Answers

1.1 Seeing life

1 Lice do not appear to have a mouth. (The tubes they use to pierce the skin and suck blood are
tucked inside their heads when they are not being used.)
2 The microscope has magnified the images.
3 The louse looks 20 times bigger in image A.
4 Image B is 4 times bigger than image A.
5 Microscopes made people realise there were millions of tiny plants and animals everywhere.
6 The thing you look at under a microscope is the specimen.
7 You get different magnifications by changing the lens.
8 You should never point the mirror directly towards the sun because it could damage your eyes.
9 If it was magnified 10 times, the image would be 15 mm long (10 × 1.5 mm).
10 The specimen must be 20 times smaller than the image, which is 5 mm long (100 mm/20).
11 A section is a thin slice through a specimen.
12 Specimens need to be thin so they let light through to make an image.
13 To make sure you saw everything inside the lemon you need to look at a lot of sections.
14 A scanning electron microscope must have taken the skin photograph because it shows the
skin’s surface.
15 In the magnified image the skin appears to be made of layers and each layer seems to be
divided into smaller areas.
16 The skin could be any colour because images from scanning electron microscopes are coloured
artificially.
17 Light microscopes use lenses to make things look bigger.
18 You usually need to take a thin slice of a specimen to look at under a light microscope because
thick specimens block light and don’t form an image.
19 Most specimens are dead when you see them under a light microscope because they are cut
into sections.
20 Electron microscopes can show the surfaces of specimens and they can show smaller details.
21 The headlice images show surface details so they must be from a scanning electron microscope.

1.2 Zooming in

1 The outline of a cell should be roughly circular.

2 The outline should contain a round shape to represent the nucleus.
3 The cheek cells contain a round, darker central area which is not visible in Hooke’s cells. The
differences are easier to show in a diagram.
4 Cell drawings should also contain the magnification.
5 The nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane should be labelled on the drawing.
6 Leaf cells contain a clear area in the middle, green circular structures around the edges and a
thick wall round the outside.
7 A = chloroplast, B = nucleus, C = vacuole, D = cytoplasm, E = cell membrane, F = cell wall.
8 Chloroplasts capture the energy from light and use it to make food.
9 Vacuoles store food and help keep plant cells firm.
10 All cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane.
11 Most plant cells have chloroplasts, vacuoles and cell walls.
12 Plant root cells do not have chloroplasts because they cannot capture light.
13 When plant cells are short of water their vacuoles get smaller and stop pressing against the cell
walls – so the whole plant droops.

1.3 Staying alive

1 An amoeba is not a plant because it has no chloroplasts.

2 It looks like an animal cell because it has a nucleus, membrane and cytoplasm but no cell wall,
chloroplasts or large vacuole.
3 An amoeba’s ability to change the shape of its cytoplasm lets it move and feed.

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4 Our brain controls our bodies.

5 The heart pumps blood around the body.
6 Organ C is a lung which takes in oxygen.
7 The stomach is D.
8 The nervous system lets us sense where we are.
9 The digestive system gets nutrients from our food.
10 The circulatory system carries food to our muscles.
11 A group of identical cells is a tissue.
12 Two tissues found in your arm are muscle and bone (accept skin).
13 In order of size, the body is made of: cells, tissues, organs and organ systems.
14 A tissue is made of identical cells. An organ contains more than one sort of tissue.
15 Each type of tissues does a different job in the body.

1.4 Right for the job

1 Tendon tissue joins muscles to bones.

2 Muscle cells are specialised for movement.
3 The circulatory system makes blood travel around your body.
4 The blood gets oxygen from the lungs.
5 Haemoglobin – a chemical that carries oxygen – gives red cells their colour.
6 The diagram should show a cell membrane, a nucleus and thin band of cytoplasm squashed up
against the cell membrane, a large blob of oil taking up the centre of the cell.
7 Fat cells stop your body losing heat.
8 Bones made of living cells, fibres and minerals.
9 We know that bones are alive because they grow and can repair themselves if broken.
10 The diagram should be a vertical rectangle containing a nucleus and cytoplasm and an upper
surface covered with cilia.
11 If cilia stop moving, dirt builds up in the lungs.
12 Muscle, fat and bone make up 80% of your body.
13 Muscles move by contracting which means getting shorter and fatter. Ciliated cells wave their
cilia to and fro and red cells are pushed around the body by the heart.
14 The order of size from the smallest to the largest cell is bone cell, ciliated cell, fat cell.
15 Your blood carries more than half your cells because red cells are very small.
16 Cells get energy from food (using oxygen).

1.5 Extreme cells

1 Aibo’s motors are controlled by the computer which is linked to them by wires.
2 Your muscles are controlled by your brain, which is linked to them by nerves.
3 Nerve cells are very long and thin.
4 A photograph would need to be 350 metres wide to show the whole nerve cells magnified
350 times.
5 If you damage nerve cells in your spine, you can’t move your legs because your brain cannot
contact your leg muscles.
6 Students should give the distance from their spine to the base of their thumb.
7 When you damage a muscle you feel pain because a message travels along nerves to
your brain.
8 A doctor might ask a crash victim to wiggle her toes to check for nerve damage.
9 Aibo’s eyes send messages along wires to his computer. When his ball rolls in front of him,
these messages change. So his computer sends a message down the wires to his leg motors to
turn them on.
10 The nerve signals from your eyes are processed at the back of your brain.
11 The world started to look the right way up after a while because our brains work out what we
are looking at. If it doesn’t seem to fit with messages from other sense organs in your body,
the image is changed.

