to Chapter 8 of ISGOTT from which some of
the following information is condensed. Washing can be carried out in four
atmospheres.
Atmosphere A An atmosphere which is not controlled and which can be
above, below, or within the flammable range.
Atmosphere B An atmosphere made incapable of burning by the deliberate
reduction of the hydrocarbon content to below the LFL (i.e. too lean). The
readings given by a suitable combustible gas indicator should not exceed 50
percent LFL.
Atmosphere C An atmosphere made incapable of burning due to the
introduction of inert gas. Oxygen content should not exceed 8 percent.
Atmosphere D An atmosphere made incapable of burning by deliberately
maintaining the hydrocarbon content above the UFL (i.e. too rich). A
hydrocarbon content of at least IS percent should be attained before starting
washing and maintained throughout the operation.
Washing in atmosphere A is the most hazardous operation and certain
procedures must be observed:
I Not more than three high-capacity or four low-capacity machines in any
one compartment at the same time. Low-capacity machines have a flow
rate not exceeding 35m3/hour; high as between 35 and 60m3/hour;
machines greater than 60m3/hour should not be used. It is essential,
therefore, that you know the flow rate of your machines. Fixed machines
can have a flow rate over 100m3/hour. A compartment is any part of a tank
sectionalized by a wash plate (swash) bulkhead.
2 Hoses should be tested for electrical continuity.
3 All connections should be made before the machine is introduced into the
tank and no connections should be broken until after the machine has been
removed.
4 Recirculated water and chemical additives should not be used.
5 Water should only be heated to 60°C (140°F).
6 Steam should not be introduced into the tank.
7 The tank should be kept drained during washing. Suspend the operation if
a build-up occurs.
8 Do not introduce metal objects, such as sounding rods, into the tank
during wasqing and do not introduce electrically conductive and
unearthed objects until 5 hours after washing.
The safest atmosphere to work in is C and in that case none of the foregoing
194
Oil Tankers: Routine Operations
precautions need be observed. It is the only atmosphere in which the author
would be contented to carry out tank washing. However the inert gas plant
must be in good condition, the inerting of the tank must be maintained
constantly, and the oxygen content must never rise above 8 percent. A
positive pressure must be maintained on the system and the gas monitOted
constantly. Suspend washing if the oxygen content rises above 8 percent.
Refer to Chapter 8 in ISGOTT for washing in atmospheres Band D, and to
Chapter 17 for the use and limitations of portable measuring instruments.
'"
Crude oil washing (COW)
Regulations
The IMO International Conference on Tanker Safety and Pollution
Prevention which was held in 1978 issued Protocols to existing SOLAS and
MARPOL conventions. The MARPOL 1978 Protocol requires COW in new
crude carriers of 20,000 ton dwt and above, and existing tankers of 40,000
tons dwt and above must have either COW or SBT{segregated ballast tanks).
In accordance with the SOLAS 1978 Protocol every bow tanker must have
an inert gas system. The definitions of 'new' and 'existing' are given in the
SBT section.
Manuals
Students should refer to Guidelines for Tankwashing with Crude Oil published
by ICS and OCIMF, and Crude Oil Washing Systems published by IMO.
General aspects of COW
Crude oil washing is a process whereby part of the cargo is circulated through
the fixed tank cleaning equipment to remove the waxy asphaltic deposits
which the cargo has left on the tank. This is normally carried out during
discharging. COW has proved to be more effective than water washing for
this purpose because the oil acts to disperse and suspend the sediments in the
oil and tends to restore the cargo to its as-loaded condition.
Water washing is also necessary if the tank is required for .clean ballast or
for entry.
Effects of sediment
1 Reduces the effectiveness of drainage.
2 Prolongs the draining operation.
3 Combines with oil, etc. to produce sludge.
4 Impedes the provision of clean ballast.
195
 Shipboard Operations
Oil Tankers: Routine Operations
5 Makes gas freeing difficult and can cause pockets of hydrocarbon gases to part of the washing system which extends into the engine room and blank off
form.
the water heater if one is fitted.
6 Reduces the carrying capacity.
The operation should only be carried out when the tank oxygen level is
7 Reduces ships' earnings.
below 8 percent.
Before use the washing system should be pressure tested for leaks.~The
Advantages of COW
system should be checked frequently during the operation, drained and
1 Reduced risk of pollution. flushed with water after use. A cautionary notice should be posted where
2 Reduction in time of passage tank cleaning. applicable: 'The tank washing lines on this ship may contain crude oil. On no
3 Reduction in the cost of tank cleaning (both routine and for dry dock). account are valves on this line to be opened by unauthorized personnel.'
4 Reduction in de-sludging costs. IMO has laid down specificatiOns for the design of COW systems and
5 Reduction of salt water discharged to the refinery. operators should refer to the manual, e.g. direct impingement of washing jets
6 Reduced corrosion as less salt water is introduced into the tanks during is required on 85 percent of the vertical sides of the tank and on 90 percent of
washing. horizontal areas within the tank.
7 Increases the time available for maintenance. There are two basic washing methods. In the 'multi-stage' method the tank
8 Increased carrying capacity (Jess slops carried). sides and structure are washed as the cargo level falls and the bottom is
9 Increased discharge rates on overall stripping time. washed as the tank empties. With the 'single-stage' method the tank is first
10 Increase in the refinable material discharged. emptied, stripped and then washed in a similar way to the conventional
water-washing technique. During each discharge the tanks required for clean
ballast should be washed plus 25 percent of the ~t~r tanks on a rotational
Disadvantages schedule. After both methods pumps and lines should be flushed before
1 More crew training required. ballast is loaded. There will be a thin film of oil on this dirty ballast and IMO
2 Increased work load in port. regulations require measurement of the surface oil before the ship leaves
3 Possible reduced discharge rate on some types of VLCC. port. The volume of oil must not exceed an agreed ratio of the cubic capacity
4 Due to the high pressure at which the oil 'jets' strike bulkheads, etc. some of the cargo tanks in which it is contained.
structural damage to tank members may be experienced. Personnel must be trained for the dual operation of discharging and
washing at the same time. Port authorities and terminal operators must be
Requirements to carry out COW notified of the intention to tank wash and a standard check list must be filled
in. All COW operations should be entered in the 'Oil Record Book'.
1 An efficient inert gas system. Crude washing without an IGS is both
dangerous and illegal.
2 Fixed tank cleaning installation of a suitable type. Gas freeing
3 An effective monitoring system.
This operation normally takes place after water tank washing and all the
Operating and safety procedures attendant safety procedures should still be in force. It is standard practice to
wash through the whole pipeline system and the pumps; in addition to
The use of machines fitted within the tanks avoids the need for use of deck
cleaning the lines this helps to gas free them ..
openings and thus prevents the escape of oil or vapour. The machines are The inert gas system must be shut down and the pressure in the tanks
provided with the oil via junction lines from the discharge lines of the main relieved by opening the purge pipes. The tank lids are then opened and the
cargo pumps.
inert gas system blanked off. It is possible to use the inert gas system for gas
Before COW is commenced any water in the cargo which may have settled freeing. However, I have seldom used that method, preferring to use the
as a water bot~om should be drawn from each tank. The slop tank, if it has system only for its important primary function of inerting tanks. The pressure-
been used for load-on-top purposes, should be completely discharged and vacuum valves of all tanks whose vent systems are common with those to be gas
refilled with fresh crude before using it for washing purposes. Blank off any freed must now be secured.
196
197
Shipboard Operations
Remove any portable washing machines from the tanks and open all deck
openings. Air is blown into the tanks through some of the openings by the use
of portable high-capacity blowers powered by steam, air or water. The latter
are simply water-driven turbine fans which connect via rubber hoses with the
wash deck line. Check that the fans are operating at the correct pressure.
When going at full blast they produce a high-pitched whine. Extension
pieces, shaped like open-ended cylinders, can be inserted into the deck
openings before placing the fans. These give a 'jet-like' motion to the air and
thus increase the force of the air flow. The fans can also be used as extractors
but at decreased efficiency.
The forced ventilation is continued with the tank atmosphere being tested
at regular intervals for hydrocarbon gases using an explosimeter, and for
oxygen using an analyser . Ventilation is continued until the tank atmosphere
is safe, i.e. a reading of 0 percent on the explosimeter and 21 percent on the
analyser. The limits which some officers use of 1 percent hydrocarbons and
18 percent oxygen are unsafe. When testing the atmosphere, samples should
be taken at the tank bottom and at several depths, using several openings and
stopping the ventilation during the tests. Each tank should be gas free in 3-4
hours.
Before entering any tanks use the 'Enclosed Space Procedures'.

Pressure-vacuum valves

Pressure-vacuum valves (PV valves) are used for automatic regulation of
pressure within enclosed spaces, particularly cargo tanks. Such valves can be
spring-loaded, weighted, or may operate by means of hydraulic action. An
easy type to draw and describe is the spring-loaded valve shown in Figure 6.5.
The springs are tensioned so that the valve opens when pressure in a tank
rises to about 2 psi (0.137 bars) above atmospheric pressure, and also when it
falls to about 0.5 psi (0.034 bars) below atmospheric pressure. A by-pass
valve is incorporated into the system to allow unimpeded venting when
required, e.g. during loading.
Expansion of the liquid (or evaporation) in the tank will cause the pressure
to increase. Once the pressure reaches the pre-set value spring B will be
forced to lift, allowing the tank atmosphere to escape up the mast riser and
thus decreasing the tank pressure. When the pressure decreases sufficently
the plate attached to spring B will re-seat. Contraction of the cargo will
decrease the tank pressure. This eventually causes a vacuum but once the
pressure falls (0 0.5 psi below atmospheric, spring A will lift to allow air into
the tank, thus1increasing the pressure. When pressure increases sufficiently
the plate attached to spring A will re-seat.
An increase of pressure decreases evaporation. This is why the pressure
198
side of the valve is set to 2 psi. Evaporation could be completely prevented if
the tanks were sufficiently pressurized. However, conventional cargo tanks
are only strong enough to withstand 3.5 psi (0.24 bars) above atmospheric
pressure and for reasons of safety a pressure of 2.5 psi (0.17 bars) should
never be exceeded.
PV valves are sometimes arranged in tank groups and it is important to
fully understand the grouping system in order to avoid accidental
contamination when grades are being loaded and carried, through
hydrocarbon gases being fed to tanks along common vent lines. For this
reason the position of block valves should be known. Some vessels have a
'self-contained' venting system for each tank, therefore as a tank is loaded the
PV valve for that tank should be re-set to the normal position. On ships with a
group system the valves can only be re-set when each group of tanks has been
loaded.
PV valves require careful and frequent maintenance and should be opened
at regular intervals to ensure that they are not sticking, or rusting too much,
and that the seats are in good condition. The spark arrestor gauze must be
kept clean and renewed frequently. During loaded passages a check should
be made that each-valve is working.
199

Shipboard Operations
'Load on top' system (LOT)
Also known as the 'retention of oil on board process' (ROB).
Regulations
The IMO International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships 1973 (MARPOL 1973) prohibits the discharge of any oil or oily
mixture from an oil tanker within 50 miles from the nearest land and within
Special Areas. In brief, the Special Areas are the Mediterranean, Black Sea,
Baltic, Red Sea, and the Gulf. Elsewhere the flow, concentration, and
quantity discharged is strictly limited to the following requirements:
1 The tanker is proceeding en route.
2 The instantaneous rate of discharge of oil content does not exceed 60 litres
per nautical mile.
3 The total quantity of oil discharged into the sea does not exceed for existing
tankers 1/15,000 of the total quantity of the particular cargo of which the
residue formed a part, and for new tankers 1/30,000. (New ship in general
means a ship built after 31 December 1975 and existing ship is a ship which
is not new.)
4 The tanker has in operation an oil discharge monitoring and control system
and a slop tank arrangement.
Manuals
Students should refer to the above Convention, plus.Clean Seas Guide for Oil
Tankers and Monitoring of Retained Oil Residues published by ICS and
OCIMF.
Operation
The LOT system meets the above regulations by using the principle of
decantation to separate oil residues from water. The sea water is then
discharged at sea while the oil residues are retained on board. Thus the tanker
enters the loading port with clean ballast, the residues are co-mingled with
the new cargo, and pollution is avoided. The operation can be divided into
various stages:
1 Dirty ballast is loaded into certain tanks on the completion of cargo
discharge .. ~
2 During the vqyage the tanks to be filled with clean ballast are washed, the
oil water mixture being stripped to the slop tank.
3 The clean tanks are filled with ballast.
200
Oil Tankers: Routine Operations
4 During this period the oil in the dirty ballast has floated to the top. If the
ship has carried out crude oil washing, the oil skim is already on the
surface. The clean water under the oil is discharged and the oil plus some
water is transferred to the slop tank.
5 The mixture in the slop tank is allowed to settle for at least 24 hours~ If
voyage requirements permit, a period of several days is allowed for this
process.
6 The clean water under the oil is pumped out to sea, being constantly
monitored to stay within the regulations.
7 The next cargo is loaded on top' of the oil residue and the mixture is
pumped ashore at the discharge terminal.
It should be noted that the slop tank decanting process cannot be carried
out within 50 miles of the coast or within Special Areas. Ensure that the 'Oil
Record Book' is correctly kept and that a 'ROB monitoring record' is
maintained.
Segregated ballast tanks (SBT)
Regulations '
"-
MARPOL 1973 (Regulation 13) stated that every new oil tanker of 70,000
tons deadweight and above should be provided with segregated ballast tanks.
The broad definition of segregated ballast means ballast water introduced
into a tank which is completely separated from the cargo oil and which is
permanently allocated to the carriage of ballast. The capacity of such tanks
should be so as to allow the ship to operate safely on ballast voyages.
However, if the Master deems it necessary in extreme weather conditions,
additional ballast may be carried in oil tanks to ensure the safety of the ship.
Such additional ballast must comply with LOT procedures.
The 1978 MARPOL Protocol extended the above requirements:
1 All new crude oil tankers of 20,000 dwt and above must be provided with
SBT and operate COW procedures.
2 All new product carriers of 30,000 dwt and above must be provided with
SBT.
3 All existing crude oil tankers of 40,000 dwt and above must either be
provided with SBT or operate COW procedures.
4 All existing product carriers of 40,000 dwt and above must be provided
with SBT.
There are acceptable alternatives to SBT but if these are required,
Regulation 13A of MARPOL 1978 should be studied in full.
New ship in general means a ship for which a contract was placed after
1 June 1979, or was in an early stage of building on 1 January 1980, or was
201
 Shipboard Operations
delivered after 1 June 1982. Existing ships refers to ships which were in
existence on the date of entry into fOl:ceof the Protocol.
The date of entry into force of MARPOL 73/78, i.e. both MARPOL 73
and the Protocol of 78, was 2 October 1983.
7 ,.
Further reading
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically
BAPTIST,G. Tanker Handbook for Deck Officers (Brown: Glasgow, 1975).
CORKHILL,M. Product Tankers and their Market Role (Fairplay: London,
1978).
Dangerous '.'
KING, G. A. B. Tanker Practice (Maritime: London, 1969).- A Dangerous Goods
MARTON,G. S. Tanker Operations (Cornell: Cambridge, Maryland, 1978). B Liquefied Gas Cargoes
RUTHERFORD, D. Tanker Cargo Handling (Griffin: London, 1980).
C Chemical Cargoes
ICS Publications
Ship to Ship Transfer Guide (Petroleum).
Prevention of Oil Spillages through Cargo Pump Room Sea Valves.
A Dangerous Goods '
Journal '..
Merchant Shipping (Dangerous Goods) Regulations 1981
BRIDGES,F. V. 'Operational oil spillages', Seaways, April 1983, pp. 13-17.
These regulations give effect to Chapter VII (Carriage of Dangerous Goods)
of SOLAS 74.
The shipowner or employer is required to make arrangements for ensuring
the health and safety of persons working on board in operations dealing with
dangerous goods. The term 'dangerous goods' refers to goods which are
classified in the 'Blue Book', the 'IMDG Code', and in certain IMO
publications such as the 'Bulk Dangerous Chemicals Code' , and to any other
substance which might be dangerous if transported by sea.
The regulations apply to United Kingdom ships and to other ships
operating in United Kingdom waters.

Documentation of packaged dangerous goods

No dangerous goods shall be loaded unless the shipper has provided a
dangerous goods declaration; not to do so is an offence. The declaration must
give the correct technical name of the goods (i.e. a description of the goods
which readily identifies their dangerous characteristics, including any
shipping name given in the IMDG Code), the identity of the goods, the
United Nations number if applicable, and must also indicate the class in
which the goods belong.