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12 When the glasses were taken off it took a while for the brain to change the way it processed the
signals.
13 Archimboldo’s painting looks like a portrait when you see it upside down.
14 Nerve cells are difficult to see under the microscope because they are extremely long and thin.
15 Uncomfortable shoes make nerves in your foot send messages to your brain so you feel pain.
Your brain sends messages down the nerves to muscles in your arms, legs and back to make
you take your shoes off.

1.6 Cell trouble

1 Blood carries oxygen stuck to haemoglobin in red cells.

2 It carries less oxygen if you don’t have enough haemoglobin, which means you are anaemic.
3 A machine is used to count blood cells because it is quicker.
4 Sasha’s red cell count is low.
5 Healthy people’s red cell counts cover a range of values.
6 Sasha’s haemoglobin value is below the normal range for a woman.
7 Red cells need to be magnified 1000 times to show up clearly.
8 The blood has to be spread very thinly so that the red cells don’t pile on top of each other.
9 Sasha’s red cells are paler than normal ones.
10 The average cell diameters should be lower for Sasha’s blood sample than for the normal blood.
11 Sasha’s red cells are smaller and paler than normal.
12 Height of the red cells = xx mm, total height of the blood = yy mm.
xx
13 Packed cell volume % = × 100%
yy
14 The doctor can tell that Sasha is anaemic because she has a low red cell count and packed cell
volume. The cells she does have are small and pale because they are low in haemoglobin.
15 Sasha’s doctor wants her to eat more red meat because it contains iron and iron is needed for
making haemoglobin.

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2.1 Having a baby

1 An egg and sperm make the first cell of a new baby.

2 Fertilisation is when the egg and sperm join together.
3 A light microscope shows the nucleus, cytoplasm and membrane.
4 The frogs’ shorts trapped their sperm so the eggs were not fertilised.
5 Spallanzani’s results proved that sperm did not give off a vapour. Eggs were only fertilized if
they joined with the sperm.
6 Ovaries store egg cells until they mature.
7 Egg cells are usually released once a month.
8 Egg cells are swept along the oviduct to the womb by cilia.
9 Sperm cells are left in the vagina during sex.
10 Fertilisation usually happens in the oviduct.
11 When it first starts to grow a baby is called an embryo.
12 The story should include these key ideas: left ovary, travelled along the oviduct, met a sperm,
got fertilised, became an embryo, began to divide on the way to the womb, implanted in the
womb lining as a ball of cells, grew a placenta and quickly got bigger.
13 Only one sperm is needed to fertilise each egg.
14 Problems that could make it hard to get pregnant include a blocked fallopian tube and sperm
that are poor swimmers.

2.2 Becoming a dad

1 Sperm are made in the testes.

2 New sperm made all the time because they only keep for two weeks.
3 Sperm that aren’t used are recycled inside the man’s body.
4 A man’s penis swells with blood and stiffens when he has an erection.
5 When a man ejaculates his semen spurts into the vagina.
6 Semen contains sperm and fluids that help to keep them alive.
7 When couples use IVF the eggs get fertilised in a dish.
8 The doctor took more than one egg because many embryos don’t grow properly.
9 Cells only survive for a long time if they are kept frozen so it is very important not to let them
defrost by accident.
10 The sperm’s journey should include these key points: pumped out of the testes and along the
sperm ducts, covered with fluids as it passes the glands, spurted out of the end of the penis,
lands in the vagina.
11 IVF would mix the eggs and sperm in a dish so the sperm would not need to swim.
12 If a man cannot keep his penis erect he cannot slip it into his partner’s vagina, so the sperm
cannot get to the egg.

2.3 Becoming human

1 An embryo has 256 cells when it has settled in the womb (it has divided 8 times).
2 The drawing should show a hollow ball of cells with outer cells labelled ‘forms the placenta’ and
inner cells labelled ‘becomes the fetus’.
3 The food and oxygen an embryo needs is transferred from its mother’s blood supply by the
placenta.
4 The twins formed when an embryo splits in 2 are identical because they come from 1 egg and 1
sperm. Twins formed from 2 eggs and 2 sperm are not identical.
5 Sperm cells have a tail and are streamlined to make them good at swimming.
6 The layer of jelly around an egg cell protects it and attracts sperm.
7 Cilia are needed in the oviducts to push eggs towards the womb because eggs can’t move by
themselves like sperm.
8 As the embryo turns into a fetus its cells become specialised and are grouped into organs.

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9 If implantation fails, the embryo dies because it cannot get oxygen and nutrients from its
mother’s blood.
10 Two of Yusra’s eggs were fertilised. One embryo was a boy, the other was a girl. The female
embryo split into two during its first week to form the identical twins.
11 Twins need to share the space in the womb and may have a reduced nutrient supply compared
to a single fetus.