202 Class 1 Explosives

203
 Shipboard Operations
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
Class 2 Gases compressed, liquefied or dissolved under pressure, subdi-
vided into three categories: Marking
2.1 Flammable gases
The following requirements should be complied with:
2.2 Non-flammable gases, being compressed, liquefied or dissolved,
but neither flammable nor poisonous I The package must be clearly marked with the correct technical name of the
2.3 Poisonous gases goods and an indication should be given as to the danger which could arise
Class 3 Flammable liquids, subdivided into three categories: during the transportation of the goods.
3.1 Low flashpoint 2 The markings must comply with the Blue Book or IMDG Code.
3.2 Intermediate flashpoint 3 If the outer material of the package will survive three months' immersion
3.3 High flashpoint the marking must be durable. '"
Class 4.1 Flammable solids 4 If the outer material will not survive three months any inner receptacles
Class 4.2 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion which will survive three months must be durably marked.
Class 4.3 Substances which in contact with water emit flammable gases 5 If the goods are carried in a container or similar unit, then that unit must
Class 5.1 Oxidizing substances (agents) have distinctive labels on the exterior which comply with the Blue Book or
Class 5.2 Organic peroxides the IMDG Code class label system. In the case of a container or tank the
Class 6.1 Poisonous (toxic) substances labels should be on each side and end. If a vehicle, the labels should be on
Class 6.2 Infectious substances each side and at the rear.
Class 7 Radioactive substances
Class 8 Corrosives Stowage and packing ,
Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous substances which present a danger not Dangerous goods should be stowed in a manner whi~h is safe and proper and
covered by other classes in a location where the appropriate adequate ventilation can be provided.
Goods in a container or similar unit should be packed in a safe and proper
In addition to the declaration, the shipper must supply the following manner. Goods which are liable to interact dangerously must be effectively
written information where appropriate: segregated from one another.
(a) the number and type of packages
(b) the gross weight of the consignment Carriage of explosives other than safety explosives
(c) the net weight of the explosive content of Class I goods
Cd) the flashpoint if 61°C or below. Explosives should only be carried in a compartment in which any electrical
If goods are packed into a container or vehicle the vessel must be given a apparatus and cables are designed and used so as to minimize the risk of fire or
packing certificate for the container or vehicle. explosion.
A stowage plan should be made which gives the information noted above Where Category II stowage is required by the IMDG Code, the explosives
and also the location of where the goods are stowed. should be stowed in a magazine which shall be kept securely closed when the
ship is at sea.
Detonators must be effectively segregated from all other explosives.
Packaging of dangerous goods
Carriage of dangerous goods on passenger ships
Goods should be packed in such a manner that, having regard to the
properties of the goods, they withstand the ordinary risks of handling and No explosives can be transported on a ship carrying more than 12 passengers
transport by sea. The goods must also be packed in accordance with the except:
requirements of the Blue Book or, if there is no such requirement, then in (a) safety explosives
accordance With the IMDG Code. Any portable tank or road tank vehicle (b) any explosives the net weight of which is 10 kg or under
which contains dangerous goods must be certified under the provisions of (c) distress signals up to a total weight of 1000 kg
Annex I or 2 of the Blue Book. The shipper must provide a declaration which (d) fireworks which are unlikely to explode violently, provided that no
states that the goods are packed in accordance with the regulations. fireworks are carried on ships transporting unberthed passengers
204 205
 Shipboard Operations
The stowage of distress signals and fireworks must be supervised.
No dangerous goods should be allowed on board any vessel carrying more
than 25 passengers.
Dangerous goods loaded in bulk
Bulk dangerous goods include solid bulk cargoes as well as liquid chemicals
and gases. Notification of such goods must be given to the owner or master
and the goods will be deemed to be loaded acceptably if the relevant IMO
Code is adhered to.
Blue Book
This is a Department of Transport publication entitled Carriage of Dangerous
Goods in Ships and which in general is a reflection of the IMDG Code. The
1984 edition is constantly updated by amendments which should be inserted
into the appropriate section. The Blue Book is the report of the Standing
Advisory Committee on the Carriage of Dangerous Goods in Ships and the
Committee believes that safety at sea 'will be facilitated if the government can
accept virtually all the recommendations of the IMDG Code'. The
Committee therefore recommends that the United Kingdom adopts the
IMDG Code in 'large measure' while recognizing that for a period of time
there will be 'certain minimal variations' between the Blue Book and the
IMDG Code.
From the above it would be reasonable for British mariners to consider
both publications as companion and complementary codes.
The Blue Book is a loose-leaf one-volume publication which contains
general and specific recommendations for the safe transportation of
dangerous goods. Mariners should always consult the Blue Book when in any
doubt as to the hazardous nature of any cargo to be loaded.
IMDG Code
The International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code is published by IMO in five
volumes. The Code lays down certain basic principles concerning the
transportation of dangerous goods. Recommendations for good practice are
included in the classes dealing with such substances, and detailed
recommendations are given for individual substances. The code is published
in a loose-leaf format in five volumes. Amendments are published regularly to
keep pace with the technological developments of cargoes. Volume 1contains
206
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
a general introduction which gives detailed information on the application of
the Code, classification, documentation and labelling, packing and packag-
ing, stowage and segregation, fire prevention and fire fighting, and other
related subjects. Substances are grouped together under the various class
headings. Each class has an introduction giving information on properties,
packing, stowage, segregation, fire fighting, and limited ·quantities. Each
substance usually has a page (schedule) to itself and the information includes
the chemical name and formula, the United Nations number, properties,
packing, stowage, and observations. A general index of technical information
is included in Volume 5, and the index should always be consulted when
attempting to locate the appropriate schedule for any substance or article.
The IMDG stowage and segregation procedures and requirements should be
carefully studied before a decision is taken as to the actual stowage position of
dangerous goods.
Emergency Procedures for Ships Carrying Dangerous Goods
This is an IMO publication which gives informatio~ concerning the safety,
first aid, and emergency procedures to be followed anl.(action to be taken in
the event of an incident involving certain dangerous goods. The goods are
classified in accordance with Chapter VII of SOLAS and the recommended
procedures should be used in conjunction with the information provided in
the IMDG Code and the IMO publication Medical First Aid Guide for Use in
Accidents involving Dangerous Goods (MFAG).
The Emergency Schedules (EmS) are divided into five sections:
I Group title with the emergency schedule number (EmS No.).
2 Special equipment required.
3 Emergency procedures.
4 Emergencyaction.
5 First aid
The appropriate schedules should be consulted before goods are loaded in
order to ascertain that the vessel has the correct equipment to deal with any
incidents which might occur. The schedules are also useful when planning
emergency team training exercises.
M Notices
New amendments to the Blue Book and IMDG Code are promulgated in M
notices. The notices referring to dangerous goods are too numerous and
varied to be listed here. A full list of current Merchant Shipping Notices
should be consulted but Ml1l7 and M1l24 must be read.
207
Shipboard Operations
M1213 draws attention to The Merchant Shipping (Dangerous Goods)
(Amendment) Regulations 1986, especially to Regulation 2(6) which 'requires
the owners and masters of, as well as employers of persons aboard, ships in
which dangerous substances are being carried, stowed, handled, loaded or
unloaded to ensure that, so far as is reasonably practicable, nothing in the
manner in which those substances being carried; stowed, handled, loaded or
unloaded is such as might create a risk to the health and safety of any person'.
The purpose of the Notice is to give practical guidance on the implementation
of Regulation 2(6) and to this end an Annex is attached to the Notice which
contains a Code of Practice based on IMO recommendations on the safe trans-
port, handling and storage of dangerous substances in port areas.
The Annex is comprehensive but it particularly draws the attention of
masters to ensuring that 'the loading or unloading of dangerous substances is
carried out under the overall supervision of a duly qualified officer of the vessel
and that the officer is aware of the risks involved, the correct procedures to be
followed, and the steps to be taken in an emergency'. The master should also,
as far as is reasonably practicable, ensure that no intoxicated person has any-
thing to do with any aspects of such operations. The master or owner should
ensure that information on the dangerous substance and on the stability of the
vessel is in the possession of the duly qualified officer and that the information
is available for the use of the emergency services.
The 'Code of Practice for the Handling, Loading and Unloading of Danger-
ous Goods in Harbour Areas', which comprises most ofthe Annex, also deals
with such topics as:
Transfer of dangerous liquids in bulk
Special precautions for the handling of explosives
Precautions against fire and explosions
The Notice also draws attention to 'The Dangerous Substances in Harbour
Area Regulations', known as the DSHA Regulations, which became operative
on 1 June 1987. These Regulations take IMO recommendations into account
(such as the IMO publication Safe Transport, Handling and Storage of Danger-
ous Substances in Port Areas) and were drawn up by the Health and Safety
Commission (HSC). The Regulations are enforced by the Health and Safety
Executive (HSE) which is the 'operational wing' of the HSC and, as is the case
with the new Docks Regulations, these particular Regulations come in the
form of a 'package' of Regulations, Schedules, a Guide and an Approved
Code of Practice. The Regulations cover the following topics:
Entry of dangerous substances into harbour areas
Marking and navigation of vessels
Safe haIJdling of dangerous substances
Loading and unloading of dangerous substances
Liquid dangerous substances in bulk
208
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
Packaging and labelling
Emergency arrangements and unusual incidents
Storage of dangerous substances
Handling of explosives ~.
General fire precautions when carrying dangerous goods
The following recommendations are to be found in either the Blue Book or
the IMDG Code: "'
1 Reject any damaged or leaking packages.
2 Packages should be stowed in a location which ensures protection from
accidental damage or heating.
3 Combustible material must be kept away from ignition sources.
4 Goods must be segregated from substances liable to start or to spread fires.
5 It may be necessary to ensure accessibility of dangerous goods so that
packages in the vicinity of a fire may be protected or moved to safety.
6 Enforce prohibition of smoking in dangerous areas.
7 Post 'No Smoking' signs or symbols. \,
8 All electrical fittings and cables must be in good condition and safeguarded
against short circuits and sparking.
9 All ventilators must have spark arrestors of suitable wire mesh.
Officers must check the individual entries in the codes to ascertain the best
extinguishing agent for each particular consignment. In general the most
effective agent is water but in some cases the use of water can intensify the fire
or cause an explosion. Water should not be used against fires involving
explosives. Sprinkling or flooding is the only sure way to deal with
temperature rises which may lead to explosive decomposition. Sufficient
extinguishers of an appropriate type should be carried.
Some substances on fire may emit poisonous fumes. Therefore, protective
clothing and sets of self-contained breathing apparatus should be readily
available. The Blue Book recommends that a minimum of two sets should be
carried in addition to the SOLAS requirements for general cargo vessels.
It is the general practice to close openings when fighting a fire. However,
with substances that either evolve oxygen on being heated or are liable to
self-sustaining combustion, such a procedure C041d prove to be ineffective or
dangerous.
General precautions during loading and unloading o/Class 1 goods
1 Fire-fighting appliances ready for instant use.
2 Unauthorized personnel cleared of area.
209
 Shipboard Operations Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
3 'No Smoking' notices posted and enforce prohibition of smoking. 11 Electrical fittings in compartments in which explosives are to be stowed
4 Fire detection system tested. should be disconnected.
5 No matches or lighters to be carried by anyone involved in the operation. 12 Electrically powered ventilation fans should be flame-proof. If the fans
6 If possible the cargo operations should be carried out during daylight are not flame-proof, they should be disconnected.
hours, 'B' flag hoisted. 13 Detonators must be effectively segregated from all other explosives. ~.
7 Bilges should be cleaned before loading commences.
8 Inspect the ventilation fans to ensure that they are not unsafe.
9 Check the lightning conductors. Fixed fire-fighting and detection systems
10 Only approved lighting to be used.
11 No wireless transmissions to be permitted. The existence of several sets of fire re~lations can be somewhat confusing so
12 The radar should not be operated, the duty officer should have the radar MIl17 (Fire protection in ships carrying explosives) should be consulted as it
fuses in his possession. prescribes a 'minimum standard of fire protection considered necessary when
13 The funnel exhaust spark arresters should be in good condition. UK ships load explosives anywhere in the world and when foreign ships load
14 No bunkering or repair work during the operation. explosives within the UK'. Ships to which the 1984 Fire Protection Regula-
15 Defective packages should not be accepted for shipment. tions apply will require an automatic fire detection system but it is now recog-
16 Fork lift trucks should not be used. nized internationally that all ships carrying dangerous goods should be
17 Operations should be suspended in rain. protected by a fire detection system in the cargo spaces. The Department of
18 All explosives should be tallied. Transport, however, has accepted that on 'pre-19~4' ships the following
19 A responsible person should be present during the operation and any arrangements as being equivalent to a fire detection sy~m on ships carrying
magazines should be kept locked when not in use. explosives for one voyage only:
Efficient means in the form of pipes, or ventilators if they are of convenient
General stowage precautions for all Class 1 goods height and position, by which fire in the compartments concerned may
readily be detected remotely by sense of smell, combined with regular
tours of inspection by a crew patrol to the areas concerned at half-hourly
1 Do not stow in the same compartment with goods liable to give off
flammable vapours. intervals, such patrols to be recorded in the ship's log.
2 Stow in a cool place away from engine room bulkheads and away from the Ships which carry explosives on subsequent voyages must fit a fire detection
ship's side if sailing to the tropics. system.
3 Stowaway from living quarters. All ships will also have a fixed fire fighting system.
4 The space should be dry and well ventilated -as explosives are unstable
when wet.
5 Stow in a convenient location for jettisoning. S towage categories of Class 1 goods
6 When possible stow close to the hatch square. If an explosion occurs, the
damage may be limited to the hatch cover, leaving the shell plating intact. Different explosives, depending on their properties, require different
7 Check that the fire-fighting system is suitable for dealing with the type of stowage arrangements. Each different method of stowage is defined as
explosives carried. 'Stowage Category'. The stowage categories of goods are indicated on the
8 All ventilators should have spark arresters consisting of two layers of fine individual schedules in the IMDG Code.
mesh gauze. Stowage Category I is also known as 'ordinary' stowage as no magazine is
9 If possibl~, electric cables should not pass through a compartment required. The goods should be stowed in accordance with the general
containing· Class 1 goods. The Blue Book should be consulted for stowage precautions listed above.
exceptions~to this recommendation. Stowage Category II refers to Class I goods that require magazine stowage
10 Artificial lighting used for cargo operations should be of an approved and has been subdivided by adding the letters A, B, or C. The letters indicate
type. a requirement for three different types of magazine. If a Chief Officer finds it
210 211
 Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
Shipboard Operations

necessary to construct a magazine it will usually be Type A, which must be Type C magazine
constructed with clean, unimpregnated timber using galvanized iron or As Type B except that it should be placed at least 2.5 metres from the ship's
non-ferrous metal nails. The following details are a synopsis of the side.
construction requirements and the Blue Book and IMDG Code must be
"
consulted on board ship before constructing such a magazine.
Construction of a Type A magazine
B Liquefied Gas Cargoes
1 The magazine should be a space of the required size, normally in the
'tween deck. Constructed of 25 mm close-fitting boards secured
internally to 75 x 75 mm uprights spaced 600 mm apart running from
IMO Codes '"
deck to deck and firmly secured top and bottom. When the height ofthe The construction and equipment of vessels transporting liquefied gases in
deck exceeds 2.4 metres the uprights should not be spaced more than
bulk is governed by the following codes:
450 mm apart. On steel decks the heels of the uprights should be stepped
on, and secured to, a board 25 mm thick laid on the deck. Code for Existing Ships Carrying Ships built before 1977
2 The boards should be securely fastened by 75 mm nails, three to each Liquefied Gases in Bulk
board on each upright. Code for the Construction and Ships built after 1976 but before
3 25 mm thick boards should be fastened to the outside of the uprights at Equipment of Ships Carrying July 1986
the upper and lower ends for securing the heads of shores when required. Liquefied Gases in Bulk ,
The space formed between the lower board and the partition boards International Code for the Con- Ships built ••[ter June 1986
should be filled in. struction and Equipment of
4 The ship's sides and bulkheads may be used as the sides of the magazine Ships Carrying Liquefied
but they must be sheathed with wood (for dimensions consult the Blue Gases in Bulk (The Interna-
Book). tional Gas Carrier Code-IGC
5 The magazine flooring should consist of close-fitting 25 mm boards Code)
secured to 75 x 50 mm bearers spaced 450 mm apart.
6 All pillars, stanchions, ventilator shafts, etc. must be sheathed. Amendments to the codes are published when technological changes or
iJ The deckhead need not be sheathed but it must be clean and rust- advancements necessitate some alterations to the requirements. No reference
free. should be made to the codes without checking that the relevant amendments
8 One or more doorways, at least 1.2 metres wide, should be fitted facing have been correlated with the particular code.
the hatchway. The door must have an internal wide 'rabbet'. (Consult the It is not possible in a book of this nature to study the details of the above
Blue Book for door dimensions.) codes. However, in the general preamble to one of the codes IMO states that
9 The door may be made in one or two parts. The lower part to be 1 metre its purpose 'is to recommend suitable design criteria, construction standards
in height and shipped from the inside, upper part to be of such a height as and other safety measures for ships transporting liquefied gases and certain
is necessary and to be shipped from the outside. other substances in bulk so as to minimize the risk to the ship, its crew and to
10 The doors should be fitted with hand holes for lifting purposes. the environment'. One must accept that the possibilities of a gas carrier being
11 A 75 x 75 mm stanchion should be wedged securely between the middle involved in a collision or grounding do exist and ships' built to the
of the door and the deck. construction code must be able to survive 'the normal effects of flooding
12 Where insulated spaces are used as magazines, hinged insulated doors following assumed hull damage' which is caused by external force. In
should be used. addition, the cargo tanks must be protected from penetration damage caused
by minor incidents such as striking a jetty and must be given a measure of
Type B mag,zine protection from damage in the case of major incidents such as collision and
As Type A but ship's side, bulkheads, etc., need not be sheathed. The stranding. This protection is afforded by locating the cargo tanks at specified
flooring should consist of portable sparred gratings. minimum distances inboard from the hull. The amount of damage which a

212 213
Shipboard Operations Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous

liquefied gas tanker can endure and still contain the cargo depends upon the (the annual survey should be held within three months before or after the
type of cargo being carried and the size of the vessel. Those vessels anniversary date of the Certificate and the intermediate survey within six
transporting liquefied gases which present the greatest hazards must comply months before or after the half-way date). The Fitness Certificate lasts for five
with specifications for a Type IG ship. Vessels carrying cargoes of a years and Ml170 should be studied for the details of the surveys. ,.
decreasingly hazardous nature must be built to the specifications for Types
IIG, IIPG, and IIIG accordingly.
There are two basic types of cargo containment tanks, self supporting and
Tanker Safety Guide (Liquefied Gas)
non-self supporting. Self supporting tanks (also known as independent
tanks) do not form part of the ship's hull and are built with sufficient inherent This guide is published by the ICS and its purpose is to provide those serving
strength to support the tank structure and contain the cargo (Figure 7.1). on gas carriers with information on rec~gnized good operational practices and
safe procedures.
It is a loose-leaf one-volume guide which covers all aspects of the operation
of vessels carrying gases such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), ethylene,
liquefied natural gas (LNG), and ammonia. In particular the contents include
the following:
1 Information on the general properties of liquefied gases, the hazards of
such, and how to transport them in safety.
2 General pr.ecautions for the safety of the ship, espetially the avoidance of
~. ~
3 Cargo operational guidance, including loading, discharging, reliquefac-
tion, purging, and sampling.
4 Information on cargo equipment and instrument operation and main-
tenance.
5 Correct procedures for entry into enclosed spaces, fire fighting, emergency
action, and personnel protection.
The guide is written in practical terms, the physical properties of gases are
explained at some length and explanations are given as to why special
Non-self supporting tanks (membrane and semi-membrane) have no precautions are necessary.
inherent strength and are supported by attachments to the insulation; loads The ICS also publishes a booklet, Safety in Liquefied Gas Tankers, and all
are transmitted to the inner hull through the insulation. Department of Transport students should study carefully the contents. The
The codes also contain stringent requirements for cargo controls, booklet is particularly useful for explaining cargo hazards to crew members.
ventilation, instrumentation, fire protection, and operational procedures.

British Regulations Some common liquefied gas cargoes

M1237 draws attention to the Merchant Shipping Gas Carrier Regulations
1986, operative 1 July 1986, which make the IGC Code mandatory for UK Liquefied natural gas
ships throughout the world and for foreign ships in UK waters. Ml170 draws LNG is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases in a natural state. Methane
attention to the survey requirements for UK gas carriers and notes that, in predominates but rich natural gases will contain percentages of ethane,
addition to an jnitial survey for the issue of the 'Certificate of Fitness' and a bu tane, and propane. The mixture varies from place to place and in particular
periodical survey for the renewal of the Certificate, annual surveys and at least whether it is associated with crude oil or found in gas pockets.
one intermediate survey are also required during the validity of the Certificate

214 215
 Shipboard Operations
Liquefied petroleum gas
LPG is generally a by-product gas produced by the refining process of crude
oil, the main gases being propane and butane.
Chemical feedstocks
These include propylene, butylene, butadiene, and ethylene. The total
tonnage of chemical gases transported each year is relatively small but the
cargoes have great commercial value and are therefore significant in terms of
'earning power'.
Ammonia
Ammonia is mainly used as a fertilizer. The product is usually shipped from
developed countries.
The critical temperature of a gas is the temperature above which a gas
cannot be liquefied by pressure alone. Apart from LNG and ethylene, all of
the above cargoes are below their critical temperature at ambient
temperatures. They can therefore be liquefied by pressure and carried at
ambient temperatures. This is not possible for ethylene and LNG because the
critical temperatures and pressures are too high. The only practical method
of transporting LNG and ethylene is to liquefy the gases by cooling and to
carry them in semi- or fully-refrigerated compartments.
Types of gas carriers
There are five basic types of gas carriers.
Fully pressurized
The most 'basic' type of gas carrier. The cargo, which is usually LPG or
ammonia, is transported in cylindrical pressure tanks which are designed to
withstand pressures of about IS to 17 atmospheres. The ships seldom have a
cargo capacity of more than 1000 m3 and are engaged in short sea trades.
Semi-pressurized/semi-refrigerated
These ships have tanks which are suitable for carrying cargoes in a
temperature range of approximately - 33°e to - 50 e at a pressure range
0 Deep well In this type the electric drive unit is situated on deck and an
between 4 and 7 atmospheres. The cargoes include LPG and chemical
feedstocks and the ships usually have a cargo capacity up to 12,000 m3• The
216
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
ships are fitted with reliquefaction equipment to condense the vapours given
off by the liquefied gas during transit.
Fully refrigerated LPG
These ships carry LPG at temperatures between -47°e and -55°e at abo~t
atmospheric pressure. The cargo capacity is usually between 5,000 m3 and
100,000 m3• Reliquefaction equipment and inert gas plants are fitted.
Ethylene ships ".
These are specialized ships of 1,000 m3 to 12,000 m3 capacity in which the
cargo is carried at temperatures around -104°e at about atmospheric
pressure. Reliquefaction equipment and an IG plant are both usually
installed.
LNG ships
The cargo is fully refrigerated at approximately -163°e and carried at about
atmospheric pressure. LNG ships are generally large with a cargo capacity
from 40,000 m3 to 140,000 m3• An IG plant is installe'ctbut due to the low
temperatures at which LNG is carried, no reliquefaction equipment is fitted.
The cargo vapour is either vented or consumed in the main engine.
Cargo-handling equ1.'pment
The cargo-handling equipment is similar to that of oil tankers. Shore cargo
arms are connected to the ship's deck-piping system at the manifolds located
close to midships. Deck mains run fore and aft from the manifolds and
branch pipes lead from the deck mains to the individual tanks. However,
there are no fore and aft cargo mains running through bulkheads and along
the tank bottoms to a central pump room as on a conventional tanker.
Because of the stringent constructional and safety requirements for gas
carriers, each tank is an individual unit with its own pumps and vertical cargo
branch lines which connect with the deck main.
Cargo p'umps
There are two basic types of pump, (a) deep well and (b) fully immersed.
extended drive shaft inside rhe discharge pipe leads to an impeller in the
suction unit located in a well at the bottom of the tank. This pump has major
217

Shipboard Operations
disadvantages caused by differential expansion of tank, shafting, and piping
and is not as popular as the fully immersed pump.
Fully immersed This is situated at the bottom of the tank and is a fully
submerged, electrically driven centrifugal pump. The pump sucks the liquid
through its centre and the liquid is sent up to the deck via the pump discharge
pipe.
Each cargo tank has two pumps. A transferable pump which is used as an
emergency cargo pump is also carried.
Reliquefaction plant
During the loaded passage gas will evaporate from the cargo, the process
being known as 'boil off'. On LNG carriers the boil off is vented to the
atmosphere or, alternatively, is used as propulsion fuel in the boilers. On
LPG carriers the gas is withdrawn from the vapour space at the top of the tank
and is led via the vapour line to the reliquefaction plant. The purpose of the
plant is:
(a) to prevent loss of cargo due to evaporation
(b) to reliquefy cargo vapours produced by the loading process
(c) to maintain cargo temperature and pressure on passage
(d) to cool tanks and pipes before loading
The plant can be thought of as a large domestic refrigerator within which
the vapour is cooled, compressed, condensed, and then returned to the tank
via the condensate return line. LPG carriers generally have three storage
vessels or tanks which are situated on deck and which contain liquefied gas.
This liquefied gas can be used for cooling, purging, and change of cargo
operations and the three separate tanks usually contain quantities of butane,
propane, and ammonia. Cargo condensate can be led to the deck storage
vessels from the reliquefaction plant to be retained for future opera-
tions.
Spray rails
These are pipes located within the cargo tanks and used for evenly cooling the
tank before loading and also for returning the condensate during passage.
The cooling pipes, which can be located at various heights within the tank,
contain small holes which produce a fine spray of small liquid droplets. The
holes are directed upwards so that the droplets first move upwards before
falling, thw(prolonging the time available for evaporation. The spray rails
used for th~ returning condensate have larger holes which permit the
returning liquid to mix with the cargo before evaporation takes place.
218
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
Purge lines
These are used to change the tank atmosphere. Purge lines lead to both the
top and the bottom of a tank as the replacing element may be lighter or
heavier than the previous atmosphere.
"
Puddle heaters
Puddle heaters are heating coils situated in the bottom of tanks which are
used to vaporize any small amounts of cargo left in the tanks. This procedure
is usually one carried out when shanging cargoes or to prepare for tank
entry.
Relief valves
Relief valves are fitted to cargo tanks so that if tank pressure exceeds the
pre-set limits the vapour is vented to the atmosphere. This venting is
undesirable as the gas is flammable, toxic, and the cargo loss is costly. Excess
tank pressure can be caused by:
(a) cargo not being cool enough during loading
(b) excessive pressure on the vapour return line 'during discharging
(c) a breakdown in the reliquefaction plant ' ...
Vacuum relief valves are unnecessary as the tanks are always at positive
pressure.
Cargo valves
These are operated hydraulically or pneumatically. An automatic quick-
closing system can close all cargo-related valves in an emergency.
Equalizing valves
Some cargo tanks are subdivided by a longitudinal bulkhead to reduce free
surface effect. A valve, known as an equalizing valve, is located at the bottom
of such a bulkhead to:
(a) enable both compartments of a tank to be discharged in the event of a
breakdown of the pump in one compartment
(b) keep the liquid at the same level on both sides of the bulkhead during
cargo operations in order to prevent a list occurring 'and to prevent
excessive cargo pressure on one side of the bulkhead
Ballast tanks
The cargo tanks are never used for ballast and thus the ballasting
arrangements are completely separate from the cargo system. Ballast is
carried in upper and lower hopper tanks, wing tanks, and in double-bottoms.
219
 Shipboard Operations
Inert gas plant
Inert gas is required for various cargo operations and the plant is similar to
that found on conventional tankers. However, an additional feature on gas
carriers is the dessicant drying system which ensures that the moisture
content of the gas is kept to an absolute minimum. The nitrogen content of
the inert gas is approximately 85 percent. The impurities in inert gas may
react with certain chemical gases and therefore inert gas cannot be used for
purging those gases, e.g. ammonia reacts with the carbon dioxide in inert gas
to produce a carbonate in the form of a white crystalline deposit.
Tank dome
This provides the entry point into the tank for cargo lines, vapour lines,
sensors, control and monitoring equipment. The dome is free-floating within
a deck aperture and a neoprene gasket, known as the deck seal, ensures gas
tightness. Within the dome is the area known as the vapour space. The cargo
in a tank never occupies more than 98 percent of the space available for cargo,
i.e. the liquid level must always be below the bottom of the vapour space. The
entry to the vapour suction line must always be well above the cargo level as
any liquid entering the vapour line would damage the compressor in the
reliquefaction plant.
Tank monitors and controls
There are three basic monitoring parameters:
(a) cargo and tank temperatures
(b) cargo liquid levels
(c) tank pressure
The quality of the inert gas must also be monitored constantly.
In addition to the monitoring function, tank instruments also activate
alarms and in some cases automatically control equipment such as cargo
valves.
(a) Temperature
Probes containing sensors are located at various positions throughout a cargo
tank to monitor the cargo and the tank structure temperatures. It is essential
that the temperature gradient between the bottom and the top of the tank
does not bec9me excessive, otherwise unacceptable stresses will be set up.
(b) Liquid levels
The level of the cargo can be measured by a variety of devices, e.g. float
220
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
gauges, pressure gauges, and ultrasonic gauges. As it is extremely important
always to know the liquid level during cargo operations, most vessels have a
back-up measuring system which can be used in the event of a breakdown in
the primary system.
A high level alarm sounds when a tank is 95 percent full and again wheI1the
tank is 98 percent full. In the latter situation the alarm also exercises a control
function by automatically dosing the tank valve.
It is usual practice to retain a residue of cargo in a tank in order to keep the
tank cool. A low-level alarm sounds when the liquid falls to a certain level to
help prevent the tank being accid"entallyemptied.
(c) Pressure
Sensors monitor the vapour pressure and gauges indicate whether the
pressure is too high or too low. If the pressure is too high the relief valves
lower the pressure, but if the vapour pressure is too low the appropriate
monitor shuts valves in the vapour line and stops the reliquefaction
compressor.
A gas carrier has elaborate safety and control monitors located throughout
the ship which are too numerous to mention. To illu~rate the importance of
such devices to operational safety two are mentioned.
Emergency loop
This is an emergency shut-down system. Cargo valves are held in the open
position by air pressure which is delivered to each valve by a common
pipeline which 'loops' around the ship. The air is released in an emergency,
either by hand or automatically, thus dosing all the cargo valves at the same
time.
Gas detection sensors
These monitor spaces other than the cargo tanks, e.g. accommodation, duct
keels, void spaces, control room, reliquefaction plant, and peak tanks. The
sensors are located at various heights as cargo gases may be heavier or lighter
than air. If gas is detected, alarms are sounded on the bridge and in the cargo
control room.
Some operational procedures
The following guidelines are given for information purposes only and to
provide an insight into the specialized nature of gas carriers. A wide variety of
liquid gases are transported by sea and some of the gases may interact with
221
 Shipboard Operations
each other, or with inert gas or air. The atmosphere within a tank must
therefore be suitable fer the cargo which is to be loaded.
Cooling a tank for loading
Before cooling takes place the tank must first be inerted and then purged with
vapour compatible with the cargo to be loaded e.g. LPG vapour for an LPG
cargo, methane for a LNG cargo, ammonia vapour for an ammonia cargo.
Some vessels are equipped with deck storage tanks containing liquefied gas
which can be used for the purging and cooling operations. On other vessels
the purging vapour and cooling liquid must be taken from the shore.
The liquid used for cooling is introduced into a tank via the cooling spray
rails. When the liquid droplets are sprayed into the tank vaporization of the
droplets will occur. The energy, or heat, required for the vaporization
process is obtained from the tank atmosphere and structure and thus the tank
is cooled. The rate of cooling must be carefully controlled. The rate varies
from ship to ship but on a fully refrigerated ship the rate will be within the
limits of 4°C to lOoCper hour. The average time taken for the tank cooling
process can be from 15 to 20 hours, depending on the tank size and the
construction materials. As a tank cools, it will contract and thus it is necessary
to 'bleed' nitrogen or inert gas into the void spaces around the tank to
compensate for the increased volume of those spaces. The temperature of the
tank structure must be carefully monitored to ensure that the temperature
differential between various parts of the tank does not become excessive.
Pressure within a tank will increase due to the vaporization of the liquid
droplets. This pressure is relieved by the reliquefaction process or by
returning the vapour to the shore by a pipe which connects to a shore line at
the manifolds and which is known as the vapour return line.
If a tank has been cooled at sea by using the reliquefaction plant and/or
deck storage vessels, it will be necessary to spray liquid into the tank until a
quantity lies in the bottom of the tank. Once a sufficient quantity of liquid is
known to be established in the bottom of the tank loading can commence
through the liquid loading line.
Loading an LPG carrier
The vessel would normally arrive at the loading berth with the tanks cooled to
the required temperature, liquid loading lines cooled, reliquefaction plant
running, and the cargo tanks at a slight positive pressure. Loading takes place
through the liquid loading lines to the bottom of the tank to prevent a static
electricity build-up. As the tanks fill, the vapour in the space above the cargo
is reliquefied and led to the deck storage vessels. However, the vapour may
become compressed and supersaturated and the rate of condensation on the
222
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
tank structure may not be sufficient to prevent the tank pressure becoming
too high. To prevent this occurring, cargo liquid may be led from the
reliquefaction plant to the spray rails and reintroduced into the tank. The
supersaturated vapour will then condense on the small droplets and the
pressure will be relieved. In many cases the operation of the reliquefaction
plant itself will prevent pressure building up and it will be unnecessary to
reintroduce liquid into the tank.
The loading rate will, of course, vary from ship to ship but it can be in the
region of 500 m3 per hour for each tank being loaded. Each tank is loaded to
98 percent capacity and a high degree Ofoperational efficiency is required for
the topping-up process. Tanks are normally loaded to capacity as slack tanks
can cause the following problems:
(a) cargo sloshing inducing tank stress
(b) excessive cargo pressure head on the longitudinal dividing bulkhead
during rolling
The equalizing valves should be kept open for loading and discharging
operations and closed for the sea passages. As with most types of gas carriers
ballasting operations are concurrent with cargo ope~ations.
Loading an LNG carrier
"
As previously mentioned, the low temperatures at which LNG is carried
makes the installation of a reliquefaction plant economically and operation-
ally impracticable, i.e. it is too expensive and difficult to reliquefy vapour
which is already extremely cold. Consequently LNG ships employ the 'closed
cycle' loading and discharging procedure as shown in Figure 7.2. The shore
loading arms and vapour return line are connected to the liquid cargo line and
vapour line at the ship's manifold.
Before loading starts the tanks must be dry and free of oxygen. The tanks
will therefore have been dried with air which has been passed through a
dehumidifier. The dewpoint of the air must be low enough to prevent
condensation of water vapour on to the cold tank structure. The tanks will
then have been inerted with nitrogen tJ prevent the formation of an explosive
atmospheric mixture. Methane vapour is introduced from the shore until the
inert gas is vented, usually to the atmosphere, and a suitable positive loading
pressure is attained. A vessel may also arrive alongside gas-free and under an
80 percent vacuum. The vacuum is broken by the introduction of the shore
methane vapour and the atmosphere inside the tank raised to a slight positive
pressure. When methane is detected in the vented exit gas, cooling
commences via the spray rails. Once a suitable level of liquid is formed in the
bottom of the tank, loading IS carried out as previously described.
During loading the cargo vapour must be returned to shore tanks via the
ship's piping and the shore vapour return line. The rate of loading is
223