2.4 Life in the womb

1 A baby spends 38 weeks in the womb in a normal 40 week pregnancy.

2 When an embryo is a week old the mum is 3 weeks pregnant.
3 A fetus starts to move at 9 weeks.
4 The first sense to be used is touch.
5 A fetus responds to sounds at 20 weeks.
6 The brain and nerves form first because they control the rest of the body.
7 When a fetus hears a new voice she might move her arms and legs and her heart might
beat faster.
8 Nicotine gets into your blood if you smoke.
9 Babies whose mothers smoke are more likely to be premature.
10 Most women drink less than 1 unit of alcohol per week when they are pregnant.
11 3% drank more than 7 units of alcohol per week.
12 Average birth weights are lower when mothers smoke.
13 Smoking makes most difference in the last part of pregnancy.
14 Her risk of having a small baby will not be very high if she gives up smoking when she is
3 months pregnant.
15 Between 1 and 9 weeks organs form, the embryo begins to look human, move and sense
things.
16 Between 9 and 12 weeks the fetus develops muscles and begins to use them.
17 Some medicines cannot be given to pregnant woman because they would cross the placenta
and affect the fetus.
18 Women could damage a developing fetus by smoking, drinking or taking drugs, before they
realise they are pregnant.

2.5 Survival

1 Vision is used for the first time after a baby’s birth.

2 Newborns prefer to look at their mother’s face.
3 Staring into their mother’s eyes and imitating her expression helps to establish a bond between
them so the mother will care for the baby.
4 Babies ‘picked’ their favourite image by changing how fast they sucked on a dummy.
5 They videoed the babies’ reactions so that other people could check the expression they were
making.
6 They should have videoed the faces the psychologist made to check that it was exactly the
expression they said it was.
7 The experiment where the babies sucked the dummies would give the most valid results
because the sucking speed and the time each sound or picture was on for could both be
measured.
8 Prey animals spend longest in the womb.
9 Zebra are much bigger and need less looking after than lion cubs because they spend longer in
the womb.
10 This is helpful for prey animals because they can run within an hour of birth to avoid predators.
11 Predators have more offspring at one time.
12 Predators have smaller offspring so they can carry more at a time. They would not be able to
hunt and feed themselves if they carried a single large offspring.
13 Lions need to learn how to hunt before they can leave their mothers.

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14 In the wild, most fish eggs are eaten before they develop.
15 A baby antelope needs to run soon after birth to avoid predators.
16 Fish and frogs produce thousands of offspring at once because most get eaten.
17 Human babies are like a zebra’s because they are usually born one at a time. They are like a
lion’s because they are born small and need to be looked after for a long time.
18 Babies prefer their mother’s smell to any others.

2.6 Coming full circle

1 Puberty usually takes place between 11 and 15.

2 Girls get taller before boys because they have their growth spurt earlier in puberty.
3 Puberty gets your body ready for reproduction.
4 Hormones from your testes or ovaries make puberty begin.
5 Many things change at once in your body because hormones travel in your bloodstream to
every cell.
6 A girl notices her periods have started when she starts to bleed from her vagina.
7 Just before an egg leaves the ovaries the uterus lining builds up.
8 Fertilization takes place in the oviduct.
9 Bleeding happens when the womb lining breaks down.
10 Periods stop when a woman is pregnant because the womb lining does not break down.
11 Some young people feel tired all the time because the hormones that cause puberty upset your
body’s timer.
12 During puberty young people might argue with their parents about bedtime or getting up in the
morning because their body’s timers are about three hours behind the real time.
13 In girls, sex hormones make breasts grow, ovaries release eggs, periods start and hips widen.
In boys, sex hormones make their voice get deeper, shoulders get broader, the penis get bigger
and sperm form.
14 The students all start puberty at slightly different times. The girls have their growth spurt at the
beginning of puberty so they are taller until the boys catch up.
15 Hormones are chemical messengers that travel in the blood to every part of the body to control
growth and change.

2.7 IVF issues

1 Parents might think their children would be confused and upset if they knew their egg or sperm
had come from someone else.
2 Students answer could include these points: Jack’s embryo brothers and sisters could have a
good start in life and make childless couples very happy; if they weren’t given to another couple
they would be denied the right to life; they wouldn’t need to know they were related to Jack’s
family until they were 18 and able to cope with that information.
Examples of points the students could make are:
For rule 1: it would deny women who can’t afford to pay the right to have children.
Against rule 1: women should be compensated for taking the trouble to donate their eggs.
For rule 2: people should not donate eggs or sperm if they don’t want to be parents.
Against rule 2: the egg or sperm donor’s family might prefer their privacy.
For guideline 1: it isn’t fair to risk the health of an unborn child.
Against guideline 1: it causes the family a lot of distress if IVF is not successful.
For guideline 2: young women have more energy and better health.
Against guideline 2: older woman have often been trying for a baby for years.
3 Students could say that it is important to control new technologies like IVF because:
• it is expensive
• human embryos need to be treated ethically
• having a child is the most important thing in many people’s lives
• there may be social problems if the child’s carers are not the biological parents
• once the child is born the NHS is responsible for its care.