determined by the rate at which vapour is generated within the tank and the
ability of the vapour return line to remove the vapour to shore.
Loaded passage
On LPG ships cargo vapour is withdrawn from the vapour space, passed
through the reliquefaction plant, and the condensate returned to the tank.
The removal of the vapour reduces the pressure in the tank and evaporation,
or boiling, takes place from the liquid cargo. The evaporation process uses up
latent heat and thus the cargo is cooled.
On LNG vessels the boil-off is either vented to atmosphere or used as
propulsion fuel.
Discharging
Before commencing the discharge on refrigerated ships the liquid lines on
deck must be cooled. The discharge may be aided by the use of ship's booster
pumps which assist the individual tank pumps. Discharge is usually
commenced from one tank only and once the system is observed to be
functioning satisfactorily all the tanks are discharged simultaneously.
Pressure must be maintained within the tank during all stages of the
operation.
Ballast voyage,~
Some cargo is r~tained on board after discharge to be used as a coolant and to
maintain pressure in the cargo tanks. An LNG carrier of 100,000 m3 cargo
capacity would retain approximately 2000 m3 of cargo for cooling purposes.
224
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
Preparing a tank for entry after a cargo discharge
The following outline procedures should be adopted:
1 The puddle heaters should be used to boil-off any remaining cargo liquid.
On LPG ships the vapour may be reliquefied and passed to a deck stor~ge
vessel. On some LNG ships the remaining liquid is boiled off by the
introduction of heated vapour.
2 Isolate the tank from any reliquefaction plant and secure any cargo inlet or
outlet valves in the closed position.
3 Carefully raise the tank temper~ature to the ambient (or surrounding)
temperature.
4 Purge with inert gas to prevent any remaining cargo vapour forming a
flammable mixture with air.
S Ventilate with fresh air using fixed or portable fans of approved fire-proof
construction.
6 Institute entry to enclosed spaces procedures.
Precautions must also be taken to prevent personnel coming into any sort
of contact with toxic vapours which may be v~nted during the above
operation. '"
Preparing a tank during a ballast voyage for a change of cargo
I Boil-off any remaining cargo liquid.
2 Raise the tank temperature to ambient.
3 Purge from LPG or LNG to inert gas, or from ammonia to dry air.
4 Purge the inert gas with vapour compatible with the next cargo (the vapour
is obtained from the deck storage vessels).
S Cool the tank to the required loading temperature.
6 Ensure that the void spaces surrounding the tank are inerted.
Safety procedures
Safety procedures are of such paramount importance on gas carriers that it
would be inappropriate for the hazards to be discussed in a book of this
nature. It may be sufficient to ~ay that a gas vapour can be flammable,
explosive, toxic, asphyxiating, corrosive, poisonous, and can inflict frostbite
or other injuries on personnel. Specialized information should be consulted
before evaluating or discussing safety procedures on gas carriers.
225
 Shipboard Operations
C Chemical Cargoes
IMO Codes
The 'Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Danger-
ous Chemicals in Bulk' applies to ships built before July 1986; the Inter-
national Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying
Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk' (the International Bulk Chemical Code- IBC
Code) applies to ships built after June 1986.
The purpose of the codes is 'to recommend suitable design criteria,
construction standards and other safety measures for ships transporting
dangerous chemical substances in bulk'.
The codes apply to bulk cargoes having:
(a) significant fire hazards
(b) other significant hazards
A list of such liquids is contained within the codes which, at present are limited
to tank ships. The hazards which are considered are fire, health, water pollu-
tion, air pollution, and reactivity.
It is possible that damage to a vessel carrying dangerous chemicals in bulk
may lead to an uncontrolled release of cargo. The siting of the cargo tanks in
relation to the ship's side and bottom is therefore dependent on the potential
hazardous effect of the cargo on the environment. Three degrees of physical
protection are employed:
Type I is the highest standard of protection and is required for those
substances possessing the greatest environmental hazard.
Types II and II I have reduced standards for substances of progressively lesser
hazard.
The protection is mainly afforded by siting the cargo tanks in specific
locations within the ship in order to minimize the effect on cargo containment
from external damage to the ship.
The codes also contain stringent requirements for cargo transfer and vent
systems, control equipment, safety equipment, and special requirements for
certain cargoes.
British Regulations
M1237 draws attention to the Merchant Shipping (Chemical Tankers) Regu-
lations 1986, operative 1 July 1986, which make the IBC Code mandatory for
UK ships throughout the world and for foreign ships in British waters. M1169
draws attentiop to the survey requirements for UK chemical carriers and notes
that, in addition to an initial survey for the issue of a Certificate of Fitness and a
periodical survey for the renewal of the Certificate, annual surveys and at least
226
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
one intermediate survey are also required during the validity of the Certificate
(the survey periods are the same as those for gas carriers as described earlier in
the book). The Fitness Certificate lasts for five years and M1l69 should be
studied for the details of the surveys.
A 'Certificate of Fitness' gives the following information: ~.
(a) Name of ship
(b) Port of registry
(c) Ship type
(d) Cargoes which the ship is permitted to carry
(e) The conditions of carriage "
(f) Any authorized exemptions permitted by a code
Tanker Safety Guide (Chemicals)
The guide is published by the ICS and its purpose is to provide those serving
on ships carrying bulk liquid chemicals with recommendations on recognized
good practice in operational matters. The guide consists offour volumes in a
loose-leaf format. Volume 1 contains general information pertaining to
overall precautions, fire hazards and precautio'ns, cargo and ballast
operations, tank cleaning and gas freeing, health and chemical hazards, static
electricity, and fire-fighting and life-saving procedures. The other volumes
contain cargo data sheets.
Information is obtained by first referring to the 'Index of Chemical Names'
which is located at the back of Volume 1. The index gives the number of the
data sheet which relates to the cargo in question and from the sheet the
hazards associated with the particular cargo can be readily identified. Many
chemicals have more than one name in common use and thus the chemical
names of the numerous products are used in preference to trade names or
synonyms. The information on the data sheets is listed under the following
headings:
appearance
odour
the main hazards
emergency procedures in the event of accidents
fire and explosion data
chemical data
reactivity information
health data
physical properties
handling and storage recommendations
The ICS also publishes a booklet, Safety in Chemtcal Tankers, which
highlights some of the particular hazards of sailing on such vessels.
227
 Shipboard Operations
Chemical Hazard Response Information System (CHRIS)
This system, which is operated by the United States Coastguard, is designed
to provide information essential for proper decision-making during
emergencies involving the water transport of hazardous chemicals. CHRIS
operates in the USA and consists of regional contingency plans, a
hazard-assessment computer system, Coastguard organization units, and
four reference manuals. The manuals should be studied by all personnel
involved in the water transport of chemicals as, in addition to emergency
operational procedures, the manuals provide basic information which can be
used to improve safety standards.
Medical guides
All chemical tankers should carry the following:
Medical First Aid Guide-for Use in Accidents Involving Dangerous Goods
(MFAG), published by IMO
'Chemical Supplement' to The Ship Captain's Medical Guide (SCMG),
published by the Department of Transport
MI050 describes the relationship between the two volumes.
Bulk chemical carriers
These ships are often known as 'parcel carriers' and are designed to carry
small 'lots' of liquid chemicals or parcels ranging from a few hundred to
several thousand tonnes each. Deep-sea parcel carriers are generally between
10,000 and 35,000 tonnes deadweight. In appearance the ships look like
product tankers but the cargo compartments ensure a very high degree of
cargo segregation and the cargo-handling arrangements are more elaborate.
The number of tanks can vary from approximately 20 to 40 and it is not
unusual for a ship to carry 30 separate parcels. Tanks may be constructed of
stainless steel or may be coated with epoxy, zinc or other chemical-resistant
pain t.
On modern vessels each tank is fitted with its own stainless steel
hydraulically driven submerged cargo pump with a discharge rate varying
from approximately 50 to 1000 m3 per hour. The individual discharge line
from each tank connects with one of the deck main pipelines, of which there
may be six. T<heindividual branch line system permits great flexibility in
cargo handling and reduces the amount of line cleaning required between
grades. In general, the cargo-handling operations are similar to that of
product tankers.
228
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
The characteristics of the chemicals carried vary considerably. About 50
percent of the liquids carried are petrochemical such as benzene, glycols,
toluene and xylene. The remaining cargoes can be subdivided into three
groups:
(a) natural products, vegetable oils such as soya bean and linseed, and
animal fats such as lard and fish oils
(b) inorganic chemicals, such as sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, caustic
soda
(c) specialized liquids, such as lubricating oils
Chemical cargoes must be transported with a high degree of operational
efficiency to ensure that no contamination of very valuable cargo occurs.
Tank materials and coatings
Stainless steel
Some cargoes are highly corrosive to the mild steel with which most ships are
constructed and stainless steel tanks are used to contain such cargoes. Many
grades of stainless steel are available and a grade wbU;h is compatible with
many different chemicals is usually chosen for a particular tank. Stainless
steel's resistance to corrosion depends upon a thin passive surface layer of
chromium oxide. This layer can be damaged by halides (compounds of
halogens) such as chlorides and fluorides and by certain acids, e.g.
hydrochloric. Sea water ballast must never be put into stainless steel tanks as
sea water contains chloride. For the same reason such tanks should only be
washed with fresh water.
Coatings
Mild steel is resistant to most chemicals. Unfortunately it rusts easily and
most chemicals are contaminated by rust. Mild steel tanks are therefore
coated for the following reasons:
I Corrosion prevention to avoid cargo contamination.
2 The coated surface aids tank cleaning.
3 Gas freeing is made easier as no corrosion sludge traps cargo gas.
4 Stains are easier to detect.
5 Safety is improved because of compatible coatings with cargo.
6 The risk of contaminating subsequent cargoes is decreased.
However, as the completeness of a tank coating can never be guaranteed,
coatings should never be relied upon to protect the tank. Each parcel should
be compatible with the tank coating, the tanks should be frequently
inspected for failures in coatings, and any damage should be repaired
229

Shipboard Operations
immediately. Noone coating is suitable for all parcels and a ship may have all
or some of the following coatings applied to the cargo tanks.
Epoxy Resistant to alkalis, amines (derived froIn ammonia), weak acids,
glycols, vegetable and animal oils, mineral oils, and sea water ballast. It is
unsuitable for alcohols such as ethanol and methanol, esters and ketones.
Aromatics, such as benzene and toluene, are sometimes carried in
epoxy-coated tanks but the paint has only limited resistance to aromatics.
Epoxy coating can be softened by some chemicals and thus can absorb small
amounts of the cargo. If this occurs the tank must be ventilated and washed
before the next cargo is loaded.
Zinc silicate This coating is highly resistant to strong solvents such as
ketones and esters and to aromatics such as benzene and toluene. It will not
withstand acids or alkalis, including sea water. The pH value (an indication
of the acidity of a solution) must be within the range 5.5-11. Animal and
vegetable oils with a free fatty acid (FFA) content of more than 2.5 percent
should not be carried in zinc silicate coated tanks. If halogenated compounds
such as carbon tetrachloride are to be loaded, zinc-protected tanks must be
absolutely dry before loading commences. Many of the compounds hydrolize
in the presence of moisture and the acids which form will damage the tank
coating.
Polyurethane The increased performance of this type of coating has made
it suitable for chemical carriers since the late 1970s. Those chemicals which
are transported in epoxy-coated tanks are also compatible with polyurethane.
The high gloss finish of polyurethane sheds cargo easily and gives it an
advantage over the matt finish of epoxy. / of a ship or saving life at sea, or discharges resulting from damage to a ship or
Phenolic This is modified epoxy which gives better resistance to solvents
and aromatics. Phenolic coatings give excellent resistance to most chemicals
but the paint is more expensive than conventional epoxy.
Tank washing
The tank-washing process on chemical tankers is closely similar to the
water-washing operation on oil tankers. The washing medium is usually fresh
or sea water, depending on the compatibility of tank coating, previous cargo,
and expected ca'rgo. The washing is carried out by means of fixed or portable
tank-cleaning machines and the residues are stripped to a slop tank. The
disposal of slops is governed by Annex II (Regulations for the Control of
Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk) of MARPOL 73.
230
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
Substances are divided into four categories A to D depending upon their
environmental effect if discharged into the sea during tank-cleaning or
deballasting operations.
The Annex gives the requirements for the discharge of residues only into
sho~e reception facilities unless certain conditions are complied whh.
However, under no circumstances is a discharge of residues containing
noxious substances permitted within 12 miles of the nearest land and in a
depth of water of less than 25 metres. Stricter regulations apply in 'special
areas' which are the Baltic and Black Seas.
Cargo Record Book
Regulation 9 of Annex II to MARPOL 73 states that the Cargo Record Book
must be completed, on a tank-to-tank basis, whenever any of the following
operations are carried out:
I Loading.
2 Discharging. '
3 Cargo transfer. '--
4 Transfer of residues to a slop tank.
5 Tank cleaning.
6 Transfer from slop tank.
7 Ballasting of cargo tanks.
8 Transfer of dirty ballast water.
9 Any permitted discharge into the sea.
Any discharges of cargo into the sea for the purposes of securing the safety
its equipment, or the discharge of anti-pollution mixtures containing noxious
substances, must also be recorded in the book.
Each operation entry should be signed by the officer in charge of the
operation and the Master is required to sign each page. The book is liable to
be inspected at any time while the vessel is in port.
Equipment items
The construction code and operational manuals should be consulted to obtain
the relevant requirements for specific items of equipment. A few items of
general interest are noted below.
231
Shipboard Operations
Tank high level alarm
Each cargo tank is fitted with an alarm which indicates when there is
imminent danger of the tank being overfilled.
Tank overflow control
An approved system must be fitted to cargo tanks to ensure that cargo cannot
overflow on to the deck or overboard during the loading operation.
Tank vent systems
All cargo tanks should be fitted with a system which is suitable for the cargo
being carried. Vent systems must be of a design which minimizes the
possibility of cargo vapour accumulating about the decks, entering
accommodation and machinery spaces, and·Qther spaces containing ignition
sources.
Cargo valves
These are usually operated hydraulically or pneumatically by remote control.
However, when possible a local inspection should be carried out to ensure
that valves are in the required open/closed position.
Remote readings
There are three basic remote readings required for cargo operations:
(a) tank level
(b) cargo temperature (of heated cargoes)
(c) cargo line pressure
Other remote readings may include open/closed position of valves, pump
pressures, pump speeds, and the inert gas system. Most chemical tankers
have a cargo control room where alarms, remote gauges, and read-outs are
centralized and from which cargo operations are directed.
Toxic vapour and gas detection
As one would expect, stringent provisions are made for the detection of
noxious vapours on chemical carriers. The IMO code requires the provision
of instruments for testing the possibilities of both toxic and flammable gas
concentrations. It is normal practice to have a fixed gas detection system
which is similar to LPG/LNG carriers and portable detectors which are used
before enteri~g enclosed spaces. Enclosed space entry procedures on
chemical tankers are of a very high standard. If a large escape of toxic gas does
occur the ship's accommodation area can be made completely gas-tight.
232
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
Inert gas plant
The 78 Protocol to SOLAS 74 requires the installation of an inert gas system
on chemical tankers of 20,000 tonnes deadweight and above. 'Intermin
Regulations for Inert Gas Systems on Chemical Tankers Carrying Petro~eum
Products' can be found in the IMO publication on Inert Gas Systems,
1982.
Cargo information required before loading
'"
I The correct chemical name of the cargo should be provided so that the
appropriate data sheet in the Tanker Safety Guide (Chemicals) can be
consulted.
2 Quantity in weight.
3 Required quality control. Contamination is measured in parts per million
(ppm); thus tanks and pipelines must be practically spotless.
4 Specific gravity. This is required in order that an estimation can be made
of the probable volume that the weight quantity will occupy.
5 Temperature. This is required for two purpo~es:
(a) The loading temperature is used in conju~tion with the specific
gravity to obtain the probable volume of the particular parcel.
(b) The temperature at which the cargo is to be carried will indicate if
heating will be required on passage. Some chemicals will solidify or
polymerize if a certain temperature is not maintained. Polymerization
is a chemical reaction in which small molecules combine into larger or
very large molecules which contain thousands of the original
molecules. Thus a free-flowing liquid can become a viscous liquid or
even a solid.
6 Compatibility. Certain chemicals react with other chemicals and thus
may not be stowed in adjacent compartments.
7 Tank coating compatibility. The tank coating must be suitable for the
proposed cargo.
8 Corrosive properties. This will also indicate the required tank coating and
also possible damage to ship fittings.
9 Electrostatic generation. Some chemicals can accumulate static. The
principles which apply to hydrocarbon cargoes should be applied to
chemical static accumulators.
10 Fire and explosion data. It has been previously noted that 50 percent of
the chemicals which are transported are derived from hydrocarbon oi~
and thus the fire hazards are similar to those which pertain to petroleum
products.
11 Toxicity. Chemicals which emit highly toxic vapours require closed
ventilation and ullaging systems.
233
Shipboard Operations
12 The health hazards of the particular parcel.
13 Reactivity.
14 Action to be taken in the event of particular emergencies.
Most of the above information, and additional essential information, can
be found on the chemical data sheets in the safety guide.
Reactive cargoes
Special attention must be paid to the possibility of certain cargoes reacting
with their environment. There are three basic types of reaction:
(a) Reaction with air, or self-reaction when only the chemical itself is
involved
(b) Reaction as a result of mixing with, or contamination by, another
chemical
(c) Reaction due to contact with water
Reaction can be avoided by adopting some, or all, of the following
procedures:
1 Add an 'inhibitor' to the cargo. This is the term used to describe a
compound which causes a chemical to become stable by slowing down or
stopping a chemical change. Thus, an inhibitor can be added to a
chemical to stop polymerization occurring.
2 Handle cargo in a closed system to prevent mixing with air.
3 Blanket the cargo with an inert gas such as nitrogen, i.e. purge the tank
with inert gas of very high purity and keep the tank inerted.
4 Use an approved heating system.
S Ensure that the materials in the cargo-handling system are compatible
with the chemical.
6 Ensure that the tank is corrosion free and that the coating is compatible.
7 Do not stow reactive cargoes adjacent to each other.
8 Stow water reactive chemicals in a double separation compartment.
9 Avoid contamination
10 Use a suitable vent system.
It is important to remember that reaction can cause a fire or explosion,
release dangerous vapours, produce heat, increase tank pressure, increase the
health hazards, change the nature of the cargo, and lower the cargo quality.
Precautions to be observed during cargo operations or tank washing
in port ,".
1 A procedural plan should be adopted which must be agreed to by ship and
shore personnel.
234
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
2 Complete the ship/shore check list.
3 Check that the emergency decontamination unit is functioning properly,
e.g. water in the showers, eyewash and antibiotics available.
4 All safety equipment such as protection suits and compressed air
breathing apparatus available and functioning. '
5 Fire precautions observed, e.g. fire hoses rigged on the offshore side and
pressurized. Ensure that a suitable system is available for use with a
particular cargo.
6 Moorings kept tight and constantly attended.
7 Emergency towing-off wires consfantly adjusted so that tugs can easily
hook on to the wires.
8 Suitable access to be provided. When possible access should be via the
poop.
9 Adequate illumination should be provided.
10 No unauthorized persons allowed on board and all unnecessary ship's
personnel kept out of the cargo working area.
11 Notices should be displayed at the ship's access:
(a) Warning' ,
No Naked Lights '
No Smoking
No Unauthorized Persons
(b) When engaged in handling cargoes which present a health risk:
Warning
Hazardous Chemicals
12 Warning notices should also be posted inside the accommodation
instructing personnel to stay within the accommodation.
13 Tank deck scuppers plugged.
14 All pipe joints and flanges checked for tightness.
15 No unauthorized craft alongside.
16 Suspend operations during inclement weather such as thunder storms or
in conditions which do not permit cargo vapour to blow away.
17 If cargo vapours are toxic or a health hazard:
(a) prevent entry of vapour to the accommodation
(b) air conditioning on internal cycle operation
(c) breathing apparatus worn when personnel are outside the accom-
modation
(d) gas detection system to be operating correctly
(e) use a closed ullaging system
(f) use a closed vent system
18 Red flag or red light exhibited when handling petrochemicals.
235
Shipboard Operations
19 Ensure that boiler tubes are not blown and that funnel spark arrestors are
in good condition.
20 Galley precautions observed.
21 All relevant information given to the personnel who will be involved in
the operation.
22 The Emergency Squad available to deal with incidents such as spillage at
the cargo manifold.
Fire protection
Chemical carriers require sophisticated fire detection and fighting equipment
and techniques due to the hazardous nature of the cargoes which are
transported. The basic requirements are found in SOLAS 74 and in the IMO
construction and equipment code. The IMO code requires chemical carriers
to be equipped with suitable fire-extinguishing equipment for all products
which are to be carried and if products evolve flammable vapours the
equipment should include an approved fixed extinguishing system. Such
systems may be:
A alcohol foam deck system
B regular foam deck system
C water spray
D dry chemical
The increased sophistication of chemical carriers now enables such ships to
carry hundreds of different chemicals and it has become increasingly difficult
to design fire-fighting systems capable of dealing with all cargo fires. The
most common system is 'two-fold', e.g. an external system to deal with
spillage fires on deck, associated with an internal preventative system inside
the cargo tanks.
It is essential that the data sheets in the Tanker Safety Guide (Chemicals) be
consulted to ascertain the correct extinguishing medium for particular
cargoes. Chapter 12 in Volume 1 of the guide deals with fire fighting and the
chapter should be studied carefully. Particular attention should be paid to the
reactions which chemicals may have with fire-extinguishing mediums, e.g.
some chemicals destroy water-based foam; some chemicals react with water
and produce heat.
Personnelprot~ction
A chemical cargo, may:
1 Be corrosive and destroy any human tissue which comes into contact with
it.
236
Cargoes Which Are Intrinsically Dangerous
2 Be poisonous and may enter the body by several methods.
3 Be toxic and inhalation may cause brain damage, damage to the nervous
system and vital organs.
4 Give off flammable gas. ,.
Many chemicals can cause death and thus personnel protection on
chemical tankers is of a very high standard.
The IMO construction and equipment code requires the personnel
involved in cargo operations be provided with suitable protective clothing
and equipment which covers 'all skin so that no part of the body is
unprotected'. Protective equipment includes:
(a) protective suit (in the form of a boiler suit) made in resistant material
with tight-fitting cuffs and ankles
(b) helmet
(c) boots
(d) gloves
(e) face shield or goggles
(f) large apron
When handling products which present inhalation problems the above
equipment is supplemented by a suitable breathing apparatus. The code
requires that 'ships carrying toxic cargoes should have on board sufficient but
not less than 3 complete sets of safety equipment' in addition to the
requirements of SOLAS 74. Each set should consist of:
(a) one self-contained air-breathing apparatus
(b) protective clothing, boots, gloves and tight-fitting goggles
(c) steel cored rescue line with harness
(d) explosion-proof lamp
An air compressor and spare cylinders must also be carried and all
compressed air equipment should be inspected at least once a month and
tested yearly by an expert.
When toxic chemicals are being carried respiratory equipment should be
available for all personnel on board. The duration of such equipment must
permit escape from the ship in the event of a major accident.
The ships are also provided with suitable medical first aid equipment
which includes oxygen resuscitation apparatus and antidotes for the cargo
carried. Decontamination centres which contain showers and eyewash
facilities are situated on deck.
All the above equipment must be suitably located about the deck.
Specialized information should be consulted to obtain further information
on the health and safety hazards pertaining to chemical cargoes.
237
Shipboard Operations
Further reading