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3.1 Identifying issues

1 The differences between us are called variation.

2 Some people might dislike broccoli or olives because they can taste bitter chemicals in them.
3 Students should list five features which vary. Examples are age, height, body mass, sex, hair
colour, eye colour and skin colour.
4 You can recognise someone from their face, their voice or way of walking.
5 You recognise people you haven’t seen for a long while because their faces don’t change much.
6 Photos can’t show differences in the way our bodies work or the way we behave.
7 Identical twins are not totally identical.
8 Your voice, fingerprint, iris pattern, face shape or way of walking could be used to identify you.
9 Voices could identify people over the phone.
10 Taking the pulse in the finger helps prevent someone copying a fingerprint or even cutting off
someone’s finger.
11 To open your front door as you walked towards the house you could use a biometric system
that recognised your face shape because it would work from further away.
12 A fingerprint scan would be best to pay for a meal from the canteen because it is cheaper.
13 Common features like hair colour, eye colour and shoe size can be used to identify people
because few people have the same combination of features.
14 Keys, cards or PIN numbers can be lost or forgotten but biometric features cannot.
15 If thieves steal your fingerprints it is more serious than having your key stolen because they
cannot be replaced.

3.2 What makes us different?

1 Sarah has her mother’s skin colour and hair.

2 The sisters resemble their parents because they inherited features from each of them.
3 Features that are fixed before birth include eye colour and blood group (also fingerprints and
iris pattern).
4 Two features that develop as we grow are height and body mass.
5 The cells that make Rachel’s hair black follow the instructions on the gene she inherited from
her mother for making a black colour.
6 Cells don’t read every gene because they are specialised to do certain jobs. Only the colour-
making cells need to follow the instructions for making black hair colour.
7 The features the new baby will have are decided by the random selection of genes it inherited
from each parent.
8 Rachel and her sisters are similar but not identical because they share some genes, but each
have a unique mixture of their parents’ genes.
9 It is not possible to predict which genes a baby will inherit from each parent.
10 Group O is the most common blood group in the UK.
11 20% of the students had black hair.
12 In another country the results could be very different, for example blond hair is more common
in Scandinavia and black is more common in China.
13 People don’t look exactly like their mother or father because they inherit half their genes from
each parent.
14 You cannot predict which features your children will inherit.
15 Blood group and shoe size show discontinuous variation because there is not a continuous
range of options.

3.3 Growing differences

1 The amount of light, water or minerals available can affect a tree’s growth.
2 If a seed from a bonsai was planted in a large garden, it could grow into a large tree.
3 The lower leaves on a tree are often thinner and paler than those near the top because they get
less light.

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4 The twins have inherited the same face shape, eye colour, ear shape, nose and mouth.
5 Identical twins are usually more alike when they are babies because their environments have
had less time to affect them.
6 The boys now have different hair, skin colours, height and body mass. One also has a pierced
ear and a scar.
7 These differences are due to differences in their environments like the sports they play and the
friends they hang around with.
8 Height variation seems to be mainly inherited.
9 Variation in mass seems to have a combination of inherited and environmental causes.
10 Ordinary and identical twins can only be compared fairly if both the ordinary twins are the
same sex.
11 People who are shorter than average, because their diets lack minerals, show environmental
variation.
12 Women in the USA could have a higher average body mass because their diet supplies more
energy or because they take less exercise.
13 The two main sources of variation are the genes you inherit and your environment.
14 Fingerprint pattern, blood group and eye colour are caused by genes. Skill at football, body
mass and health are caused by a combination of genes and the environment.
15 Having surgery to correct a problem does this stop someone’s children having the same
problem?

3.4 Size matters

1 Foot lengths are influenced by many different genes so they are likely to show continuous
variation.
2 Shoe sizes show discontinuous variation.
3 Shalini is taller than the UK average for 12-year-old girls but her two friends are shorter than
average.
4 Their average height is 153 cm.
5 The most common range of heights is 152–155 cm.
6 2.5 % have heights between 168 and 171 cm.
7 They had to check so many people to get a reliable average because people show a lot of
variation.
8 As people get older their body mass can change so their chest, waist and hip measurements
will too.
9 The two shortest girls have arms that are 49 and 50 cm long.
10 Taller girls usually have longer arms.
11 The three girls that were 151 cm tall had arm lengths of 52, 54 and 55 cm.
12 According the graph, Abina’s arms should be about 55 cm long.
13 Maria has shorter arms than expected for someone of her height, so she might find jacket
sleeves are too long.
14 Another body measurement that might show a correlation with height is leg length.
15 The largest head circumferences was 58 cm and the smallest was 53 cm.
16 The tallest and shortest girls with head circumferences of 55 cm were 160 cm and 147 cm.
17 A girl’s height could not be used to predict her hat size. There is no correlation between head
circumference and height.
18 Continuous variation means the feature can have any measurement within a certain range.
19 Arm length and body mass show continuous variation.
20 Clothes makers can predict some of your other body measurements if they know
your height because there is a correlation between height and some other body
measurements.

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3.5 Knowing what to do

1 As soon as a cuckoo chick hatches it heaves any other chicks or eggs out of the nest and starts
calling for food.
2 It has to kill to survive because its foster parents are too small to feed the cuckoo chick and
their own offspring.
3 Its foster parents can’t help following their instinct to feed anything in their nest with a gaping
mouth that cries for food.
4 The gulls showed least interest in the beak with no red marks.
5 The red pencil acted as a signal to peck.
6 Woodlice can detect moisture.
7 They move fast over dry ground and rarely turn.
8 When they reach damp ground they move slowly and turn often.
9
10 This behaviour helps the woodlice walk all over damp ground but rush straight across dry
ground.
11 If woodlice sensed light ahead they might turn and move away from it so they stay undercover
where it is damp.
12 The ducklings are following the boy because they are born with an instinct to follow the first
large moving object they see – which is usually their mother. This is imprinting and is difficult
to unlearn.
13 Their behaviour is caused by both their genes and their environment.
14 This sort of behaviour is useful because it helps newborn animals survive until they can learn
how to look after themselves.
15 The dog makes saliva.
16 A dog learns to make saliva if he hears a bell every time he smells food.
17 If your dog sits when you shout ‘SIT’ you should give him an immediate reward to make him
repeat the behaviour.
18 Behaviours caused by an animal’s genes are: cuckoos push other eggs out of the nest and gulls
peck a red pencil. Behaviours caused by both genes and environment are: woodlice run straight
across dry paving stones and orphaned ducklings follow a dog.
19 A dog might run into the kitchen when they hear you opening a can of beans because they have
learned to associate the sound of a can opener with dog food appearing in their bowl.

3.6 Olympic dreams

1 Being tall seems to give you most advantage over 400 m.

2 Running shoes add about 1 cm to a person’s height.
3 Oscar runs in 100 m, 200 m and 400 m races.
4 Being 187 cm tall might give him an advantage – especially in the 400 m race.
5 Taller men than Oscar have won the 100 metres.
6 Men who were shorter than the average height of top runners have also won.
7 The average person has about 50% fast-twitch and 50% slow-twitch muscle fibres.
8 The average marathon runner has 80% slow-twitch muscle fibres.
9 The combination found in sprinters – 80% fast-twitch fibres – suits their sport because they
need a lot of power, but only for a few seconds.
10 Eero’s red cell count is far above the normal range for men.
11 He had a better oxygen supply because he had more red cells to carry it from his lungs to his
muscles.
12 Eero’s muscles could work harder because his blood could supply them with more oxygen.
13 His blood had a high red cell count because he had a rare gene.
14 Athletes can legally increase their red cell counts by training at high altitudes or using a low
oxygen tent.

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15 According to Ericsson, you need to do deliberate practice for about 10 years to achieve success.
This means you set goals, practice, get feedback and them improve your weaknesses over and
over again.
16 You need to enjoy your sport because you will only get really good at it if you practice for a
long time.
17 They looked for athletes who were already good at other sports because they didn’t have
10 years to practice.
18 A good 400 m runner would be 185 cm tall, have a high red cell count, more fast-twitch than
slow-twitch muscles and 10 years experience of training with a good coach.
19 Someone who could run a marathon would be shorter than average height, with a high red cell
count, a high percentage of slow-twitch muscles and 10 years of training with a good coach.

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4.1 Taking stock

1 Scientists wait 10 years before saying a missing animal is extinct.

2 The dolphins could not move to another river because sea water would kill them.
3 Members of a species do not always look the same.
4 You could prove two groups of animals belonged to the same species if they mated and had
fertile offspring.
5 Mules are the offspring of a female horse and male donkey.
6 Mules are not a separate species because they are not fertile. They cannot have offspring of
their own.
7 Rats are not in danger of becoming extinct.
8 They are a serious pest because they spread disease, ruin crops and food stores, and chew
through cables.
9 Frog or other small animal → rat → eagle.
10 waste food → rat → cat, bird of prey, dog, fox or snake.
11 Any three predators from: cat, bird of prey, dog, fox or snake.
12 Rat numbers might increase as the extra food would make it easier to feed their offspring.
13 Rat numbers would increase if their predators were removed.
14 We have to use more poison now than we used to because there are fewer birds of prey to
eat them.
15 A species is a group of plants, or animals, that can breed and produce fertile offspring.
16 We can’t say exactly how many species there are because new ones keep being discovered and
known species become extinct.
17 Animal numbers are affected by their food supply and the number of predators hunting them.
18 The numbers of squirrels would drop if all rats were poisoned because their predators would
need to eat squirrels instead.
19 When rats land on islands, and where there is plenty of food, they have no predators their
numbers multiple rapidly. They can rapidly wipe out bird populations.

4.2 Grouping animals

1 Classification involves putting similar things together.

2 Scientists need to name and group species in the same way so they can share data.
3 All plants make their own food using photosynthesis.
4 The percentage of species classified as plants or animals is 95%.
5 Most animal species are invertebrates.
6 Vertebrates have bony skeletons with backbones inside their body but invertebrates do not.
7 An animal is an arthropod if it has jointed legs and a hard outer skeleton.
8 The percentage of species classified as arthropods is 60%.
9 An arthropod is a beetle if it has a tough cover over its wings.
10 The 7-spotted ladybird belongs to these groups: spotted ladybirds, ladybirds, beetles, insects,
arthropods, invertebrates, animals.
11 The two biggest groups of living things are plants and animals.
12 The two main groups of animals are vertebrates and invertebrates.
13 It is useful to divide insects into smaller groups because there are about a million known
species.
14 There are one third of a million known species of beetle.