CORKHILL, M. Chemical Tankers (Fairplay: London, 1981).

FFooKs, R. Natural Gas by Sea (Gentry: London, 1979).
8
~.
WOOLCOOT, T. W. V. Liquified Petroleum Gas Tanker Practice (Brown:
Glasgow, 1977).
WOOLER, R. G. Marine Transportation of LNG (Cornell Maritime; Cargoes Which Have a Large
Cambridge, Maryland, 1975).
Potential for Shifting
Handbook "
A Deck Cargoes
Gas and Chemical Ships Safety, Bureau Veritas (Lloyds of Londori Press,
1986).
B Grain Cargoes
C Solid Bulk Cargoes
ICS and OCIMF guide
Ship to Ship Transfer Guide (Liquefied Gases).

IMO Guide
A Deck Cargoes ,
Index of Dangerous Chemicals Carried in Bulk. \,
Merchant Shipping (Load Line) (Deck Cargo) Regulations 1968. Sf
OCIMF guide 1968 No. 1089
Safety Inspection Guidelines and Terminal Safety Check List for Gas Carriers.
These regulations were made under the MS (Load Lines) Act of 1967 and
Journal came into operation on 29 July 1968. They state the requirements which must
be complied with when cargo is carried in uncovered space on the deck of a
MURRAY, J. W. 'The practical operation of a modern LNG/LPG carrier,
ship, i.e. deck cargo. The regulations are in two parts.
Seaways, October 1982, pp. 2-6.
Part I. Requirements which apply to ALL deck cargoes
The distribution and stowage of deck cargo must be carried out with due
attention being given to the factors mentioned below:

1 A void excessive loading and have regard to the strength of the deck and the
supporting structure of the ship. Decks have been set down due to
excessive local and overall weights, and hatch covers have been damaged
due to the weight of cargo loaded on them.
2 The ship must retain adequate stability at all stages of the voyage.
Particular attention should be paid to:
(a) the vertical distribution of the deck cargo;
(b) expected wind moments which may be produced by strong winds
encountered within the trading area (the windage area, its centre of
gravity, and the lever to mid-draught can be found in the Stability
Information Booklet);
239
238
Shipboard Operations
(c) losses of weight within the ship, e.g. the rise in the position of the
ship's centre of gravity due to the consumption of fuel in the
dou ble-bottoms;
(d) possible gain in the weight of deck cargo which would also cause a rise
in the position of the ship's centre of gravity, e.g. caused by absorption
of water into the cargo or by excessive icing on the deck,
superstructure, and cargo.
3 The weather-tight and water-tight integrity of the ship must not be
impaired. Special attention should be paid to the protection of ventilator
and air pipes (M 1051 refers to an incident in which deck cargo sheared the
air pipe to a deep tank).
4 The height above the deck should not interfere with the navigation or
working of the ship, e.g. containers should not be stowed so high as to
impair the keeping of an effective lookout.
5 Access to the ship's steering gear arrangements, including the emergency
steering arrangements, must not be obstructed.
6 The cargo must not obstruct or interfere with crew access to accommoda-
tion and working spaces or obstruct any opening and prevent it being easily
secured weather-tight.
Deck cargo must be secured so as to ensure that there will be no movement
of cargo in the worst weather that can be expected on the voyage. The
lashings and aUfittings used for the attaching of lashings must be of adequate
strength to be able to withstand the rigours inflicted upon the ship and cargo
by such weather conditions.
Some ships which regularly carry deck cargoes have a passage constructed
on or below the deck which carries the deck cargo, to provide access for the
c~ew between their quarters and the working areas of the ship. On ships
without such a passage, a walkway must be fitted over the deck cargo and
effectively secured to provide safe and efficient access for the crew. The
walkway must not be less than 1 m wide and it must have a set of guard rails
or wires on each side which are supported by stanchions securely fitted to the
walkway at intervals not exceeding 1.5 m. The guard rails or wires should be
to a height of not less than 1 m and each set should consist ofthree courses.
No opening below the lowest course should exceed 230 mm in height and no
opening above that course should exceed 380 mm in height.
Part II. ADDITIONAL requirements applicable to timber deck cargoes
Part II is divided into Sections A and B. Section A applies to ships which are
not marked with timber load lines or to ships that have timber load line marks
but which are110aded within the limits of ordinary load lines.
When the ship is in a winter period the deck cargo must be stowed so that at
no point throughout its length the height of the cargo above the weather deck
240
Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting
exceeds one-third of the extreme breadth ofthe ship. Note that the height is
not taken as an 'average' or a 'mean'. The regulation emphasizes that the
maximum height at any point must not exceed one-third of the beam.
A walkway must always be provided on top of the timber even if the ship
has a permanent passageway of the type described in Part I. The walkwiy
must be constructed to the specification set out in Part I.
The cargo must be compactly stowed and secured throughout its length by
a system of overall lashings of adequate strength. Efficient arrangements,
which must be readily accessible at all times, must be provided for the release
of lashings and fittings. '"
Uprights, which are sufficiently strong for the purpose, must be fitted if
the nature of the timber is such that uprights are necessary to ensure a
compact and secure stow. The uprights must be secured in position by angles
or metal sockets. The spacing of the uprights must take into account the
nature and length of the timber so that efficient support is provided.
However, the space between any two uprights must not exceed 3 m.
Section B applies to ships which are marked with timber load lines and
Nhich are loaded accordingly. The requirements of Section B are in addition
:0 those of Section A. ' ,
A careful note should be made of the regulation whichrefers to a minimum
height of cargo, i.e. when timber deck cargo is stowed in any well it must be
'stowed as solidly as possible so as to extend over the entire available length of
the well to a height not less than the standard height of a superstructure other
than a raised quarter deck'. Thus in addition to the maximum height in
summer of a safe height (Part I) and the maximum height in winter of
one-third of the beam Part IIA), the cargo must be stowed to a minimum safe
height in both seasons (Part lIB). If a ship has no superstructure aft the
timber must be stowed so as to extend over the entire available length
between the superstructure and the after end of the aftermost hatchway.
The timber must be efficiently secured throughout its length by
independent overall lashings spaced not more than 3 m apart (thus if one
independant lashing breaks it will not affect the other independent lashings).
The lashings must be secured to eye plates which are attached to the sheer
strake or to the deck stringer at intervals of not more than 3 m. The distance
from an end bulkhead to the first eye plate must not be more than 2 m. Where
there is no bulkhead the eye plates and lashings must be located at distances
of 0.6 and 1.5 m from the ends of the timber deck cargo. Students may find it
useful to make a sketch of the lashings arrangements, as in Figure 8.1.
The lashings must be made of close link chain of a size not less than 19 mm
or of flexible wire rope of an equivalent strength. The lashings must be fitted
with sliphooks and turnbuckles in positions which are accessible at all times
and wire rope lashings must be fitted with a length oflong link chain to enable
the length of the lashings to be regulated.
241

When timber is in lengths less than 3.6 m the spacings of the lashings must
be suitably reduced.
A student who closely studies the above regulations will observe that the
regulations contained in Part I are written in 'broad' or general terms. Deck
cargoes can be of such a diverse nature that it would be difficult to lay down
'pard and fast' rules which apply to all deck cargoes. However, when dealing
\\,ith timber deck cargoes it is possible to be more specific and thus Part II
contains detailed securing arrangements. Students must remember that
rart I also applies to timber deck cargoes and the general provisions must be
complied with. c.
A timber deck cargo stowed solidly in wells has an effect which is similar to
tpat of raising the height of the freeboard deck. Thus the assigned freeboard
IJ1aybe reduced and the ship loaded to a deeper draught. A solidly stowed,
properly secured timber deck cargo means that:
242
Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting
1 Water cannot flow freely on the weather deck.
2 Greater protection is given to closing appliances, such as hatch covers,
which protect the weather-tight and water-tight integrity of the ship.
3 The timber compensates for the loss of reserve buoyancy caused by the
reduced assigned freeboard. It is, therefore, important that the timbet'"
cargo is solidly stowed to the minimum height specified in the regulations.
M687 should be closely studied as it gives further guidance for the
transporting of timber deck cargoes. The notice gives the definition of timber
as: •
'(a) loose timber, i.e. individual planks of sawn timber, logs or pit-props; or
(b) packaged timber, i.e. bundles of sawn timber, consisting of either
(i) similar sized planks forming a regular cuboid-(regular packaged
timber) or
(ii) random sized planks which do not form a regular shape-(irregular
packaged timber).'
The notice refers to the fact that the transverse shift of stowed timber is
seldom the sole cause of a dangerous list. An inadequate standard of stability,
imprudent stowage, and unsecured deck openings will aggravate the effects
of a list caused by a shift of deck cargo. The notice also ~ers to the general
rule that not more than one-third of the weight of timber carried should be
stowed on the open deck.
M687 refers to the IMO publication, The Code of Safe Practice for Ships
Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes, and M1279 draws attention to the Supplement
to that code (the Supplement follows Annex D in the reprint of the 1981
edition which was published in 1987). The Department of Transport recom-
mends that the requirements and advice contained in the publications should
be observed.
Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes
The IMO code should be studied in conjunction with the Merchant Shipping
Regulations as similar provisions are contained in both publications. However,
some of the additional IMO requirements are noted below.
Uprights should extend above the outboard top edge of the cargo, they
should be fitted with a locking pin, and each port and starboard pair of
uprights should be linked by athwartships lashings.
If a device which is capable of quick cargo release is fitted, the design of it
should ensure that it cannot be accidentally released or activated.
Lashings should be capable of withstanding an ultimate load of not less
than 133 kN (13,600 kP). The minimum ultimate load of the ancillary
components is higher than that of the lashings. M929 refers to the fact that
243
Shipboard Operations
the ultimate strength of 19 mm close link chain is 13,600 kP and thus the
chain may continue to be used. A flexible wire rope of equivalent strength is
one which has a SWL of not less than 2.7 tons.
The spacing of lashings should be determined by the maximum height of
the timber in the vicinity of the lashing. The following spacing is stipulated:
'(11) for the height of 4 metres (13 feet) and below the spacing should be
3 metres (9.8 feet);
(b) for the height of6 metres (19.6 feet) and above the spacing should be 1.5
metres (4.9 feet);
(c) at intermediate heights the average spacing should be obtained by linear
interpolation. '
In addition to the walkway specified in the Merchant Shipping
Regulations, a lifeline of wire rope with a stretching device should be set up
taut as near as practical to the centreline of the ship.
The IMO publications should be read in full as they contain much practical
advice with regard to the stowing and securing of timber deck cargoes.
Students studying for examinations should note that the words 'stowing' and
'securing' refer to different aspects of the transporting operation.
Annex C ofthe code gives suggested practices which pertain to particular
timber cargoes, e.g.
1 The stowage of packaged timber.
2 The securing of heavy logs additional to that given in the code.
3 The stowage of pulp wood and pit props.
Annex D refers to 'Stowage and securing of deck cargoes of cants'. Cants are
Jogs which have been slab cut, i.e. they are cut lengthwise from a tree trunk into
thick slabs which have two opposing, parallel flat sides, a third side which is
usually sawn flat, and a fourth side which is rounded. Cants are usually made
up into rectangular 'bundles' which are secured by steel bands. The average
length of the bundles is about 4-5 m with the maximum length being approxi-
mately 8 m. The nature of the bundles makes a solid, compact stow difficult to
achieve and the guidelines contained in Annex D should be considered. The
sketches in the Annex should be studied by mariners unacquainted with the
transporting of timber as they clearly illustrate some of the securing arrange-
ments.
General gUi,fj.elinesfor loading timber deck cargoes
1 All securing equipment should be laid out on the main deck some time
before loading commences. The IMO code recommends that a visual
examination of lashings be carried out at intervals not exceeding 12
244
Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting
months. However, the prudent officer should inspect all the equipment
before it is used. All the equipment, such as shackles, should be
appropriately marked and the necessary certification should be in order.
It may be necessary to weld additional securing points, such as eye plates,
to the deck at appropriate locations. The outboard ends oflashings should
be secured to eye plates before loading commences and temporarily
secured in a location where they will not be overstowed. It may be
necessary to hang the lashings over the side of the ship on temporary rope
pennants so as to keep the deck clear for loading.
2 Provision should be made to protect ventilators, air pipes, sounding
pipes, winches, and similar deck appliances. The cargo should be stowed
so that soundings of compartments can be carried out during the voyage.
Ensure that freeing ports are operating in a satisfactory manner.
3 Provision should be made to enable fire hoses to be rigged should that
become necessary on passage and fixed fire-fighting appliances, such as
the fire main, should be protected.
4 When necessary, e.g. for packaged timber, dunnage of rough timber
should be laid on the deck. Lengths of 3 x 12 cm dunnage can be laid at
1 m spacing. If the underdeck framing runs athwartships the dunnage
should be laid diagonally across several frames so'as to spread the load
of the timber.
5 M687 emphasizes that all hatch covers, weather-tight doors, and means of
securing air pipes and ventilators that are situated within the deck cargo
area must be made secure before loading commences.
6 Inspect packaged timber on the quay and reject any packages that are
bound too loosely.
7 Neatly stow the timber so that, if possible, the timber interlocks within
each layer. Do not 'stack' timber piece on piece as this will not ensure a
compact stow.
8 Chock each tier before commencing another layer or tier. Any gaps at
hatch coamings or around deck appliances should be filled with loose
timber or chocked off. Keep a firm loading surface throughout the stow
and, if necessary, dunnage between layers or tiers.
9 Any openings around deck appliances or mast houses should be fenced off
to prevent personnel falling into gaps in the cargo.
10 Properly constructed and secure ladders or steps should be provided
where necessary from the top of the cargo to the deck, especially in the
vicinity of walkways.
11 In general, stow fore and aft to facilitate the securing arrangements but
stow athwartships when it is necessary to 'fill in' around mast houses.
12 Distribute the weight throughout the stow to ensure that heavy timber is
not stowed above or adjacent to light timber.
13 M687 recommends that the height of the timber should not be excessive
245

IS The outboard edges of the stow should contain no protruding cargo which
would interfere with the vertical lead of the lashings. The top layer or tier
should not overhang the vertical face of the cargo and it may even be
advisable to 'step in' the top tier so as to provide a good lead for the
lashings.
16 Annex C recommends that rounded angle pieces of suitable material
should be placed along the top outboard edge of the stow. The angles will
spread the load stress of the lashings, reduce chafing, and permit
movement of the lashings during the tightening and securing of the cargo.
17 A practical test to check the vessel's stability before loading is completed
has been used to good effect on some timber carriers. When one-third of
the deck cargo remains to be loaded slings of timber are lifted from the
jetty simultaneously by several ofthe ship's derricks and swung inboard.
The resulting movement of the ship may indicate any undue stiffness or
tenderness. Thus, any undesirable stability characteristics can be
corrected by checking the stability calculations and carrying out
corrective procedures before the ship sails.
18 The IMO supplement recommends that after the initial securing of the
cargo, all tightening devices should be capable of further tightening for
use on the. voyage. The cargo will probably settle at the beginning of the
voyage and the lashings will therefore require tightening.
19 The lashings and other securing arrangements should be frequently
inspected on passage and all the lashings should be kept taut at all times.
246
Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting
20 A record of inspections and tightening of lashings should be kept.
21 On a long voyage it may be necessary to re-coat wire lashings with a
suitable anti-corrosion compound.
~.
Some methods to facilitate the jettisoning of timber deck cargoes
Jettisoning cargo is only carried out when a vessel is in extreme peril as it is an
extremely hazardous operation. Cargo should only be jettisoned as a last
resort to prevent a vessel sinking or to prevent loss of water-tight integrity.
The emphasis of the regulations is to keep the stow intact, even during the
worst possible weather conditions that can be anticipated. However, some
procedures have been recommended which could make the operation slightly
less hazardous.
1 Slip hooks and other fittings may become jammed during a voyage and it
may be difficult to release them in an emergency. This problem can be
reduced by fitting additional slip hooks back to back with the primary slip
hooks in the overall lashings (MIllO). \,
2 A set of wire or metal cutters should be provided so that strained or
jammed lashings can be cut away (MIllO).
3 It is possible that the jettisoning operation would be accomplished with
more safety if a system of additional temporary lashings which could be
released from a safeposition is used (MIllO). Such a system could be the use
of a 'wiggle wire' which is described on page 12 of the supplement to the
IMO code. The wiggle wire holds a stow together in the manner of a shoe
lace. One end ofa wire is secured forward and the rest of the wire is led aft in a
continuous zig-zag over the top of the stow via a series of snatch-blocks. The
wire can be heaved tight by the use of a cargo winch or aft mooring winch and
released at the appropriate moment from a safe position aft.
4 Some quick release devices can be fitted to the securing arrangements but
the IMO code stipulates that such devices must not be capable of being
accidentally released or activated. There are no strict guidelines as to the
advisability of using quick release devices; the IMO codes stipulates, 'if
fitted' .
5 Releasing devices should be located along the centre line of the ship and,
when possible, within reach of the walkway or the fore and aft lifeline.
6 Release devices should be located so that they can be operated in all
weather conditions. Devices which cannot be reached because of heavy
seas breaking on board are of little use.
7 If the construction of the ship permits, a 'high level' wire safety line could
be rigged after the cargo is stowed and before the vessel sails. The wire
247
 Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting
Shipboard Operations
could run from the bridge front to a forward stump mast. It may then be 7 Ensure that all the ancillary equipment is rigged in correct locations, i.e.
possible for a seaman wearing a safety harness to loop a line from the as per the rigging plan.
harness over the wire and back to the harness. The slip hooks can then be 8 Where appropriate, the winches should be put into double gear.
released in a forward to aft sequence. The high level wire should be high 9 A void lowering the derrick more than is necessary as this increases the
enough to be clear of any jettisoning cargo and if the seaman loses his stress on the derrick. ~.
footing or is injured it may be possible to bring him to safety. 10 Adequate dunnage should be laid so as to spread the weight of the cargo
8 The liberal application of oil and grease to the appropriate parts of the over as much of the underdeck framing as possible. If shore cranes are
securing arrangements will greatly reduce the risk of releasing devices used a heavy lift can be stowed above a transverse bulkhead as the
becoming inoperable. bulkhead can distribute the weight of the load effectively.
11 There should be a sufficient number of securing points on the deck. If
It must be stressed once again that jettisoning cargo is extremely hazardous necessary, additional eye plates should be welded at suitable locations.
and every precaution should be taken to prevent a shift of cargo. 12 Check that there are sufficient lifting points on the cargo. Boilers and
heavy plant will probably have permanent lifting attachments clearly
Loading and securing of a heavy weight on deck marked. Carefully inspect the attachments and ensure that the slings are
secured only to those points.
The cargoes which are carried on deck are so diverse in nature that each load 13 Check that the weight marked on the load corresponds with the weight
must be considered individually. However, the following guidelines should stated in the cargo documents.
be observed when using the ship's 'jumbo' derrick: 14 Boilers usually arrive on the quay already stowed in cradles. All
cylindrical objects should be stowed in cradles similar to those shown in
1 In addition to the stability requirements in Part I of the regulations the Figure 8.3. "-
stability at each stage of the lift should be considered, e.g. calculate the
angle of heel at the moment the weight lifts off the quay.
2 All personnel should be warned before the operation commences so that
accidents are not caused by an unexpected list.
3 The vessel should be on even keel and upright before the operation
commences to assist the handling of the equipment. All tanks should
either be full or empty to avoid free surface effects. The double-bottoms
should be full.
4 All lifting appliances and equipment should be inspected before use and
all items should be adequate and satisfactory for the job. The relevant
regulations should be observed and all the equipment being used must
have the appropriate certificates. It is important to include the weight of
the lifting tackle with the weight of the load when deciding if the SWL of
the derrick will permit the load to be lifted. Never exceed the SWL.
5 All leads must be fair to avoid chafing the falls. When possible, especially
with a non-patent jumbo derrick, the purchase fall should be led through
a mast head cargo purchase lead block. This reduces the weight/stress on
the derrick span tackle and often provides a better lead to the winch.
Ensure that no slack turns are allowed to occur on the winch barrel.
6 Additionar'slewing guys are sometimes attached to the bottom purchase
block to reduce the strain on the derrick head. All guys and ancillary
equipment should be well clear of any obstruction in all working positions
of the derrick.