4.3 Vertebrates

1 A vertebrate’s backbone protects their spinal cord.

2 There are five main groups of vertebrates.
3 Fish breathe using gills. Amphibians have lungs when they are adults and have no scales
or fins.

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4 Cats and dogs need more food than a snake because they use the extra energy to keep their
bodies at a constant temperature – they are warm-blooded.
5 Because they are mammals they must be warm-blooded and covered with fur or hair. Their
young are fed on milk. They fly, so they must have wings.
6 Amphibians and reptiles are cold-blooded and lay eggs, and both have four legs and a tail.
7 Amphibians have naked skin and lay their eggs in water. Their larvae have gills. Reptile skin is
covered in hard scales and their eggs are laid on land because they are waterproof.
8 The moist, slimy skin suggests caecilians are amphibians.
9 Whales and fish both live in water and have streamlined bodies.
10 Whales have lungs but fish have gills. Fish have scales but whales just have a few hairs. Fish
lay eggs and use external fertilisation. Whales use internal fertilisation and give birth to young
which are fed on milk. Fish are cold-blooded and whales are warm-blooded.
11 Whales and humans are both warm-blooded, have hairs on their skin, and give birth to young
which are fed on milk.
12 It is difficult to find information about some species because it is in kept in museums or
libraries.
13 Computer experts are making a multimedia ‘Encyclopaedia of Life’ on the web with information
about every species.
14 Biologists want to know about every species on Earth so they can understand how to protect
them.
15 The five vertebrate groups are fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Fish have gills,
scales and fins. Amphibian larvae have gills but the adults have lungs and naked skin. Reptiles
are covered in hard scales. Fish, amphibians and reptiles are all cold-blooded. Fish and
amphibians use external fertilisation and lay their eggs in water. Reptiles lay waterproof eggs
on land. Birds and mammals are both warm-blooded. Birds have wings and feathers, and lay
shelled eggs. Mammals have hair or fur, give birth to young and feed them on milk.
16 Students should name vertebrates from two different groups that could be classified as ‘living
on land’, for example a mammal, a reptile or a bird. They should also name animals from two
different groups that could be classified as ‘living in water’, for example a fish and an aquatic
mammal.
17 Porpoises should be streamlined for swimming and only have a few hairs on their skin. They
give birth to their young and feed them on milk.

4.4 Precious plants

1 We use plants as food, fuels, building materials, to make products like paper and as sources
of medicines.
2 Rare tropical plants should be protected because they may contain useful medicines.
3 Grass flowers are hard to spot because they are small and dull.
4 Flowers are useful for classification because there are a lot of different sorts but related plants
have similar flowers.
5 The section of key provided separates out mosses and ferns. Students should supply an extra
question to distinguish conifers and flowering plants, for example does it have cones or flowers.
6 Phytoplankton are microscopic plants.
7 Fish and aquatic mammals feed on them and they release oxygen.
8 Latin is used for scientific names because it was the international language of science when Carl
Linnaeus invented the naming system.
9 Carl Linnaeus was a teacher, organised plant finding trips and wrote lots of books.
10 The first part of a scientific name is the same for species with similar features.
11 Plants are important because they give us useful things like oxygen, food, medicines, fuels,
building materials and paper.
12 The four main groups of land plants are mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants.
13 A plant 1 metre tall, with feathery leaves, that never seems to flower, must be a fern.
14 Plants are only a few mm tall and have no roots are mosses.
15 The most common type of plant in the oceans is phytoplankton.

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4.5 A new species?

1 Human bones buried 35 000 years ago in Europe appear to come from two different species
because one sort is like bones from modern humans and the other has shorter, stronger bones
and a bigger skull.
2 Humans are all one species because any male/female couple can produce fertile offspring.
3 Scientists thought they’d found a child’s skeleton because it was only 1 metre tall.
4 They changed their mind when they realised her teeth were worn down and her bones looked
like an adult’s.
5 The bones seemed to come from people clever enough to hunt and cook because they were
found with stone tools and the animal bones with cut marks on them.
6 The skeleton found buried on Flores had a much smaller skull and a slightly smaller body than
the women that live there now.
7 The Homo floresiensis skeleton was thought to be a new species because it was too different
from the average Homo sapiens skeleton.
8 It wasn’t the only small species on the island. There was a miniature species of elephant too.
9 Small species might be common on islands because there isn’t much food. Small animals don’t
need to eat so much. So they are more likely to survive.
10 Reconstructing faces is a mixture of art, science and guesswork so we can’t be absolutely sure
what the person looked like.
11 Boxes A and E support the idea that the bones were from a new species of human.
12 Boxes B and F support the idea that the bones were from a diseased member of our species
13 To support the idea that Homo floresiensis is a ‘new species’, scientists would have to find more
tiny skulls. Ideally they would find clear evidence of two different sorts of skeleton in the same
area, buried around the same time, which would prove that Homo floresiensis did not inter-
breed with our species.