248
Shipboard Operations
shortened and the eyes of slings should bear on the bow of the shackle and
not the pin. Sling angles should never exceed 120°.
17 If a cargo hook is being used, it should be positioned above the centre of
gravity of the load.
18 Some loads may be heavier at one end than at the other and may be of an
irregular shape. In this case, slings with different leg lengths may be used
and it is essential that each sling leg is attached to the appropriate securing
position.
19 When possible use an 'I section spreader' or a beam sling to lift the load as
these ensure an even distribution of weight during the loading operation.
20 Loads of an uneven weight distribution which are shipped in a box or
container usually have the heavy end indicated by the 'seesaw' symbol
shown in Figure 8.4. The centre of gravity should also be indicated.
21 Before the operation commences all unnecessary personnel should be
cleared from the working area.
22 Some crew members should be instructed to tend the moorings and the
access arrangements.
23 All personnel should wear protective gear.
24 Only experienced and competent operators and winchmen should be
used. Careful winch driving is essential and no fast heaving or lowering
should be permitted as it increases the strain on the equipment and is a
dangerous procedure. All personnel should understand the pre-arranged
signals. The load should not be jerked and must therefore be kept clear of
bulwarks and hatch coamings.
2S The load should be kept as level as possible and steadying lines should be
attached to the load where appropriate.
26 The cargQ should be loaded as close as possible to hatch coamings or
bulwarks so that the ship's permanent structure can be incorporated into
the tomming-off and securing arrangements.
250
Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting
27 Wire rope lashings used for securing the load should be of the same
strength as the wire ropes used for the loading operation. If necessary,
obtain specialist advice from the shippers or from rigging companies as to
the strength and type of securing arrangements necessary to keep the·stow
in place. ~.
28 It may be possible to weld heavy items of machinery, such as power
station turbine casings, to the ship's structure.
-,..~
B Grain Cargoes
Principle of the grain rules
The loading and transporting of grain is governed by Chapter VI of SOLAS
74, 'Carriage of Grain', generally referred to as the 'IMO Grain Rules'. The
rules are relatively brief and should be read by students. The IMO rules have
been formulated from international studies and the foreword to the rules
explains that they are based on the fact that in a comp'lu"tmentfilled with grain
there exists a void space between the grain surface and the deckhead of the
compartment. The basic requirement of the rules is that it must be
demonstrated by calculation that at all times during a voyage the ship will
have sufficient intact stability to provide adequate residual dynamic stability
after taking into account the adverse heeling effects caused by an assumed
pattern of grain movements within the void spaces lying directly above the
grain. The foreword further states that the provision of temporary grain
fittings to reduce the effects of grain shift, e.g. shifting boards, bagged grain,
bundling, etc., 'depends entirely upon achieving the correct relationship
between the intact stability characteristics of the ship and the heeling effects
of a possible grain shift within the various compartments of the ship'. The
IMO Grain Rules stipulate the minimum level of acceptable stability for the
carriage of grain in terms of initial metacentric height, angle of heel due to
assumed grain shift, and residual dynamic stability.
Merchant Shipping (Grain) Regulations 1980. S11985 No. 1217
The regulations apply to sea-going United Kingdom ships and to other
ships while they are within the United Kingdom or territorial waters when
loaded with bulk grain. The regulations give effect to Chapter VI of SOLAS
74.
251
Shipboard Operations
Where grain in bulk is loaded on board a British ship or is loaded on board
any ship in a United Kingdom port, it must be loaded in accordance with the
arrangements stated in the schedule to the regulations. Any ship entering the
United Kingdom should have loaded any bulk grain cargo in accordance with
the same regulations. A synopsis of the schedule is given below:
I All free grain surfaces should be levelled to minimize the effect of the grain
shifting. In any filled compartment the bulk grain must be trimmed so as to
fill all the spaces under the decks and hatch covers. All free grain surfaces
in partly filled compartments must be level.
2 Throughout the voyage the intact stability characteristics must meet at
least the following criteria:
(a) the angle of heel due to the shift of grain must not be greater than 12°;
(b) in the statical stability diagram, the net or residual area between the
heeling arm curve and the righting arm curve up to the angle of heel of
maximum difference between the ordinates of the two curves shall, in
all conditions of loading, be not less than 0.075 metre-radians;
(c) the initial metacentric height, after correcting for the FSE ofliquids in
tanks, must not be less than 0.3 m. The ship must be upright before
proceeding to sea.
3 In both filled and partly filled compartments, longitudinal or transverse
divisions may be provided to reduce the adverse heeling effect of grain shift
or to limit the depth of cargo used for securing the grain surfaces.
Saucering may also be used to reduce the adverse heeling effects of grain
shift.
4 The surface of bulk grain in any partly filled compartment should be
secured by overstowing or by strapping or lashing.
The arrangements mentioned in 3 and 4 must be in accordance with the
procedures specified in the IMO Grain Rules (see below).
Lower holds and tween deck spaces directly above may be loaded as one
compartment provided that, in calculating transverse heeling moments,
proper account is taken of the flow of grain into the lower spaces.
Document of Authorisation
MI253 draws attention to the fact that in accordance with the Merchant
Shipping Grain Regulatior ; every ship which is to carry grain must have on
board a 'Document of Authorisation'.
This document takes the form of a booklet of stability information which
includes grai~ loading conditions and other information which indicates that
the ship meets the relevant SOLAS requirements for carrying grain. Every
booklet must be stamped by the Administration of the county in which the
252
Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting
ship is registered, or by a Certifying Authority on its behalf. The stamp
should bear the statement that the requirements can be met and it gives the
authority for the ship to be loaded with bulk grain in accordance with those
requirements. ,.
Grain
The IMO definition of grain states that, 'the term "grain" includes wheat,
maize (corn), oats, rye, barley, rice, pulses, seeds and processed forms
thereof, whose behaviour is similar to that of grain in its natural state'.
Methods of securing grain
The Department of Transport has published a Grain Notes Guidance Booklet
which indicates the type of information that should be provided with a
carriage of grain submission. The booklet also describes the various methods
by which grain is secured. '
,~
Longitudinal divisions
These may be provided in both filled compartments and partly filled
compartments. The divisions must be grain-tight and constructed to IMO
specifications.
In a filled compartment the division shall:
(a) in a tween deck extend from deck to deck;
(b) in a hold extend downwards from the underside of the deck or hatch
covers a distance of at least 0.6 m below the grain surface after the surface
has been assumed to shift through an angle of 15°.
In a partly filled compartment the division shall extend from one-eighth of
the maximum breadth of the compartment above the level of the grain surface
and to the same distance below the surface. When the division is used to limit
the depth of overstowing, the height of the centreline division shall be at least
0.6 m above the grain level.
The specifications for grain fittings are given in Part C of the IMO rules.
The rules should be consulted before divisions are constructed but some
pertinent details are outlined below.
General specifications All timber used for grain fittings should be of good
sound quality and of a type and grade which has been proved to be
satisfactory for the purpose. Plywood, of an exterior type bonded with
waterproof glue and fitted so that the direction of the grain in the face plies is
253
Shipboard Operations
perpendicular to the supporting uprights or binder, may be used provided
that its strength is equivalent to that of solid timber of the appropriate
scantlings. Materials other than wood or steel may be approved for divisions
provided that proper regard has been paid to their mechanical properties.
Uprights The depth of housing for each upright should not be less than 75
mm. This applies to the housing at both the upper and lower ends. If an
upright is not secured at the top, the uppermost shore or stay should be fitted
as near to the top as is practicable. If arrangements are made for inserting
shifting boards by removing a part of the cross-section of an upright, the
arrangements should be such that the local level of stresses is .not unduly
high. If uprights are formed by two separate sections, one fitted on each side
of a division and interconnected by through bolts at adequate spacing, the
effective section modules should be taken as the sum of the two moduli of the
separate sections. If divisions do not extend to the full depth of the hold such
divisions and their uprights should be supported or stayed so as to be as
efficient as those which do extend to the full depth of the hold.
Divisions loaded on both sides
I Shifting boards should be not less than 50 mm thick, grain-tight, and
where necessary supported by uprights.
2 The maximum unsupported span for shifting boards of various !hicknesses
is given in a table, e.g. the maximum unsupported span for a 60 mm thick
shifting board is 3.0 m.
3 The ends of all shifting boards should be securely housed with a 75 mm
minimum bearing length.
4 Divisions formed with materials other than wood should have an
equivalent strength to wooden shifting boards.
5 The section modules (cross-section size) of steel and wood uprights are
determined by formulae which are given in the rules.
6 Uprights should be spaced to correspond with the maximum permitted
unsupported span for the shifting boards.
7 If wood shores are used they must be in a single piece, securely fixed at each
end, and heeled against the permanent structure of the ship (except
directly against the side plating). The minimum size of the shores is given
in the rules.
8 Stays must be as near horizontal as possible, well secured at both ends, and
made of steel wire rope. The size of the wire should be determined on the
basis that the divisions and uprights are uniformly loaded at 500 kg/m2•
The breaking load of the wire must exceed this by at least two-thirds.
, If such material is used, athwartship lashings must be placed inside the saucer
The requirements for divisions which are loaded on one side only are found
by the use of tables which are contained in Part C.
254
Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting
Saucering
Except in the case of compartments containing oil seeds, a longitudinal
division beneath a hatchway in a filled compartment may be replaced by a
saucer of bagged grain or other suitable cargo. The bulk grain beneath Wle
hatchway should be trimmed in the form of a saucer and the following points
should be observed:
1 The depth of the saucer, measured from the bottom of the saucer to the
deck line, shall not be less than: 1.2 m in ships whose moulded beam does
not exceed 9.1 m; and 1.8 m in ships whose moulded beam is 18.3 m or
greater. In ships of moulded beam between 9.1 and 18.3 m the depth should
be found by interpolation.
2 The top, or mouth, of the saucer should be formed by the hatchway, i.e.
hatch side girders or coamings and hatch end beams. The saucer and the
hatchway above should be completely filled with bagged grain or other
suitable cargo which is laid down on a separation cloth or its equivalent.
The bags must be stowed tightly against adjacent structures and portable
hatchway beams if the latter are in place. ,
,-
Bundling
As an alternative to filling the saucer with bagged grain or other suitable cargo
a bundle of bulk grain may be used. The grain is trimmed in the form of a
saucer as described above and the following procedure should then be carried
out:
1 The saucer should be lined with a tarpaulin or other acceptable material
which has a tensile strength of not less than 274 kg per 5 cm strip. The
material must be provided with suitable means for securing at the top, e.g.
strong eyelets and suitable lashings.
2 The saucer should then be filled with bulk grain and the top secured,
usually carried out by lacing the eyelets together and forming a tight
compact bundle. The top of the saucer must be coincidental with the
bottom of the beams when they are in place and suitable general cargo or
bulk grain may be placed between the beams on top of the saucer to ensure
a tight, compact stow.
If more than one sheet of material is used to line the saucer the sheets must
be joined at the bottom by sewing or by a double lap.
Acceptable material of a strength less than 274 kg per 5 cm strip may be
used but it must not have a tensile strength ofless than 137 kg per 5 cm strip.
directly on top of the grain at intervals of not more than 2.4 m. The lashings
255
 Shipboard Operations
must be long enough to be drawn up tight and secured at the top of the saucer.
Dunnage which must not be less than 25 mm thick (or other suitable material
of equal strength) and between 150 and 300 mm wide should then be placed
fore and aft over the lashings. The purpose of the dunnage is to prevent the
lashings cutting or chafing the material which is placed on top of the dunnage
to line the saucer. The bundle is then drawn up tight and secured as
previously described.
Saucering and bundling can only be carried out in filled compartments and
the procedures are similar, except:
for saucering bagged grain must be used
in bundling bulk grain is used
In some ports the trimming of grain to form a saucer is done manually and
the personnel conducting the operation should be made aware of the dangers
of oxygen deficiency which may be caused by the grain 'breathing'. All
organic materials consume oxygen and some grains can quickly use up the
oxygen in confined spaces. 'Enclosed space procedures' should be adapted
for the trimming operation and, if necessary, the personnel should wear some
form of air supply apparatus. Accidents have occurred in which men
trimming grain have collapsed and died as a result of oxygen deficiency.
Partly filled compartments
The movement of grain in a partly filled compartment may be considered to
be eliminated if the grain is overstowed or strapped.
Overs towing
I The surface of the grain must be trimmed level.
2 A separation cloth (or equivalent) or a platform is laid on top of the grain. A
platform consists of wooden bearers spaced not more than 1.2 m apart with
25 mm wooden boards laid on top not more than 100 mm apart.
3 Bagged grain is tightly stowed on top to a height of not less than
one-sixteenth of the breadth of the free grain surface or 1.2 m, whichever is
the greater. (Instead of bagged grain, other suitable cargo which exerts the
same pressure may be used.) The bagged grain must be in securely closed,
well filled, sound bags.
Strapping or lashing
I The grain is trimmed so that the surface is very slightly 'crowned', i.e. the
surface is sliShtly higher in the middle than around the edges.
2 The grain is covered by separation cloths and/or tarpaulins which overlap
by at least 1.8 m.
256
Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting
3 Two solid floors of 25 mm timber, 150--300 mm wide, are laid on the
separation. The top floor runs longitudinally and is nailed to the
athwartships bottom floor. Alternative approved floors may also be laid.
4 Timber bearers, 25 x ISO mm, are nailed to the top floor. The bearers
extend over the full breadth of the compartment. ~.
5 The floors are secured by lashings spaced not more than 2.4 m apart and
which lie on the bearers. The lashings are made of 19 mm diameter steel
wire rope, or 50 x 1.3 mm doubled steel strapping (having a breaking load
of at least 5000 kg), or chain of equivalent strength. The lashings are set
tight by 32 mm turnbuckles but'Winch tighteners with locking arms may
be used with steel strapping. Eyes in lashing wire must be formed by at
least four clips on each eye and the ends of steel strapping must be secured
by not less than three crimp seals on each end.
6 The lashings will have been placed in position prior to the completion of
loading by being positively attached to framing at points approximately
450 mm below the anticipated final grain surface by means of either a 25
mm shackle or a beam clamp of equivalent strength.
7 The lashings must be regularly inspected during the voyage and re-set
where necessary. '
,~
C Solid Bulk Cargoes
Solid bulk cargoes should be loaded and transported with extreme care and
should be considered to be dangerous cargoes. Improper transportation of
bulk cargo is a major factor in ship losses. The size of the ship would appear to
have little relationship to the hazards of trans pOI'ation as losses have been in the
range between 1000and 115,000 grt. It is therefore essential to observe strictly
recommendations which pertain to the safe carriage of solid bulk cargoes.
Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes
This excellent code is published by IMO and the sixth edition was published in
1987.The code should be cross-referenced with supplements which are issued
as circumstances require them; the first supplement to this edition was pub-
lished in 1988.
The code contains an introduction, ten sections, six appendices, an index of
cargoes and a removable Maritime Safety Card on enclosed space procedures:
Introduction- The aim of the code
Section I-Definitions
257
 Shipboard Operations
Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting
Section 2-General precautions
Section 3-Safety of personnel Flow moisture point The percentage moisture content (on a wet mass
basis) at which a flow state develops under the prescribed method of test in a
Section 4-Assessing the acceptability of consignments
Section 5- Trimming procedures representative sample of the materials.
Section 6-Methods of determining the angle of repose
Section 7-Cargoes which may liquefy Flow state The state that occurs when a mass of granular material is
Section 8- Test procedures for cargoes which may liquefy saturated with liquid to an extent that under the influence of prevailing
Section 9-Materials possessing chemical hazards external forces such as vibration, impaction, or the ship's motion, it loses its
Section lO-Stowage factor conversion tables internal shear strength and behaves as a liquid.
Appendix A-List of bulk materials which may liquefy
Appendix B- List of bulk materials possessing chemical hazards
Appendix C-Other bulk cargoes Moisture content The portion of a representative sample of a material
Appendix D-Laboratory test procedures which consists of water, ice, or other liquid expressed as a percentage of the
total wet mass of that sample.
Appendix E- Emergency schedules for materials listed in appendix B
Appendix F-EncIosed space procedures
Index of materials Moisture migration The movement of moisture contained in a bulk cargo
by settling and consolidation of the cargo due to vibration and ship's motion.
All the sections are concise and practical and should be carefully studied in Water is progressively displaced which may result in some portions or all of
full by all persons engaged in, or associated with, the transportation of solid the bulk cargo developing a flow state. ,
bulk cargoes by sea.
\,

Introduction Transportable moisture limit (tml) The transportable moisture limit of a

This states that the primary aims of the code are to highlight the dangers of
certain types of bulk cargo, to give procedural guidance, to list typical
products together with advice on their properties and on handling, and to
describe test procedures for determining cargo characteristics.
The main hazards of shipping bulk cargoes are:
1 Structural damage due to improper distribution of the cargo
2 Loss or reduction of stability from
(a) a shift of cargo
(b) cargoes liquefying
3 Chemical reactions
cargo which may liquefy represents the maximum moisture content of that
cargo which is considered safe for carriage in ships which are not specially
fitted or constructed for cargoes of excessive moisture content. (The tml is 90
percent of the flow moisture point.)
Section 2-General precautions
Bulk cargoes must be properly distributed throughout the ship in order that
the structure will never be overstressed. Detailed information should be
provided for the loading ofhigh:density cargoes but if such information is not
available then the following precautions should be observed:

I The general fore and aft distribution of weight should not differ
Attention is drawn to the relevant sections which deal with the above
hazards. appreciably from that found satisfactory for general cargoe·s.
2 The maximum number of tonnes of cargo loaded in any space should not
Section I-Definitions exceed 0.9LBD tonnes
where L = length of the hold in metres
There are fifteen definitions in the section and mariners should be conversant B = average breadth of the hold in metres
with them all. Six definitions are of particular importance: D = the summer load draught in metres
, 3 If cargo is untrimmed, the height of the cargo pile above the floor should
not exceed in metres
Angle of repose The angle between a horizontal plane and the cone slope of
a cargo. 1.1 x D x stowage factor
where the stowage factor is given in cubic metres per tonne.
258 259
 Shipboard Operations
4 Other guidelines apply to cargo which is trimmed entirely level and to
holds divided by shaft tunnels.
The stability information booklet should be studied and the ship's stability
calculated for the anticipated worst conditions during the voyage. In general,
high-density cargoes should normally be loaded in lower holds rather than in
tween decks but an excessively high GM should be avoided as it can produce
violent movement during the passage.
Section 3-Safety of personnel
Particular attention is drawn to poisoning and asphyxiation hazards, health
hazards due to dust, and the dangers of flammable atmospheres.
Section 4-Assessing the acceptability of consignments
Before loading commences the Master should be provided with appropriate
information concerning the characteristics and properties of the cargo. Such
information should contain as a minimum:
chemical hazards
flow moisture point
stowage factor
moisture content
angle of repose
The Master should be given a certificate or certificates containing the
relevant characteristics of the cargo. The certificates should include:
a certificate which states the transportable moisture limit
a certificate of moisture content
a statement that the moisture content specified in the certificate of
moisture content is the actual moisture content of the cargo at the time
the certificate is given to the master
If materials possess chemical hazards, a certificate listing the hazards
should be given to the master. The certificate should contain a statement that
the chemical characteristics are those existing at the time of loading.
The section also gives information on sampling procedures and lists the
factors which must be taken into account when obtaining representative
samples:
I Type of material.
2 Particle size 'aistribution.
3 Composition,of the material and its variability.
4 Manner in which the material is stored, e.g. in stockpiles or railway
wagons, and the method by which the material is transferred or loaded,
260
Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting
e.g. by conveyors or grabs.
5 Characteristics which must be determined, e.g. moisture content and flow
moisture point.
6 Weather conditions which may cause moisture distribution variations
throughout the consignment. ~.
Section 5- Trimming procedures
For the purposes of trimming, bulk cargoes are placed into two general
categories: "'
I Cargoes with an angle of repose less than or equal to 35° Mariners can
consider this category to be the more dangerous of the two as cargoes of this
type are subject to the liquefaction process which will be discussed later.
Cargoes of low angle of repose generally consist of small granules which shift
quite easily when the vessel moves. Small granules tend to move over one
another easily and thus if the vessel rolls the cargo will shift to the low side.
Most small granules absorb moisture and if the weatherdeck hatch leaks the
cargo will absorb water entering the hold. Thus the hold may eventually
contain a cargo of sludge which, of course, is detrimental to the ship's
stability. "
This section recommends that cargoes of such an angle of repose be
trimmed reasonably level and that the spaces in which the cargoes are loaded
should be filled as fully as practicable without resulting in an excessive cargo
weight in one location. If cargoes which flow like grain are to be carried, the
stowage procedures for grain should be observed. However, the density of
the cargo should be considered when determining:
(a) the construction of securing arrangements; and
(b) the stability effect of free cargo surfaces.
2 Cargoes with an angle of respose greater than 35° These cargoes often
consist oflumps of various sizes, e.g. from 3 to 300 mm, which interlock and
are therefore quite stable. The cargo can become heaped up and produce an
excessive pile peak. A major hazard with this type of cargo is that if the cargo
is left untrimmed and the vessel rolls at sea, the cargo may fall into the
unoccupied cargo space on one side of the hold and, as the cargo is relatively
stable, remain there. This, of course would produce a list.
This type of cargo is not usually subject to liquefaction as any liquid
entering the hold remains in the unoccupied space between the lumps and
eventually filters through to the bilges, from where the ship's bilge pumps
can remove the liquid.
The section recommends that when cargo is loaded only in lower cargo
spaces, it should be trimmed sufficiently to cover all of the tank top out to the
ship's side in order to reduce the pile peak and to equalize the distribution of
weight. If it is necessary to load cargo in a tween deck, the tween deck hatch
261
 Shipboard Operations
should be closed. The tween deck cargo should be trimmed reasonably level
and should either extend from side to side and bulkhead to bulkhead or be
secured in bins.
Section 6-Methods of determining the angle of repose
Attention is drawn to laboratory, shipboard, and on-site methods. The
on-site method requires the angle subtended by the surface of a stockpile with
the ground to be measured at a minimum of six points around the
circumference of the stockpile and the mean taken. If it is not possible to
examine a stockpile, a cone of material deposited on to the quay by a grab
could be measured in a similar way. However, the larger the cone is, the more
accurately the angle of repose will be to that produced in the ship's hold.
Section 7-Cargoes which may liquefy
This is an extremely important section and all officers involved in carrying
bulk cargoes should be well conversant with the contents.
Cargoes which may liquefy include concentrates, certain coals, and other
materials having similar physical properties. Section 1defines concentrates as
materials which are obtained from a natural ore by a process of purification by
physical or chemical separation and removal of unwanted constituents.
Appendix A contains a list of cargoes which may liquefy. Such cargoes
usually consist of small particles of uniform size (often resembling dust) in
contrast to natural ores which include a considerable percentage of large
particles or lumps. Concentrates are heavy 'dense' cargoes and the stowage
factor is very low, generally between 0.33 and 0.57 m3/t. If there is any doubt
as to the nature of a bulk cargo, it should be considered as a cargo which is
liable to liquefaction.
Concentrates have a property which is similar to that of blotting paper or a
sponge. Drop some water on to one corner of a sponge and it will absorb
moisture. Keep dropping water on to the same portion of the sponge and
moisture will eventually permeate through the material until all the sponge is
wet. A similar process can happen to a hold full of a concentrate. If one corner
of a hatch cover leaks and a steady flow of moisture enters one corner of a
hold, the moisture will not remain in that area. The cargo will absorb the
moisture until all the concentrate in the hold is wet. If liquid permeates
through a sufficient amount of cargo a flow state develops in the cargo. This
liquefaction produces a very dense sludge which moves about the hold and, in
addition to the problem offree surface effect, the dense nature of the cargo may
cause structurai damage. If a list develops there is a real chance that a negative
GM will develop and the ship may eventually be lost.
In technical terms, if the cargo has, or attains, a moisture content above
that of the transportable moisture limit, shift of cargo may occur as a result of
262
Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting
liquefaction. Cargoes of this nature may appear to be in a relatively dry
granular state when loaded. However, the cargo may contain moisture which
cannot be detected visually and under the stimulus of compaction and
vibration which occurs during a voyage the cargo my become fluid. Section 7
points out that the viscous cargo fluid may flow to one side of the ship with a
roll one way but not completely return with a roll the other way. The ship
may progressively reach a dangerous heel and capsize.
The following general precautions should be observed:
I These cargoes should be trimmed reasonably level on completion of
loading irrespective of the angle of repose.
2 The moisture content should not be in excess of the transportable moisture
limit.
3 Cargoes which contain liquids should not be stowed in the same cargo
space above or adjacent to these cargoes.
4 No liquid should be permitted to enter the cargo spaces (contact with
sea water could also lead to serious corrosion problems, e.g.
sulphur + water = sulphuric acid).
5 If it is necessary to cool the cargo, the water should be applied in the form
of a spray to reduce the possibility of inducing' ,~ow state.
Section 8--Test procedures for cargoes which may liquefy
This section gives an auxiliary test check which may be carried out on board
ship if the ship's officers have doubts concerning the condition of cargo for
safe shipment. The test approximately determines the possibility of flow.
A cylindrical can or similar container of 0.5-1 litre capacity should be
half-filled with a sample of cargo. The can should be held in one hand about
0.2 m above a hard surface. The surface should be struck 25 times at one or
two second intervals and the material examined. If free moisture appears or a
fluid condition exists, arrangements should be made to have additional
laboratory tests carried out on the cargo before it is accepted for loading. It
must be emphasized that this test does not indicate that the cargo is safe for
shipment; it only indicates that the cargo may be unsafe.
Section 9-Materials possessing chemical hazards
The hazards are classed and described in the manner laid out in the IMDG
code. However, attention is particularly drawn to 'Materials hazardous only in
bulk (MHB)' as these materials may not be listed in the IMDG code, being
only hazardous when carried in bulk. For example, some cargoes are liable to
reduce the oxygen content in a cargo space and other cargoes are liable to
self-heating. Cargo segregation information is also given in this section.
263
 Shipboard Operations
M notices
M899 Stowage of steel, ores, or other heavy cargoes in tween decks
This notice draws attention to the fact that several cases have occurred in
which ships' tween decks and hatches have collapsed due to loading of cargo
much in excess of that for which decks are normally designed.
Heavy cargo should, therefore, be so distributed that the intensity of
loading on any part of a tween deck or hatch does not substantially exceed the
weight of cargo that could be stowed thereon for the full tween deck height at
the rate of 1.39 m3/tonne.
In a 2.44 m tween deck the advisable height for, e.g. bulk ore stowing at
0.53 m3/tonne would be
= 0.93 m
2.44 x _0_.5_3
1.39
M1250 Precautions against liquefaction of coal slurry, duffs, small
coals and coke
The principal aims of this notice are to draw attention to the dangers
associated with types of coal cargoes which can in certain circumstances
liquefy, and to provide advice on precautions to reduce the risk of such
dangers.
The notice should be read in full as it contains much valuable information
which could be related to the shipping of all cargoes which have a potential for
liquefaction. The notice should be read in conjunction with M1246 and both
notices contain some similar and complementary information.
M1246 The safe carriage of solid bulk cargoes
The notice draws attention to the IMO code and states that the provisions of
the code are strongly recommended by the Department of Transport.
However, the principal aim of this notice is to supplement the code in respect
of cargoes which might liquefy. Once again, this notice should be read in full
as it contains much excellent, practical information.
The notice points out that there are three principal sources of moisture in
bulk cargoes:
1 Water associated with the mining of the raw materials and water resulting
from the mam)facturing or preparation process.
2 Exposure to rain, snow, and ice.
3 Stockpiling od wet ground.
The notice also contains information on sampling, testing, precautions
264
Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting
prior to, during, and after loading, and the provision of cargo information.
A combined form of certificate and statement which will satisfy IMO
requirements is shown in Appendix 1. The form sets out:
1 The flow moisture point and the transportable moisture limit. ~.
2 The average moisture content of the complete cargo or the moisture
content of the cargo in each hold.
3 The angle of repose.
4 Any other relevant information on the physical properties of the cargo.
Appendix 2 contains guidance on· the arrangements for sampling from
wagons, lorries, and stockpiles.
Appendix 3 gives advice on 'The Speedy Moisture Tester' which is an
instrument for providing a quick, direct reading method of ascertaining the
free moisture content of a granular product.
The information provided by the code and the M notices should be collated
and combined with practical experience to enable the mariner to deal with
particular operational problems. Three aspects of the transporting of bulk
cargoes are considered below. ,
,~
Preparations before loading bulk cargoes
The cargo spaces should be prepared for the particular bulk cargo which is to
be loaded, e.g. detachable spar ceiling should be removed from lower holds
and stowed in suitable tween deck locations. All weatherdeck hatches should
be hose tested and any leaks should be made good. All hatch-securing
arrangements should be overhauled. The holds must be dry and all bilge
suctions, pipes, and pumps should be tested. All sounding pipes, air pipes,
ventilators and service pipes within the cargo compartments should be
inspected to ensure that they are in good order. It may be necessary to place
additional strainer plates, or fit temporary straining cloths, over bilges wells
to prevent cargo material entering the bilge pumping system.
Precautions should be taken to prevent dust entering deck machinery, the
hold ventilation system if fitted, engine room air inlets, and the ship's
electronic navigation equipment. It may be necessary to shut down the
air-conditioning system, and all electrical equipment used during the cargo
operation should be incapable of causing a dust explosion.
All appropriate fire precautions should be taken and officers should ensure
that the ship's fire-fighting system is suitable for the intended cargo.
The IMO code should be consulted to obtain the physical properties,
segregation and stowage requirements, health hazards, and any special
requirements pertaining to the cargo. If necessary, Medical First Aid Guide
for Use in Accidents Involving Dangerous Goods (MFAG) should be consulted
265
Shipboard Operations
to ensure that the vessel has the proper medical facilities should an incident
occur.
It is possible that details of the cargo to be loaded will not be found in the
IMO code. The shipper must therefore provide all the necessary information
to enable the cargo to be loaded properly. It may be necessary to
communicate with the authorities at the discharging port to check if the cargo
can be discharged there.
On occasions, attempts have been made to persuade Masters that the IMO
certification procedures are unnecessary. In such cases the owners should be
notified and pressure brought to bear on the shippers to produce the
appropriate documents. The Master may have to take a firm stand and refuse
to allow loading to commence until test certificates have been produced.
The ship's staff should try to ascertain whether the samples have been
taken in accordance with the guidelines in the IMO code and M notic~s.
Appendix 2 of M1246 should provide the basis of the sampling technique, with
due allowance being made for local circumstances. If the cargo is to be loaded
from wagons, a kilogram of material should be taken at one-third of the depth
of each wagon. When 10 kg have been assembled in a dry place the sample
should be tested. Where samples are taken from a stockpile, the samples must
be representative of the complete stockpile.
Officers should inspect the cargo material before samples are taken and
should reject any consignment which is unsuitable for shipment. The
shipboard tests for moisture content which are specified in M1246 should be
carried out. An additional test that is used on some vessels transporting bulk
cargoes appears to have practical value. Cargo samples are heaped on a tray
which is placed near the ship's generators. If the sample contains excessive
moisture the vibration of the generators will cause liquefaction to occur. As
with the cylinder test, an absence of moisture will not indicate that the cargo
is safe. However, the generator test may indicate that something is decidedly
wrong. The tests and procedures should not be carried out only on
concentrates but on all cargoes of a similar nature. In addition to the problem
of liquefaction, moisture may cause chemical hazards in certain cargoes.
Loading and carriage of bulk cargo with relation to stress in a
general cargo vessel
The mariner must consider the effect of cargo distribution on local areas as
well as on the ship's overall structure. The general fore and aft distribution of
weight should, therefore, closely follow that for any general cargo which has
been previously carried.
To avoi~ local stress the maximum weight in anyone space should not
exceed O.9'LBD tonnes and the height of the cargo pile peak should not be
excessive. The incorrect loading of a vessel can set up shear stresses between
266
Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting
adjoining compartments, especially if one compartment is full and the other
empty. A pre-calculated loading sequence must be adhered to in which one
hold is only partly loaded when other holds are still empty. This is
particularly important at berths which have only one loading point and the
vessel is moved up and down the berth by her moorings to load hold's in a
sequence.
The overall distribution of cargo should be such as to avoid hogging and
sagging stresses. These stresses should be pre-calculated for the loading and
discharging operations as well as for the voyage. Vessels have been subjected
to overall structural damage which has been caused by incorrect cargo-
handling operations. Difficulty may be encountered when securing cargo
hatches on ships which hog or sag and the water-tight integrity of the ship
may be impaired.
An excessively high GM should be avoided and it may be necessary to load
cargo into tween deck spaces in order to reduce the ship's metacentric height.
The recommendation in M899 (heavy cargoes in tween decks) should be
observed so as to avoid overstressing the tween deck structure. A ship with a
large GM will also have a large righting lever and thus a stiff ship is liable to
roll violently in a seaway. The short roll period an~ 'whiplash' motion could
cause racking stresses and the transverse members 01the ship, e.g. transverse
bulkheads, beam knees and plate floors, could be damaged by such stress.
The violent rolling could also cause cargo to shift and structural damage
could result from cargo movement stress.
Structural damage could also be the result of stress caused by incorrect
loading techniques. Double-bottoms should be pressed up. This will provide
temporary 'stiffening' and support for the inner bottom structure and will
also help to disperse energy shocks from the impact stress of cargo landing in
the hold. If cargo is loaded by grabs, the first few loads should be lowered into
the hold and deposited from a height of a few metres above the inner bottom,
not from the height of the weatherdeck coaming. If the bulk is loaded from
shutes or conveyor belts the initial rate should be slow. Some ships have
found it a wise precaution to leave any portable tween deck hatch cover beams
in position to provide stiffening for the hatch structure. When possible, the
cargo should be trimmed during the loading process to avoid excessive pile
peaks causing stress on the double-bottoms.
If ballast is to be pumped out during loading the stress caused by the
concurrent de-ballasting/loading operation must be calculated carefully.
Structural damage has been caused in port by incorrect ballast/cargo weight
distribution.
Inherent hazards of concentrates
The nature of concentrates should first be considered. Concentrates are
267
Shipboard Operations Cargoes Which Have a Large Potential for Shifting

obtained from natural 0Te by a process of purification which removes made the decks slippery. Thus minor hazards have brought home the point:
unwanted constituents. They therefore usually consist of pure mineral never trust concentrates.
particles of a dense nature which flow like fine sand. The problems of
moisture migration producing a flow state have already been discussed but
mariners must never underestimate the effect which liquefaction will have on Further reading ,
a ship's stability. Even without moisture entering a cargo compartment the
low angle of repose of concentrates makes a shift of dry cargo likely unless Journal
measures have been taken to secure the cargo. CAINES,C. 'Changes in Stowage Factors when Frozen Bulk Cargoes Thaw'
A study of casualty reports shows that liquefaction is probably the major Seaways, November 1986, pp 3-4,
single hazard associated with the carriage of bulk concentrates. However, Fov, D. and SHEARER,I. 'Berge Vanga-The Inevitable Disaster?' Seaways,
other hazards, which come under the general term of chemical hazards, must September 1980, pp 5-6.
be considered: Fov, D. 'Bulk Carrier Losses-Unanswered Questions' Seaways, May 1988,
1 Fire hazard Some concentrates are subject to spontaneous combustion pp21-22.
(i.e. they set themselves on fire if the temperature is high enough) and
others will ignite if an external heat source is applied to them. Magazine
2 Explosion The dust of some cargoes can form an explosive atmosphere 'Loss of the Pool Fisher', Safety at Sea, May 1981, page 29.
when mixed with air, e.g. sulphur. MCCURDV, J. W. 'The Death of Thirty-One Men' ,Safety at Sea, November
3 Suffocating gas Some concentrates evolve suffocating gas when involved 1981, pp 34-37. ' '\
in a fire, e.g. sulphur. Fov, D. 'Combination carriers, ore carriers and sudden sinkings', Safety at
4 Toxic gas Many concentrates produce toxic gases in various ways. Sea, February 1983, pp 29-33.
Ammonium nitrate fertilizers produce toxic gases upon decompositon.
5 Dust inhalation ' The dust of most concentrates should be avoided as Monograph
many are toxic if the dust is inhaled, e.g. antimony ore.
KNOTT, J. R. Lashing and Securing of Deck Cargoes (The Nautical Institute,
6 Swallowing Personnel are unlikely to swallow cargo directly but dust
can settle on food and many concentrates are toxic if swallowed, e.g. 1985).
barium nitrate.
7 Contact Direct contact with the cargo should be avoided as even
seemingly innocuous cargoes can cause health problems. Castor beans
when handled can give rise to severe irritation of the skin and eyes.
8 Oxidation This is the process of combining with oxygen and it usually
produces a chemical reaction. Some concentrates produce heat during
oxidation (e.g. sulphides) and precautions may have to be taken to reduce
contact with air. Oxygen reduction occurs with oxidation and 'Enclosed
space entry procedures' should be observed before entering any
compartment which contains concentrates.
9 Water contact Liquefaction is not the only problem caused by water.
Aluminium dross may heat and evolve flammable and toxic gases upon
contact with water and other concentrates have similar properties.
10 Corrosion,~ Some concentrates cause corrosion because of galvanic action
and other~can mix with water to produce corrosive acids, e.g. sulphur.

Thus all concentrates should be considered to be hazardous cargoes and

few are innocuous. Accidents have even occurred when concentrates have
269
268
 Derricks
Personnel involved with cargu handling should be acquainted with the
following documents:
'Design and operation of ships' derrick rigs', BS MA 48: 1976
9 'Ships' derrick fittings', BS MA 81: 1980 ,
'Jib cranes: ship mounted type', BS MA 79: 1978
'Code for Lifting Appliances in a Marine Environment' , Lloyd's Register of
Derricks Shipping

Some mariners have the misconception that derricks are 'old-fashioned' and
are an out-of-date cargo-handling method. However, derricks would still
appear to be the fastest and most efficient method of handling general cargo.
A study of the 1980 edition of Standard Ship Designs-Dry Cargo Vessels 9500
- 24,000 dwt, which is produced by Fairplay Publications, shows that
approximately 64 percent of the designs are for all derrick ships, 18 percent
are for all crane ships, and 18 percent for mixed cranes and derricks.
The designs are the work of forty-six principal shipbuilders and would
indicate the belief within the shipping industry that derricks are the most
versatile of the ship cargo-handling methods. A typical design is that of a
17,200 dwt dry cargo carrier from Harland and Wolff of Belfast (Figure 9.1).

This design has eleven lOT derricks plus three 10/35T derricks, and a heavy
lift version is available with a lOOTStuelcken derrick. The design of a 16,500
dwt cargo vessc;l from Sunderland Shipbuilders shows that the cargo gear
consists of ten fOT derricks and one 50T derrick. Thus, it is apparent that
ship's officers will be handling derricks for the forseeable future.
The fitting and operation of ships' cargo-handling appliances are strictly
governed by the British Standards Institute and by Classification Societies.
270
 Shipboard Operations
union hook and are worked in conjunction with each other. Each cargo boom
is joined to the vertical mast or post by a swivel fitting known as a goose neck
(so named because of the shape of the fitting). The up and down, or luffing,
movement of the boom is carried out by a topping lift/span tackle, and the
horizontal or athwartships movement is controlled by a slewing guy attached
to the outboard side of the boom head. The two booms are linked by a
schooner guy which runs from the inboard side of one boom head to the other
and thence to the deck via a lead block on the mast. The schooner guy is
sometimes replaced by inboard slewing guys but the latter tend to interfere
with the cargo-working operation. The schooner guy is always well clear of
the cargo working area.
The derricks are positioned by the guys and tackles. One boom is
positioned over the hatch and the other boom is positioned over the ship's
side. When the booms are set up in position the preventer guys are set up
tight. These are single lengths of wire which lead from the outboard side of
the boom to the deck and which have the function of taking the guy load
during the cargo-handling operation. The preventer guy is sometimes called
the standing guy as it has no moving parts, whereas the slewing guy consists
of a tackle (usually the only tackle on board ship rigged to advantage).
A cargo wire, or runner, from each boom is joined by a three-way swivel
which is known as a union hook. In the unloading process the boom centred
over the hold lifts the load by its runner. Once the load has been lifted to a
sufficient height to clear deck obstructions, the cargo runner from the other
derrick is used to move the load over the ship's side and on to the quay or into
a lighter.
~recautions
1 Lloyd's code states that the following criteria must be complied with at all
times:
(a) The minimum operating angle of either derrick should be not less
0
than 15 to the horizontal, and it is recommended that the angle be not
less than 300;
(b) The maximum included angle between the cargo runners must not
exceed 1200;
(c) The outreach beyond the midship breadth of the ship should not be
less than 4 m.
2 The minimum headroom during the operating cycle (e.g. from the top of
the hatch coaming or ship's side bulwark to just above the hook) is
specified in Lloyd's code. For derricks of SWL higher than 2 tonnes the
minimuni headroom is 5 m.
3 The tensi~n should be taken off the slewing guys when the rig is set up.
Only the preventor (standing) guys should be taken into account in the
calculation of forces in the rig.
272
Derricks
4 BS MA 48: 1976 states that 'the practice of using an arbitrary percentage
of the SWL to derive a value of SWL is not only unscientific but it can be
misleading'. However, the Code of Safe Working Practices for Merchant
Seamen recommends that 'where derricks have not been marked with the
safe working load in union purchase they should not be used for 10ads1n
excess of one-third of the SWL of the derrick'. Load diagrams for the
ship's union purchase rig should be consulted and if necessary the section
in BS. MA 48: 1976 relating to 'Methods of calculating loads in union
purchase rig' should also be consulted. The maximum SWL of the rig
should never exceed the SWL of the cargo runner and a good safety factor
would be to lift a maximum weight equal to 75 percent of the runner
SWL.
5 Unduly long slings should not be used by stevedores.
6 The standing guy of the boom which is over the side should not be placed
too far back as this will increase the possibility of the boom 'jacknifing'.
7 The same guy should not be secured too close to the boom as a narrow
angle will increase the loading on the guy.
8 Winch operators should keep the headroom beneath a load to the
~n~mum required for safety. This keeps the for~s within the rig to a
minimum.
9 The standing guys must be of adequate strength. A standing guy should
not be secured to the same eye plate on the spider band (a band of eye
plates at the head of the derrick) to which the slewing guy is secured. The
deck eye plate to which it is secured should be in an appropriate location.
10 A union hook should be used to connect the cargo runners. The three-way
swivel, i.e. there is a swivel above the cargo hook and one at each runner
shackle, will ensure that twists will not develop in the runners.
11 Runners should not be permitted to rub against hatch coamings or other
structural members as this practice will quickly render them unfit for
serVice.
12 The rigging of the derricks should be supervised by a competent person.
13 Protective equipment should be worn by persons involved in the
operation.
The main advantage of this system is that it is probably the fastest method
used for discharging break-bulk, non-unitized general cargo.
Disadvantages
1 It can only be used for light loads, an average of approximately 1.5-2
tonnes per load.
2 The winchmen must be highly skilled and experienced.
3 The derricks cannot be used for 'spot loading'.
4 Re-positioning the derricks is time-consuming.
273
 Derricks
7 The use of new technology reduces the stresses encountered with the
union purchase system.
There are many patent derrick systems used on board ship but the best
known are probably 'Hallen' and 'VelIe' for the handling of general cargqes,
and 'Stuelcken' for heavy lifts.

Hallen derrick
The Hallen swinging derrick employs the twin topping principle which
allows good control of a single derrick. This derrick was originally designed
for loads of 5-8 tonnes but loads of over 100 tones are now unexceptional.
The derrick can be mounted on all types of mast or derrick post and can
make a traverse from port to starboard of 160-180·.
In the original design a fixed frame 'outrigger' was fitted to the mast
(Figure 9.3) which was commonly known as a 'D' frame. This had the effect
of keeping the topping lifts at a sufficiently wide angle to one another to
ensure the derrick remaining steady even when swung out over the ship's
side to an angle of 80· from the fore and aft line. The D frame also helped to
keep the derrick stable in all positions, even whel\,the vessel had a list.
However, under some operational conditions there were disadvantages
when using the D frame:
1 When the derrick was swung outboard, the sharp angle created by the
contact of the topping life guy pennant with the frame caused excessive
strain in the topping lift.
2 There was a tendency for the single-wire pennant on the topping lift to
slip above or below the frame when working at 'difficult' angles, once
again putting excessive strain on the topping lift.
3 The contact with the frame caused chafing on the pennant. This was
reduced by fitting rollers to the frame or by protecting the wire.
The D frame has been largely replaced by outrigger rods (Figure 9.4)
which are pivoted, and are stayed on the outboard side only so that the rod
nearest the discharging side can swing towards the ship's side, thus ensur-
ing a wide separation angle of the topping lifts.
As with other patent derricks, such as VelIe and Stuelcken, the V-shape
arrangement of the topping lifts gives a broad base which is necessary for
lateral holding and guiding of the derrick. In Figure 9.4 the broad base
between the topping lifts is provided by a cross-tree at the mast head. It
could also be provided by derrick posts, gate masts, or V masts.
In the Hallen system each topping lift runs to its own winch. Hauling on
both winches tops the derrick, and if one winch hauls in while the others
payout, the derrick slews to the side of the ship on which the hauling winch
is located. A third winch is used for hoisting and lowering the cargo. The

275
Shipboard Operations
operated by a standard type winch but the topping lifts are arranged so that
one of the other two winches controls the luffing while the third winch is used
solely for slewing. Each of the topping lift winches has a split or divided
barrel on to which the ends of falls are secured. On the luffing winch the falls
are laid on to the split barrels in the same direction. Thus both falls will hoist
or lower the derrick simultaneously. On the slewing winch the falls are laid on
to the split barrels in opposite directions. Thus when the barrels rotate, one
fall pays out while the other heaves in and the derrick slews to port or
starboard. The topping lift luffing and slewing winches are operated by a
multi-position control lever which is positioned adjacent to the cargo
purchase control lever . The operator stands between the levers and operates
the cargo purchase with his left hand and controls the derrick movements
with his right hand.
Figure 9.5 shows a plan view of an early version of the Velie derrick in
which a bridle bar was used to spread the topping lift spans at the derrick
head. The bridle bar evolved into the 'T' -shaped derrick head shown in

and versatility. The standard designs operate up to a capacity of

approximately 35 tonnes but heavy duty designs are capable of lifting
approximately 100 tonnes.