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5.1 Acids and alkalis

1 Vomit contains an acid, which tastes sour.

2 You must eat omega-3 fatty acids to defend your body against disease and repair damage.
These are in oily fish. You must also eat ascorbic acid (vitamin C) to keep your skin healthy
and help to make bones. This is in fruit and vegetables.
3 The acid will burn you, destroying the outer layer of skin.
4 Wear eye protection. Make sure the acid does not splash onto your skin. Clear up spills
immediately.
5 The chemical might be corrosive or poisonous.
6 Making fertilisers.
7 Fertilisers help plants grow well. Detergents make things clean.
8 Sodium hydroxide.
9 Take care not to splash it onto your skin. Wear eye protection. Keep away from flames. Do not
store next to things that catch on fire easily.
10 The chemical might be corrosive and damage your skin.
11 To make paper, detergents and aluminium.
12 Answers could include hydrochloric acid, ascorbic acid, omega-3 fatty acids.
13 Toothpaste, washing powder and drain cleaner.
14 Citric acid.

5.2 The pH scale

1 Lowest pH: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid. Highest pH: sodium hydroxide,
potassium hydroxide.
2 Sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid.
3 Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide.
4 Saliva.
5 Toothpaste.
6 Water.
7 One from: blood, toothpaste, milk of magnesia, drain cleaner, sodium hydroxide, potassium
hydroxide.
8 Green.
9 Red.
10 Purple.
11 Extra acid comes out in your urine.
12 Extra alkali comes out in your urine.
13 Extra alkali comes out in her urine.
14 Concentrated sodium hydroxide. It is mixed with less water.
15 To dilute the acid.
16 Orange juice – acidic; milk – neutral; toothpaste – alkaline; cola drinks – acidic; sweat – acidic.
17 The citric acid is in a dilute solution.

5.3 Neutralisation

1 Weak acid – strong acid is corrosive and would damage your skin and eyes.
2 So that acidic and alkaline hair products do not damage their skin.
3 Milk of magnesia.
4 Hydrochloric acid.
5 The pH increased.
6 Blue or purple – the solution became more alkaline.
7 Adding the milk of magnesia more slowly.
8 Carrots and sweetcorn.
9 It increases.
10 The onion field.

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11 Sodium hydroxide, or any other alkali.

12 pH gets less.
13 An acid, as his soil is neutral and peanuts grow best in acidic soils.

5.4 Acids and carbonates

1 It takes longer for water to boil.

2 The pipes may become blocked.
3 Formic acid (modern name is methanoic acid).
4 Wear eye protection to protect your eyes from the corrosive effects of the descaler; make
sure you don’t spill it on your skin.
5 Less than 7, because it must be an acid if it neutralises an alkali.
6 Carbon dioxide.
7 pH has gone up, as some of the hydrochloric acid has been neutralised.
8 Plants use carbon dioxide to make food. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere helps keep the
Earth warm.
9 The limewater would be cloudy.
10 The limewater would not be cloudy.
11 Use plasticine to hold the short end of the straw in the test tube above the bubbling mixture.
Put the long end of the straw into the limewater in the other test tube.
12 Acidic.

5.5 Acids and metals

1 To help digest food.

2 It reacted with the hydrochloric acid in his stomach.
3 Hydrogen.
4 Zinc chloride or water.
5 It goes up, as some of the acid has reacted.
6 The splint will go out.
7 A squeaky pop.
8 The splint would go out. There would be no squeaky pop.
9 Stars, including the Sun. Jupiter.
10 Put a lighted splint in the bubbles. If you hear a squeaky pop and the splint goes out, then the
bubbles contain hydrogen.
11 a Hydrogen. b It reacts with the acid. c Too much iron will be removed from the surface of the
engine and she will no longer be able to see any numbers.

5.6 Acids: the full story

1 Hydrochloric acid.
2 Potassium sulfate.
3 Sodium nitrate and water.
4 Hydrochloric acid.
5 Sodium hydroxide.
6 Magnesium sulfate, carbon dioxide, water.
7 Sodium nitrate + carbon dioxide + water (in any order).
8 Hydrochloric acid + barium carbonate → barium chloride + carbon dioxide + water
9 Sulfuric acid + sodium carbonate → sodium sulfate + carbon dioxide + water
10 Zinc sulfate.
11 Lead nitrate and hydrogen.
12 Magnesium + nitric acid → magnesium nitrate + hydrogen
13 Zinc + hydrochloric acid → zinc chloride + hydrogen
14 Acid + alkali → salt + water
Acid + carbonate → salt + carbon dioxide + water

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5.7 Using pH and neutralisation

1 pH goes down.
2 An alkali.
3 a Acid. b Acid. c Neither. d Alkali.
4 a 6.0. b The lake became more acidic. c Two of trout, salmon, eel, snails, mayfly, water lily.
d Eel. e The pH increased.
5 Yes – mayflies can live in water of pH 6.

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6.1 Solids, liquids and gases

1 Student’s individual response.

2 His own experiments on gases and the results of other scientists’ experiments.
3 The particles in diamond are in a regular pattern. They vibrate on the spot, and do not move
from place to place.
4 The particles move around.
5 Experiments, evidence, theories, predictions.
6
How close are Are they in a How do they How strongly do they
the particles? pattern? move? attract each other?