Stuelcken derrick

The Stuelcken derrick is probably the best known of all heavy lift designs.
The 'fork-type' Stuelckenmast was first introduced in 1954 and since then
many hundeds of Stuelckenmast derricks have been installed on many types
of ship. There are five basic versions but Figure 9.7 shows a general
arrangement plan of a 'typical' Stuelckenmast. All the Stuelcken derricks
have common features:
I The ability to swing through the vertical and 'plumb' two hatches without
re-rigging, i.e. the working area is doubled as the one derrick can serve
the hatches forward and aft of its position.
Figure 9.6. Both arrangements make very wide slewing angles possible due to
2 The twin V masts give a large distance between the base of the topping lift
the good lateral stability achieved by the spread of the spans at the derrick
spans and thus a large horizontal arc of operation.
head. The derrick can be swung outboard until it is almost perpendicular to
3 The twin span system means that slewing guys do not obstruct the cargo
the ship's side, even with an adverse list.
working area.
Pendulous swinging of the load has been a major problem with derricks in
4 A portable remote-control device which is slung around an operator's
which the load hangs from a 'single point'. Good load stabilization is achieved
neck means that the operator's view is never obstructed and gives a very
with the T -shaped derrick head as the spread of the cargo runner reduces
large scope for automatic remote control.
pendulous swinging and load rotation.
5 There is no necessity to re-rig the derrick at any stage of the operation.
The Velie derrick is noted for its comparatively simple design, reliability,
6 All blocks, swivels, goose necks, etc, are equipped with anti-friction
278 279
 Derricks
bearings and are sealed. Thus the derricks are practically maintenance-
free for at least four years.
7 The derrick is secured for sea in a short period of time.
8 To reduce top weight there is much use oflow-alloy high-strength steels.
9 There is very accurate spot loading capability. $

10 Two derricks can combine their SWLs, e.g. two 130-tonne derricks can
lift 260 tonnes.
Stue1ckenmasts are built within the range of 20 tonnes SWL to
approximately 500 tonnes SWL and the manufacturers have the capability of
developing derricks of a greater capacity should the industry require such
derricks.

Derrick cranes

Derrick cranes are difficult to define. Lloyd's Code for Lifting Appliances
states that if a conventional derrick is fitted with one of the following
modifications it is considered to be a derrick crane:
'(a) Twin span tackles so designed that the derrick c~n be slewed without the
use of separate guys;
(b) A system for luffing the derrick boom other than by means of span ropes;
(c) The cargo and/or the span winches built into the derrick boom and
moving with it;
(d) A system for slewing the derrick boom by applying a torque to a slew
ring or trunnion'.
If more than one of the above modifications is fitted Lloyd's will normally
consider the appliance to be a crane.
Technically, therefore, the derricks which have been previously discussed
are crane derricks but most mariners still consider them to be derricks. In
general, the derrick crane is suspended from a single topping lift which is
controlled by its own winch. Slewing is achieved by means of a guy winch
with a centre drum flange with two ropes running on to it from opposite
directions. While one rope is hauled in and slews the crane derrick the other
slacks out rope and stabilizes the appliance.
The main features of a crane derrick are:
1 The avoidance of high-level weight which is inevitable with a cross-tree or
similar arrangement.
2 A level of cargo-handling efficiency comparable with that of a crane.
3 The use of standard and simple components reduces the capital and
maintenance costs.
4 The absence of cross-trees and the use of simple components of

281
Shipboard Operations

comparatively little weight lowers the position of the ship's centre of

gravity which often gives greater stowage versatility.

Derrick safety devices

One of my methods of keeping 'up-to-date' is to visit ships in the port of Belfast
and to discuss the operation of equipment with ships' officers. I have noticed
that some Hallen and Velle type derricks are 'copies' and not patent and do not
have the same safety standards as patent derricks. Mariners should be aware of
the following:

1 Hallen derricks have built-in limit switches (somewhat similar to limit

switches on lifeboat davits which prevent the lifeboat from being 'rammed
home') on top of, and on the sides of, the derrick boom to prevent ex:cessive
topping and slewing. The switches can be in the form of a collar around the
lower portion ofthe boom and if the collar touches anything the winches cut
out and lock and thus require the operator to re-position the derrick.
2 VelIe derricks have various safety devices including:
(a) Slack cargo wire cut-out, e.g. if the lower cargo block rests on an object
such as a wharf shed the winches lock
(b) A limit switch (often suspended from the T bar) which prevents the
lower cargo block from jamming hard against an upper cargo block by
causing the winches to lock
(c) Limit switches which prevent the derrick from over-topping, over-
slewing or being operated at an angle too close to the horizontal; once
again, the winches lock.
3 Some ships with non-patent VelIe type derricks have split drum separator
plates which are not deep enough and there is a tendency for the wire to jump
from one part of the split drum to the other. VelIe derricks have a deep divide
on the split drum to prevent this and also a limit switch to ensure that there is
a minimum number of turns on the drum (sometimes six turns).
4 A few officers have stated that it is sometimes difficult to keep the correct
tension on wires on split drum assemblies and it is essential that each 'part' of
the wire should exactly match the other. Some split drum wires are of one
continuous length and thus if one part of the wire breaks the other part of the
wire also slackens; some split drum wires, however, are in two separate parts.
5 Electric-hydraulic winch systems usually have a by-pass or loop which
allows the oil to flow then the winches cut out and lock, thus keeping the oil
cool.
6 Modern winci}.es have features such as:
(a) Three 'gear' settings-Neutral
o Speed 1 (faster)
Speed 2 (slower)

282
Shipboard Operations
Derrick stress
Instruction in methods of calculating stress in derricks is best carried out in
colleges and not within the constraints of a book. All candidates for
DoT Certificate of Proficiency and BTEC HND in Nautical Science should
have a personal copy of the 'Code of practice for design and operation of ships'
derrick rigs', BS MA 48: 1976, as the code shows the recommended procedures
for calculating loads in derrick rigs. Figure 9.8 shows a typical illustration
from the code. In order to prepare such load diagrams rope tensions are
estimated by means of tables given in the code and, by using the method
shown, similar estimations may be made with the derrick boom at other
angles.
The method shown cannot be used to ascertain the stress in union purhase
rigs. A separate section in the code gives the methods of calculating loads in a
union purchase rig.
284
10
,.
Certificates and Surveys
Merchant Shipping (Load Lines) Rules 1968. Sf 1968 No. 1053
The rules came into operation on 21 July 1968 and contain the requirements
for the surveying and assignment of freeboards to ships and the issue of load
line certificates. The requirements for the marking of load lines are also
specified and the Zones, Areas, and Seasonal Periods which are applicable to
all ships to which the Rules apply are given in Schedule 2.
These rules enable the United Kingdom to giJe effect to the IMO
'International Convention on Load Lines 1966'.
Amendments to the 1968 rules are issued when necessary. SI 1979 No.
1267 came into operations on 1 January 1980 and SI 1980 No. 641 came into
operation on 9 June 1980.
The Assigning Authorities are the Department of Transport or Classifica-
tion Societies such as Lloyd's Register of Shipping.
Application for the assignment of free boards to a ship and for the issue of a
load line certificate is made to an Assigning Authority by or on behalf of the
owners. The application must be accompanied by plans, drawings, and
specifications which relate to the design and construction of the ship. The
ship is then surveyed and the Surveyor must ascertain:
(a) that the construction of the ship shall be such that her structural strength
will be sufficient for the freeboards to be assigned;
(b) that the stability in all probable loading conditions will be sufficient for
the freeboards to be assigned; and
(c) that the construction of sills, hatch coamings, cIosin~ appliances,
ventilators, air pipes, cargo ports, scuppers, inlets and discharges, side
scuttles, freeing ports and arrangements, arrangements for the protec-
tion of the crew such as guard rails, all comply with the specifications laid
out in the Rules.
The Surveyor provides the Assigning Authority with a report which gives
the results of the survey and if that proves satisfactory freeboards are assigned
to the ship. The owner is then given particulars of the freeboards assigned
285
 Shipboard Operations
and the positions in which load lines, the deck line, and the load line mark are
to be actually marked. The owner is also given two copies of the Surveyor's
report and is issued with a 'Load Line Certificate'.
A load line certificate is valid for not more than 5 years after the date of
completion of the survey. The Department of Transport may cancel a
certificate if:
1 The ship does not comply with the conditions of assignment.
2 The structural strength of the ship is lowered to an unsafe standard.
3 The information on which the freeboards were assigned was incorrect.
4 A new certificate is issued.
5 The ship ceases to be registered in the United Kingdom.
6 The ship is not periodically inspected.
Periodical inspections are carried out by a Surveyor to ensure that:
(a) the fittings and appliances for the protection of openings, the guard rails,
the freeing ports, and the means of access to the crew's quarters are in an
effective condition; and
(b) no changes have taken place in the hull or superstructure. The inspection
shall be carried out within 3 months before or after each anniversary of
the date of completion of the survey which led to the issue of the
certificate. The intervals between inspections shall not be less than 9 or
more than 15 months. After satisfactory inspection the Surveyor
endorses a record of the inspection on the load line certificate.
Deck line
This is a horizontal line 300 mm long and 25 mm wide which is marked
amidships in the shell plating on each side of the ship to indicate the position
of the freeboard deck. It should be painted a distinctive colour and it is the
position from which freeboard is measured vertically downwards as the
upper edge passes through the point where the upper surface of the freeboard
deck intersects the shell.
Freeboard deck
This is the uppermost continuous deck below which water-tight integrity can
be maintained, i.e. it is that deck on which all openings have permanent
water-tight closing arrangements and below whieh all openings in the shell
also have permanent water-tight closing arrangements. It is usually the
weather deck, i.e. the deck exposed to the sea and weather, but in certain
circumstances c~n be the deck below the weather deck.
Freeboard'
This is the distance from the waterline to the upper edge of the deck line
286
Certificates and Surveys
measured vertkally, or with regard to the rules, 'the distance measured
vertically downward amidships from the uper edge of the deck line to the
position at which the upper edge of the load line appropriate to the freeboard
is to be marked'.
Minimum freeboards are assigned so that a vessel remains seaworthy when
loaded and to provide reserve buoyancy so that:
(a) the vessel will not be in danger of foundering in heavy seas;
(b) in the event of major damage the vessel will still remain afloat or will sink
slowly enough so as to enable the crew to get clear.
Load line zones
The 'Zones, Areas and Seasonal Periods' chart which is located at the back of
the 'Mercant Shipping Load Line Rules' should be studied carefully.
Freeboards are correlated carefully with the weather conditions throughout
the world and thus ships trading in areas which have poor weather conditions
are loaded so as to provide greater freeboards. A larger freeboard provides
more reserve buoyancy and the greater height of the deck above the sea
lessens the impact of large seas on the ship. '
There are two permanent zones, 'Tropical' and 'Sufumer', where weather
conditions are similar throughout the year. 'Seasonal Areas' are areas within
zones which have seasonal weather conditions which are somewhat different
from the weather conditions which'pertain to the whole zone. The 'North
Pacific Seasonal Tropical Area' which is located on the northern boundary of
the Tropical Zone is Tropical from I April to 31 October and Summer from
1 November to 31 March.
'Seasonal Zones' are zones in which weather conditions can vary greatly
between seasons. In the 'North Pacific Winter Seasonal Zone' ships may load
to a Summer freeboard between 16April and 15October but from 16October
to 15 April the minimum permitted freeboard is Winter. In certain zones the
ship's length affects the permitted freeboard, i.e. the Baltic is always a
'Summer Zone' for ships over 100 m in length but it is a 'Winter Seasonal
Area' for ships of 100 m or less in length. A vessel of 100 m or less in length
loading within the Baltic from 1 April to 31 October may load to a Summer
freeboard but from 1 November to 31 March the minimum freeboard is
Winter.
One of the Chief Officer's functions is to load the maximum possible
tonnage while ensuring before departure that at no time during any part of a
voyage will the applicable seasonal mark be submerged. It is essential to
remember that the vessel is governed not only by the zone in which she loads,
but also by the zones through which she must sail. A vessel may load in a
Tropical Zone but if the course takes the ship through a Summer Zone, the
Summer mark must not be submerged while the vessel is in that zone.
287
 Shipboard Operations
The Chief Officer must therefore check which zone will be the 'governing
zone' on any passage, i.e. the governing zone indicates the minimum
permitted freeboard for that part of the passage. If the loading zone permits a
lesser freeboard than a controlling zone, the Chief Officer first checks the
permitted tonnage when entering the controlling zone and 'works backward'
to the loading port by calculating the bunker and fresh-water consumption
while sailing to the controlling zone. Such consumption is known as the
'Zone Allowance', which is the extra tonnage a vessel may load beyond that
permitted by the controlling zone.
Preparations for a load line survey
Particulars relating to the conditions of assignment can be found in a form,
commonly known as the 'Load Line Record', which is carried on board. The
Chief Officer should study the record carefully to ensure that all the
appropriate particulars have been incorporated into the 'Planned Mainte-
nance Schedule'. The detailed preparation should commence three months
before the expected date of the survey.
1 Check that all access openings at ends of enclosed structures are in good
condition. All dogs, clamps, and hinges should be free and well greased.
All gaskets and water-tight seals should be crack free. Ensure that the
doors open from both sides.
2 Check all cargo hatches and access to holds for weathertightness,
especially battening devices such as cleats and wedges.
3 Check the efficiency and securing of portable beams.
4 If portable wooden hatch covers are used, check that they are in good
condition and that the steel binding bands are well secured.
5 If tarpaulins are used at least two should be provided for each hatch. The
tarpaulins must be in good condition, waterproof, of ample strength, and
of an approved material.
6 Hatches which are closed by portable covers and made weather-tight by
tarpaulins musthave a steel locking bar across each section. Covers more
than 1.5 m in length must be secured with two locking bars.
7 Inspect all machinery space openings on exposed decks.
8 Check that any manholes and flush scuttles are capable of being made
water-tight.
9 Check that all ventilator openings are provided with efficient weather-
tight closing appliances and repair any defects.
10 All airpipes must be provided with permanently attached satisfactory
means fQt closing openings.
11 Inspect any cargo ports below the freeboard deck and ensure that all of
them are water-tight.
288
Certificates and Surveys
12 Ensure that the non-return valves on overboard discharges are operating
in a satisfactory manner.
13 Side scuttles below the freeboard deck or to spaces within enclosed
superstructure must have efficient internal water-tight deadlights.
Inspect the deadlight 'rubbers'. '
14 Check that all freeing ports are in a satisfactory condition, e.g. shutters
are not jammed, hinges are free, and that pins are of non-corroding
material. Check that any securing appliances, if fitted, work correctly.
15 All guard rails and bulwarks should be in a satisfactory condition, e.g. all
fractured rails should be r~-welded.
16 If life lines are required to be fitted in certain areas, rig the lines and
overhaul as necessary.
17 De-rust and paint the deck line, load line mark, load lines, and the
draught marks.
In brief, ensure that the hull is water-tight below the freeboard deck and
weather-tight above the freeboard deck.
On the day of the survey have the Certificate and Record ready for the
Surveyor's inspection. The Master should have sufficient stability informa-
tion to show that the vessel can be loaded and ball~sted correctly. Have all the
necessary keys for areas which the Surveyor maywant to inspect, e.g. store
rooms. Sufficient men should be available for work such as opening cargo
hatches, and ladders and stages should be ready for the Surveyor to view the
load line marks.
Merchant Shipping (Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Survey)
Regulations 1981. SI 1981 No. 573
These regulations came into operation on 1May 1981and apply to all United
Kingdom ships (except passenger ships, fishing vessels, and pleasure craft) of
500 gross tons or over engaged in international voyages.
An application for a survey must be made to the Secretary of State by the
owner and the application must be accompanied by sufficient information to
enable the survey to be conducted properly. The survey is usually carried out
by a Department of Transport Surveyor who must satisfy himself that the
ship complies with the relevant Safety Regulations and that the equipment
is satisfactory for the service for which the ship is intended. The Surveyor
sends the Secretary of State a 'Declaration of Survey' which contains par-
ticulars of the ship and her equipment and which enables a certificate to be
issued.
The owner of every ship to which a certificate has been issued must cause a
survey to be carried out within three months before or after the anniversary
date of the certificate. The survey is termed an intermediate survey in respect
289
 Shipboard Operations
of tankers of ten years of age and over and an annual survey in respect of other
ships.
M963 specifies the procedures for the survey and officers should be
conversant with the notice.
Preparations for a cargo ship safety equipment survey
All safety equipment should be kept in excellent condition and a 'Planned
Maintenance Schedule' which includes the safety equipment will ensure that
a satisfactory survey can be carried out at any time. However, it may be
desirable to overhaul the equipment prior to an expected survey. M963 states
that part of the annual survey should consist of 'a visual examination of
sufficient extent, together with certain tests of the ship's safety equipment, to
confirm that its condition is being properly maintained'. The ship's
certificates will also be examined and equipment will be checked to ensure
that no unauthorized modifications have been made. The stringency of the
survey will depend upon the condition of the ship's safety equipment. The
Official Log Book will also be examined to establish whether the 1986 Muster
Regulations have been adhered to.
The following preparations should be carried out shortly before the
expected survey date;
1 Inspect all the lifeboat stores and equipment. Overhaul and renew as
necessary.
2 Inspect the lifeboats, pay particular attention to buoyancy material and
check that bottom boards and thwarts are not cracked. Repaint the ship's
name, port of registry, and the lifeboat numbers, and ensure that the
lifeboat particulars on the bow have not been obliterated.
3 Thoroughly overhaul davits, winches and blocks, and grease all moving
parts. Re-new or 'end for end' the falls. Inspect lifeboat embarkation
arrangements and launching arrangements and lower the boats into the
water.
4 When the boats are in the water run any lifeboat engines both ahead and
astern .
5 Check that the inflatable liferafts have been serviced within the previous
12 months. Inspect the stowage, release, launching and embarkation
arrangements of the liferafts and, if necessary, re-new the launching
instructions. Inspect any rigid liferafts.
6 Inspect the survival craft portable radio equipment.
7 Overhaul th.e lifebuoys, especially the self-igniting lights and self-
activating smoke signals, and ensure that the lifebuoys are correctly
located thronghout the ship.
8 Examine the lifejackets and check that they are correctly distributed
throughout the vessel.
290
Certificates and Surveys
9 Ensure that all pyrotechnics, including the line-throwing appliance
rockets, are not out of date. Inspect the line-throwing appliance.
10 Test the emergency lighting at one of the times that the general alarm
system is tested.
11 Check that the fire control plans are still posted and clearly legible:
12 Test, where possible, the fire and/or smoke detection system.
13 Run each fire pump, including the emergency fire pump, to check that
each pump can supply via the fire main the required two jets of water
simultaneously from separate hydrants.
14 Check that fire hoses, nozzles and applicators are in good condition and
correctly located.
15 Test and overhaul the fixed fire-fighting system. Note that the
instructions are posted and that controls and pipes are correctly marked.
16 Overhaul portable and non-portable extinguishers and check the securing
arrangements. Ensure that extinguishers are correctly located and that
spare charges are available.
17 Where possible, confirm that all remote controls are operable.
18 Overhaul any applicable closing arrangements for ventilators, skylights,
doorways, funnel spaces, and the tunnel. '\,
19 Overhaul the fireman's outfits and re-charge, when possible, the
compressed air cylinders.
20 Inspect the pilot ladders, pilot hoist if carried, and all ancillary
equipment.
21 Remember that the navigation equipment is also surveyed, e.g.
navigation lights, shapes, sound signalling equipment, daylight signall-
ing lamp, radar, echo-sounder, gyro-compass, and direction finder. The
compass deviation book, charts and the publications that are required by
the Merchant Shipping (Carriage of Nautical Publications) Rules 1975,
SI 1975 No. 700, are also inspected.
Tankers have an additional survey which covers:
1 The piping of the fixed fire-fighting system of the cargo pumproom.
2 The deck foam system and the deck sprinkler system.
3 The inert gas system.
The intermediate survey of a tanker of ten years and over should include as
a minimum all the relevant items mentioned above but it should also be
'sufficiently extensive to ensure that the ship's degree of compliance with the
cargo ship safety equipment certificate warrants the ship's continued
possession of that certificate and that the ship can continue to be operated
with safety' (M963, Annex II).
On the day of the survey the relevant certificates and publications should
be gathered together in one location for ease of examination. LifellcktCI
 Shipboard Operations
should not be assembled in one place but should be left distributed
throughout the ship in the normal stowage positions. Ensure that lifejacket
donning instructons have been posted. Check that the international shore
connection, nozzles, etc., have not been appropriated by shore personnel. A
sufficient number of crew members should be available to assist the
Surveyor.
Merchant Shiping (Cargo Ship Construction and Survey) Regula-
tions 1981. Sl1981 No. 572.
These regulations came into operation on 1May 1981and in general apply to
seagoing United Kingdom ships of 500 gross tons or over (except passenger
ships, troopships, pleasure craft, fishing vessels, and ships not propelled by
mechanical means).
The owner of every ship to which the regulations apply must arrange for
the ship to be surveyed on completion and thereafter at intervals not
exceeding 5 years. Application must be made to a Certifying Authority, such
as Lloyd's Register of Shipping, who arrange for the ship to be surveyed.
The Surveyor must satisfy himself that the arrangements, materials and
scantlings of the structure, boilers and other pressure vessels, main and
auxiliary machinery (including steering gear), electrical installations, and
other equipment comply with the regulations. In the case of tankers the
outside of the ship's bottom, the pump rooms, cargo and bunker piping
systems, vent piping, pressure vacuum valves, and flame screens must also be
inspected. The Surveyor sends the Assigning Authority a 'Declaration of
Survey' which contains the necessary particulars of the ship and which
enables a certificate to be issued.
The owner of every ship to which these regulations apply must arrange for
the ship to be periodically surveyed in the manner specified in regulation
72(3) and (4) with regard to ship side fittings (such as overboard discharge
valves), boilers, screw propeller shafts, and tube shafts.
The owner of every ship to which Part III of the regulations apply, i.e.
tankers, must arrange for an additional survey not more than 6 months
before, nor later than 6 months after, the half-way date of the period of
validity of the certificate. This intermediate survey deals with the material
and equipment in, or associated with, fire-retarding bulkheads.
In addition, the owner of every tanker of ten years of age and over shall
arrange for a'1 intermediate survey at least once during the period of validity
of the certific1te. If only one such intermediate survey is made, it must be
carried out not more than 6 months before, nor later than 6 months after, the
half-way date of the period of validity. This intermediate survey must be in
accordance with the procedures specified in Ml134 which states that in
292
Certificates and Surveys
addition to the requirements for the annual survey noted below, an
examination of shell plating, sea "Connections and overboard discharges,
anchors and mooring equipment, the interior of at least two cargo tanks,
rudder bearing clearances, propeller and shaft, boilers, electrical equipment
in hazardous zones, and deck piping must be carried out. '
Regulation 74 states that all ships which have a cargo ship safety
construction certificate shall be subjected to an annual survey which must be
carried out within 3 months before or after the anniversary of the certificate.
The survey should be carried out in accordance with the procedures specified
in Ml134. In brief, the Surveyol'·will examine:
1 The ship's certificates.
2 The hull and closing appliances.
3 Anchoring and mooring equipment.
4 The operation of water-tight doors.
5 Water-tight bulkheads
6 Structural fire protection arrangements.
7 The operation of fire doors.
8 The machinery and electrical installations suGhas the propulsion system,
steering arrangements, bilge pumping systemS',..boilers, and emergency
sources of power.
In addition to machinery records, the Official Log Book will be examined
to establish that the steering gear has been tested in accordance with the
Merchant Shipping (Steering Gear and Automatic Pilot Testing Procedures)
Regulations 1981.
Tankers will also have a weather deck survey in which the cargo tank
openings, pressure-vacuum valves, flame arresting screens, piping, and
electrical appliances will be examined. The cargo pump rooms will also be
surveyed.
The above construction regulations incorporate the tanker steering gear
arrangements promulgated by the 78 SaLAS Protocol.
The Merchant Shipping (Cargo Ship Construction and Survey) Regula-
tions, SI 1984 No. 1217, apply to ships built after 1 September 1984. The
survey of such ships is the same as that for older ships; Ml134 gives the survey
details.
Merchant Shipping (Steering Gear and Automatic Pilot Testing
Procedures) Regulations 1981. Sl1981 No. 571
These regulations came into operation on 1 May 1981 and apply to seagoing
United Kingdom ships. The regulations are the British equivalent ofthe new
steering gear reqUirements of the IMO SaLAS Protocol of 78, the test
procedures of which were referred to in Chapter 2.
293
Shipboard Operations
Officers should ensure that the tests and checks of the steering gear should
include:
1 The full rudder movement.
2 A visual inspection of the steering gear and its connecting linkage.
3 The communication between the navigating bridge and the steering gear
compartment.
Simple operating instructions, which include a block diagram showing the
changeover procedures, for the steering gear control systems and power units
must be permanently displayed on the navigating bridge and in the steering
gear compartment.
The details of routine checks and emergency steering gear drills must be
recorded in the Official Log Book. M1040 should be closely studied, in
particular with reference to the use of an automatic pilot in areas of high
traffic density.
Classification
Classification societies publish rules and regulations which set standards for
ship construction and maintenance. When a ship is classified it is shown to be
of sound construction and 'fit to do the job'. The oldest, and best known, of
the classification societies is Lloyd's Register of Shipping. Lloyd's publishes
Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Ships and all ships which are to
be classed by Lloyd's must be built to the specifications contained in the
rules. Constructional plans, the materials used, the methods of construction,
and the standards of construction must all meet strict specifications. Lloyd's
Surveyors attend the building of a vessel and conduct surveys throughout the
life of the vessel to ensure that high standards are maintained. Lloyd's Rules
state that 'ships built in accordance with the Society's Rules and Regulations
will be assigned a class in the Register Book and will be continued to be
classed as long as they are found, upon examination at the prescribed surveys,
to be maintained in accordance with the Requirements of the Rules'. Most
officers do not realize that they playa vital role in the maintenance of class as,
'The Rules are framed on the understanding that ships will be properly
loaded and handled'.
Ships when classed are assigned one or more character symbols to denote
their Class, the highest class being 01- 100 AI. These characters mean:
01- New ships "built under the supervision of the Society's Surveyors.
100 Considered suitable for seagoing service.
A Built or accepted into class in accordance with Lloyd's Rules and
maintained in good and efficient condition.
294
Certificates and Surveys
1 Good and efficient anchoring and mooring equipment.
Any damage, defect, or breakdown, which could invalidate the classifica-
tion conditions must be reported immediately to Lloyd's and all repairs
which may be qecesary for a vessel to retain her class must be carrieq. out
under the supervision of a Surveyor.
An Annual Survey must be carried out on all ships within 3 months, before
or after each anniversary date of the completion of building, commissioning,
or Special Survey.
Docking Surveys are carried oUJ at intervals not exceeding 2 years, except
that where high resistance paint has been applied to the hull the intervals may
be extended to 2.5 years.
At Annual and Docking Surveys, the Surveyor examines the ship and
machinery so that he may satisfy himself with regard to their general
condition.
Special Surveys are carried out at 4-yearly intervals in a drydock, the
surveys becoming more stringent as the age of the ship increases.
On the request of the owner a Continuous Survey may be carried out on the
hull in which all compartments of the hull are op~ned for survey and testing
in rotation, with a 5-year interval between examiIJ\\.tion of each part.
Complete Surveys of machinery are carried out at 4-yearly intervals.
However, a Continuous Survey of machinery in which the various items are
opened for survey in rotation may be conducted. In general, one-fifth of the
machinery is examined each year with a 5-year interval between examinations
of each item.
Senior Officers should read Part 1, Chapter 2, 'Classifications Regula-
tions', of Lloyd's Rules for the details of particular surveys.
Survey requirements of SOLAS Protocol of 1978
IMO has published guidelines relating to mandatory annual surveys and
unscheduled inspections of all cargo ships, and intermediate surveys on
tankers of ten years of age and over, which are required by the Protocol of
1978. The United Kingdom has adopted the mandatory annual surveys in
substitution for unscheduled inspections and the survey requirements of the
Statutory Instruments previously discussed in this chapter meet the IMO
requirements.
Code of Practice for Noise Levels in Ships
The Department of Transport issued this code in 1978 and M1305 draws
295
 Certificates and Surveys
attention to the main points of the code. The aims of the code are to limit
maximum noise levels, to reduce exposure to noise, and to reduce noise levels
generally.
The code applies to new ships over 24.4 m (80 feet) in length and to new
ships below 24.4 m in length where reasonable and practicable. Certain
sections which relate to potentially hazardous noise levels apply to existing
ships.
When new ships are ordered due regard should be given to the code.
Section 9 gives some methods for controlling noise exposure.
On new ships, i.e. contracts for which were signed after the publication of
the code, a full noise level survey should be carried out as soon as practicable.
On existing ships noise level measurements should have been taken as soon
as practicable. The code contains information on requirements for noise
surveys and survey reports, the latter being forwarded to the Department of
Transport. The code also contains information on ear protection, training,
and the responsibility of shipowners and seafarers.
296
11
,-
Examination Preparations and
Techniques
Many mariners fail examinations because they cannot layout their answers in
a manner which conveys to the examiner their knowledge and expertise in a
particular subject. Learning 'by rote' is not a desirable quality in a ship's
officer. He must acquire and develop the analytical capability which is
required in modern industry. The mariner must not view the learning
process as an academic exercise necessary to obtain ~ertificates which make
promotion, and an increased income, possible. The leQf,ning skills acquired
at college are essential if one is to become a competent officer. In college one is
presented with information which must first be assimilated and compre-
hended, and then related to industrial situations. The same process applies
on board ship when officers have to deal with new technology and
regulations, or when moving from one type of trade to another, e.g. from
tankers to general cargo ships.
Throughout a course of study the mariner must learn the 'pros and cons' of
the different facets of his courses and develop an evaluating approach to
study. One must be able to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a
particular situation and to arrive at a reasoned conclusion. Students must
develop the art of correct reasoning and show the examiners that they have
such an ability. Memorizing rules and regulations is not enough; students
must consider the reasons for the various regulations. The nature of our
profession is such that we must train for the unexpected, both at sea and in
the examination room.
Revision
Do not concentrate unduly on topics which you enjoy reading about. Revise
carefully the topics you dislike as this is often a sign that you do not
understand the essentials of the that topic. It is often useful to write brief
notes or definitions on postcards which can be read on journeys or at odd
moments during the day. Revise in a sensible manner; 'blockbusters' into the
297
 Shipboard Operations
'wee small hours' seldom give the desired results as tired minds do not
assimilate information. Break off at the end of each hour for five minutes to
give the brain time to rest. Do not read books in a mechanical manner but
actually think about and evaluate the information that you are reading.
Before re-reading your topic notes, write down a brief summary of the
subject and ensure that you fully grasp the most pertinent points. When you
have read notes, ask yourself questions and write out the answers.
Examination preparations
Many mariners fail examinations because of an inability to understand the
questions and not through lack of knowledge. You must be absolutely sure
that you are answering the questions that have been asked by the examiner.
There is no substitute for attempting test papers under examination
conditions and this should be regarded as an essential element of examination
preparation. It is impossible to ascertain how well you can answer questions
unless you attempt them without external help, i.e. by not referring to notes
or to fellow students. No one enjoys attempting test papers under
examination conditions but you cannot properly evaluate your revision
requirements without doing so. The actual examinations will appear less
formidable after a few 'mock' examinations. All colleges prepare test papers
to examination standards and specifications and students should listen
carefully to lecturers' criticisms of test papers. Most students who ignore the
advice of lecturers fail the Department of Transport examinations.
Read the instructions at the head of the paper to see how many questions
milst be answered and note the overall time permitted for the examination.
One aspect of an examination is to ascertain whether you have the ability to
extract the central points from the knowledge you have acquired and to
present the points in a manner which is relevant to the questions. Therefore,
each answer should be well planned and set out in a logical manner. When
possible start the answer with a clear statement that shows you understand
the question, present your 'case' in the body of the answer, and finish with a
strong conclusion. If a question is set out in sub-sections, e.g. (a), (b), and (c),
layout your answer in the same way. Do not answer (c) first as it shows an
untidy and illogical approach which may confuse yourself and annoy the
examiner. Do not waste time by writing out the 'question; the examiner
knows what the question is, he requires an answer to it.
Rely heavily on common sense, be neither too brief or too verbose. Keep to
the point, avoid generalizations and do not waffle or pad out the answer . You
will only be awarded marks for points which answer the question; a brilliant
answer on a different topic will gain no marks at all. Do not attempt to 'bluff'
the examiner or try to fool him into believing that you know more about the
298
Examination Preparations and Techniques
subject than your answer indicates. It will not work; the examiner is a very
experienced mariner, both operationally and academically, and has 'seen it all
before'. A four-line answer and the terse statement, 'I could write more but I
have not time to finish' does not impress.
Before answering, decide exactly what the examiner wants. Most questions
contain a 'key word' or phrase which indicates the nature of the required
answer. In one question the examiner may simply require facts, in another
question you may be required to analyse, examine, or evaluate and give a
reasoned conclusion. Some examples of key words or phrases are given
below.
Describe A factual description of characteristics is required. Thus a
description of a pilot ladder would include the characteristics (material, size,
etc.) of steps, spreaders, and side ropes.
Explain This often requires analysis, reason, and clarification. If one had
to 'explain' how a pilot hoist works the emphasis should be on the operational
aspects and motive power of the hoist and not on ~ factual resume of the
pertinent regulations. \,
Describe and explain A combination of fact and reason. 'Describe a pilot
ladder and explain the uses of the component parts' would require a student
to state the size of a spreader with the explanation that it prevents the ladder
twisting.
Compare This requires students to expound on the similarities of two
subjects. Thus if one is required to compare epoxy and polyurethane paint a
basic similarity would be that they are both two-pack paints.
Contrast Emphasize the differences between the subjects.
Compare and contrast To obtain good marks the student must point out
the similarities and differences between the subjects. 'Compare and contrast
epoxy and polyurethane paint' would require a student to mention that both
paints produce a similar hard surface but that epoxy usually has a matt finish
while polyurethane has a high gloss finish.
Discuss Similar to 'explain' but usually there are several reasons for and
against both sides of an argument. If one has to 'discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of flame cleaning and grit blasting' one should examine,
analyse and weigh up the various aspects of plate preparation and give a
reasoned opinion as to which is the best method.
299
 Shipboard Operations
Define A concise statement. Thus 'define angle of repose' requires an
authoritative meaning and nothing else.
Account for This usually deals with causes. An initially excessive angle of
repose would be one of the factors to consider if one has to 'account for a list
on a vessel carrying a bulk cargo'.
Enumerate or list Simply write concisely, in outline form the pertinent
points relating to the question. 'List the factors one would consider when
inspecting the forepeak' requires a mention of enclosed space procedures but
not a page on the rescue procedures for removing an unconscious man from
the forepeak.
Short notes This can often be a four-part question and each part of the
answer should be approximately the same length, the total answer being of
essay length. Thus each section should only be a quarter of the length of an
'average' answer and students should be careful to avoid writing an essay on
one part of the answer.
In the 'Shipboard Operations' paper all answers should be written from the
point of view of a Chief Officer. If a question requires you to give the Bosun
instructions, do so in an authoritative way; do not request the Bosun in the
manner of a first trip Third Officer. If a question asks, 'What action would
you take?' imagine yourself to be a Chief Officer and proceed in the manner
which you would expect a good Chief Officer to use.
When you have completed an answer re-read the question and ensure that
you have not left any portion unanswered. Every word in a question should
be carefully examined as it is there for a purpose.
On board ship one should behave in a 'seamanlike' way, use the same
approach in examination preparations and you will not go far wrong.
Examination techniques
It is essential that all the questions that require answering are attempted. It is
very difficult to achieve full marks in essay answers; thus you will receive
more marks in total by answering all the required questions. If the total
marks in a paper are 100 and the number of required answers is S, equal value
questions will therefore be worth 20 marks each. If the required standard is
70 percent it will be extremely difficult to pass the paper if one question is
omitted. The student will then be required to obtain 70 marks out of a
possible 80, instead of 70 out of a possible 100 marks.
Divide up the examination time before commencing to write so that you
300
Examination Preparations and Techniques
know how much time to allocate to each question. Allow time to read over the
paper and for reading through the answers. This should be done before
leaving the examination room. A typical examination paper could consist of
6 equal value questions with the paper being required to be completed in 2!
hours. If you allow 10 minutes at the beginning for reading the paper and
organizing your plan of attack, and 10 minutes for reading the answers, you
are left with approximately 20 minutes for answering each question. Thus
the answers must be concise and only deal with the pertinent points; there is
no time for vagueness or generalizations.
The following course of action should be adopted. It is a tried and tested
method which can be used in most examinations. Mariners are professionals;
do not expect to obtain professional qualifications by amateur methods.
1 Read all the questions and make sure that you thoroughly understand what
the examiner is expecting from you.
2 Make out a plan and keep to it. Before the examination started you should
have requested a sheet of paper from the invigiIator. Write at the top of the
sheet 'Rough notes--not to be marked' and hand the sheet in with your
answers. Write the question numbers on the sheet and briefly note the
essential points which you must refer to when answering each question.
This is time well spent. It is difficult to move from one subject to another
and the notes will help you to start the next question. If you have been
discussing 'the problems of transporting concentrates in bulk' and are
moving on to 'describe the technique of crude oil washing' a note of the
pertinent features of the COW system will enable you to 'switch gear'
quickly. If you have been foolish enough to have left insufficient time to
deal with the last question adequately, the notes will help you to make
some valid points in the last few precious minutes of the examination.
3 Start with a question which you know you can answer well. It is often
difficult to get actually started and by answering a question with which you
can cope you build up confidence for answering the rest of the paper.
4 Leave a question to the end which you know you can answer well. This
requires a lot of willpower but you are more likely to keep to a schedule and
to keep sufficient time for the final answer if you know that you can do well
in the question.
S Start each question on a new page. This enables you to add any important
point which you may have forgotten when answering a previous question.
6 When writing one question, if you think of an important point which refers
to another question make a note of it on your 'Rough Notes' page.
Otherwise you may not remember until after you have left the examination
room.
7 Read each answer as soon as you have completed it to ensure that you have
given the desired information to the examiner.
301
Shipboard Operatiom

Attempt to develop your answers logically and write in a direct simple

manner. Avoid rhetoric and literary embellishment. Write legibly; the Index
examiner cannot give you marks if he cannot read your answer.
Do not attempt to 'cram' the night before an examination. After months of
,.
preparation a few hours of panic studying will not help. Go to the cinema and
relax.
Remember, there are no 'easy' papers. An examination only appears to be Access regulations, 74-9 pre-washing, 52
easy when you have completed months of careful studying and preparation. Accommodation ladder, 77 reactive, 234
Administration, 36 record book, 52
Airless spray, 119-21 regulations, 51-3, 226-7
Anodes, 106-7 required information, 233-4
safety guides, 53,227-8
Batteries, 22-3 ship types, 228
Bimetallic corrosion, 108-10 surveys, 52-3
Blast cleaning, 112-13 tank coatings, 229-30
Blue book, 206 Classification societies, 295
Body corporate, 68 Combined system, 162-3
Breathing apparatus, 12-13,36 Concentrates, 268-9
Bulk cargoes, 257-69 Corrosion, 102-4, 108-10
Bundling, 255-6 Crude oil washing, 195-7
,
Cargo:
blocks, 134-5
Damage: ,-
control, 27-9
operations: heavy weather, 145-6
bulk, 257-69 Dangerous goods, 203-13
chemicals, 226-38 Dangerous spaces, 24-6, 71-2
dangerous goods, 203-13 Dangerous substances in harbours,
heavy lifts, 248-51 208-9
liquefied gas, 213-25 Deck cargoes, 239-51
tankers, 164-9, 178-80 Derrick cranes, 281-2
timber, 239-48 Derricks:
pumps, 175-7 certificates, 132-3
valves, 156-8 examination, 132
Cathodic protection, 105-8 Hallen, 275-6
Cavitation, 177-8 maintenance, 130, 134-8
Certificates: operational guidance, 81
bulk cargoes, 260, 264 patent, 274-5
derricks, 132-3 register, 133
fitness (chemical carriers), 226-7 regulations, 79-83
fitness (gas carriers), 214 rigging plans, 133-4
load line, 285-6 safety, 81-2, 137-8,272:-3,282-3
oil pollution, 50, 95-6, 181 stress, 284
safety equipment, 289-90 Stuelcken,279-81
ship construction, 292 tests, 81,131-2
Chemical cargoes: training, 81
certificates, 53 union purchase, 271-3
common, 229 Velie, 276-9
equipment, 231-3 Design faults, 110-11
manual, 53 Direct line system, 160-1
operations, 53 Docks Regulations, 84-6
precautions, 51-2 Dry dock, 147-53
 Index
Index
Emergency drills, 17-19,34,39-41, regulations, 182
71-2 Master, 72 forepeak, 152-3
system, 184-7 Mill scale, III precautions, 147-9, 151-2
Emergency fire pump, 10 use, 188-9 Musters: Rescue boats, 40, 42, 46
Emergency instructions, 37 International Chamber of Shipping, drills, 63-4 Retained-on-board,200-1
Emergency lighting, 37 58 instruction, 63-4 Ring main system, 159-60 ,.
Emergency power source, 35 International Maritime Organization, lists, 37-8 Ropes, 19-22
Emergency teams: 31-2
composition, 14-16 training, 63-4
Safety:
training, 16-18 Launching appliances, 46-7
Employer, 72 Noxious liquids, 51-3 awareness, 5-7
Lifeboat davits, 8, 46-7 committee, 4-5, 66
EPIRB, 37 Lifeboat falls, 8, 47
Erosion, 103 OCIMF, 58 maintenance, 7-14
Lifeboats, 7, 44-6, 47 Oil: officer, 1-3,65-6
Examinations: Lifebuoys, 9, 47 cargo operations, 164-9 representative, 3-4, 66
preparations, 298-300 Lifejackets, 9, 48-9 ignition sources, 171-3 training, 14-19,23-8,37-41,61-4,
revision, 297-8 Liferafts, 9,42-4,47 pollution, 50-1 71-2
techniques, 300-2 Lifesaving appliances:
Explosives, 209-13 record book, 51,96-7,180-1 Saucering, 225
general, 49 safety guides, 170-1 Search and rescue manuals, 54-5
inspections, 42 spills, 179-80 Segregated ballast tanks, 201-2
Fairleads, 143-4 maintenance, 41
Fire: Ship/shore check list, 169-70
new ship, 47-8 Paint: SIGTTO,58
drill, 64 readiness, 41 alkyd, 115 SOLAS, 32-49
extinguishers, 11-12 testing, 49 antifouling, 122-3 SOLAS ferry amendments, 56-7
sources on tankers, 171-5 Line throwing appliances, 48
wallet, 18 bitumen, 115 Spills at anchor, 178~0
Lining up, 164-7 chlorinated rubber, 115-16 Static, 173-5
Fireman's outfit, 13,35-6 Liquefied gas: coaltar, 116 Statutory Instruments:
Flame cleaning, 111-12 cargoes, 215-216 composition of, 104-5 Chemical Tankers, 226-7
Forepeak,152-3 equipment, 217-20 epoxy, 116 Closing of Openings in Hulls, 64,
Freeflow system, 161-2 instruments, 220-1 failure, 113 69
operation, 221-5 oleoresinous, 117 Closing of Openings in
Galvanic series, 106 regulations, 213-15 phenolic, 117 Superstructures, 89-90
Gangways, 76-7 safety guide, 215
<}antlines,21-3 polyurethane, 117 Code of Safe Working Practices, 65
ship types, 216-17 preparation for, 114-15 Dangerous Goods, 203-5, 208-9
Garbage, 53-4 Lloyds,295-6
Gas freeing, 197-8 primers, 117-18 Emergency Equipment Lockers,
Load lines: protection from, 121 Ro-Ros, 92-3
Global maritime distress system, 55 definitions, 286-7
Grain, 251-7 vinyl, 118 Entry into Dangerous Spaces, 71-2
. rules, 285-8 Permit-to-work: Fire Appliances, 62-3
survey preparations, 288-9 form, 26-7, 72 Gas Carriers, 214-15
Hatch covers: zones, 287-8
duties, 83 system, 23-4 Grain, 251-3
Load on top, 200-1 Pickling, 112 Guarding of Machinery, 69
maintenance, 138-9
Health and Safety Commission, 208 Pilot: Hatches and Lifting Plant, 79-84
M notices, 59
Health and Safety Executive, 209 hoist, 141-3 Health and Safety: General Duties,
Magazines, 211-13
Heavy lifts, 248-51 ladder, 140-1 67-8
Maintenance:
Herald of Free Enterprise, 86-7 Pipelines, 155 Life-Saving Appliances, 59-{j0
cargo handling equipment, 130, Pressure-vacuum valves, 198-9 Load Line, 285-8
134-8
Ignition on tankers, 171-3 Pump rooms, 120-1 Load Line (Deck Cargo), 239-43
fairleads, 143-5
IMDG Code, 206 Loading and Stability, Ro-Ros,
hatch covers, 138-9 90-1
Impressed current, 107-8 Radio-telephone apparatus, two-way,
pilot equipment, 140-1
Inen gas: 37 Means of Access, 74-9
reasons for, 126-7
benefits, 183 , schedule, 127-30
Repair lists, 146-7 Musters and Training, 61-2
operation, 187-8 Repair periods: Operations Book, 93-4
survival equipment, 41
principle, 183 crew organization, 147-9 Passenger Boarding Cards, 87-8
MARPOL,49-54
duties, 150-1 Pilot Ladders and Hoists, 140-3
304
305
Index
Prevention of Pollution, Garbage, Summary conviction, 62
100 Surveys:
Prevention of Pollution, Oil, 95-9, classification, 294
181 IMO harmonized, 56
Protective Clothing and load line, 288-9
Equipment, 68 noise level, 296
Reception Facilities, Garbage, 100 pollution, 95-6
Reception Facilities, Oil, 100 safety equipment, 289-92
Safe Movement on Board Ship, ship construction, 293
73-4 SaLAS, 296
Safety at Work (non-UK ships), 84 Survival craft, 36, 38-9
Safety Equipment, 289-90
Safety Officials, 1-5,65-7
Tank washing:
Ship Construction, 292-3
atmospheres, 191-5
Steering Gear, 293-4
crude oil, 195-7
Weighing of Goods Vehicles, 94
machines, 190--1
Steering gear:
water, 191
drills and tests, 33-4
Timber deck cargoes, 24Q--8
requirements, 33-4
Training manual, 39
Strapping, 256-7
Stripping:
lines, 163-4 Water blasting, 115
pumps, 176 Woodwork, 119

306