Solids Touching Yes Vibrate on the Very strongly

spot

Liquids Touching No Move around Strongly

each other

Gases Far apart No Move fast in all Very weakly

directions

6.2 Spreading out

1 Nitrogen gas.
2 Supports the part of the theory that states that particles in gases are far apart but that particles
in solids and liquids are touching.
3 Into the air.
4 The spreading out of particles.
5 Gas.
6 Move around from place to place.
7 In liquids, particles frequently collide with other particles. So they take a long time to get from
one place to another. Gas particles collide less frequently with other particles, so get from one
place to another more quickly.
8 The particles in a solid are tightly packed together so they cannot move easily. In a liquid the
particles can move about more easily than in a solid.
9 Shows the arrangements of particles in solids, liquids and gases, and how they move around.
10 The ‘particles’ (maltesers) cannot move around on their own.
11
Solids Liquids Gases

How quickly do they diffuse? Very slowly Quite fast Very fast

How squashy are they? Not squashy Not squashy Very squashy

6.3 Heating and cooling

1 Solid and liquid.

2 Changing from solid to liquid.
3 Melting.
4 Condensing.
5 Solid.
6 Expands.
7 Diagrams showing that in the cold bottle, collapsed inwards, the particles are closer together
than in the warm, fully expanded, bottle.

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8 The chocolate melts because the temperature in your mouth is just above the melting point
of chocolate.
9 Aluminium – gas; gold – liquid.
10 Condensing.
11 Gas.
12 Diagram: particles in the gas are further apart than in the liquid.

6.4 Dissolving

1 Stirring.
2 Solvent is water; solute is sugar.
3 Solution.
4 Stirring or heating.
5 Shows that the particles are mixed throughout the solution.
6 The particles cannot move about on their own.
7 –
8 205 g.
9 1000 g.
10 To make the solutes dissolve more quickly.
11 Lithium chloride.
12 Sodium chloride.
13 Sodium chloride.
14 Solvent is water; solute is copper sulfate.
15 102 g.
16 They mix with the water particles.
17 Saturated solution.

6.5 Gas pressure and density

1 Diagram showing gas particles closer together inside the bag of crisps than outside it.
2 Inside the pressure chamber. The pressure is higher inside the chamber because there are
more particles in 1 cm3 of the gas inside the chamber than there are in 1 cm3 of air outside
the chamber.
3 Particles inside the container move faster as they get hotter. So they hit the walls of the
container – and the inside of the lid – more frequently. Eventually the pressure inside the
container is so high that the lid blows off.
4 The bottle of liquid water.
5 The bottle of liquid water.
6 Solid gold.
7 Solid gold.
8 There are more particles in 1 cm3 of air inside the tyre than there are in the same volume of air
outside the tyre. So in one minute there are more collisions with the inside surface of the tyre
than with the outside surface of the tyre. So the pressure is higher inside the tyre.
9 The particles move faster. So the hit the inside surface of the tyre more frequently.
10 Measure equal volumes of the three solids. Weigh them. The heaviest is the most dense.

6.6 Using particles

1 Diffusion.
2 Diagram showing particles close together in the middle of the diagram and spreading out to the
edges where they are most widely spaced out.
3 Fekerte is closer to the roasting beans, so the particles from the roasting beans that enter her
nose have less far to travel.
4 Shakes the pot and heats up the mixture.
5 Liquid and gas.

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6 Diagams showing particles closer together in liquid than in gas.

7 The lid might blow off. As the coffee heats up, so more water evaporates to become steam.
The steam particles move fast and hit the lid frequently. So the pressure inside the coffee pot
is higher than the pressure outside.
8 a Water. b Coffee and sugar. c Diagram showing particles of coffee, sugar and water
distributed evenly.
9 To make the sugar dissolve quickly in the cups.
10 Diagram showing a greater number of water particles than in the previous diagram.
11 The second cup.

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7.1 Elements

1 Good property – glass is transparent; less good property – glass breaks easily.
2 One of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus.
3 Other elements (carbon and hydrogen) have the symbols C and H.
4 The symbol for iron is the first two letters of its Latin name.
5 German.
6 C.
7 A substance that cannot be split into anything simpler.
8 H – hydrogen; C – carbon; N – nitrogen; O – oxygen; P – phosphorus (or any other elements
and their symbols).
9 Atoms are particles that are the basic building blocks of all matter.
10 The same.
11 Different.

7.2 More about elements

1 Examples are cutlery, bicycles, anything with electrical wires, cars, paper clips.
2 Any three from: solid at room temperature, strong, shiny when first cut, good conductors of
heat and electricity, bendy.
3 Because metals are good conductors of heat.
4 It is shiny and easy to bend into different shapes.
5 It is liquid at room temperature.
6 They are very soft and quickly get a white coating in air.
7 Oxygen and nitrogen, for example.
8 Brittle, not shiny.
9 Oxygen, carbon and hydrogen.
10 97%.
11
What they look Do they usually Can you bend them?
like conduct electricity?

Metals Shiny Yes Yes

Non-metals Dull No No

7.3 Compounds

1 Calcium.
2 Phosphorus and oxygen.
3 A material made from atoms of elements joined to atoms of one or more other elements.
4 Two of calcium, phosphorus and oxygen.
5 Sodium – shiny, fizzes in water, solid at room temperature; chlorine – green, smelly,
poisonous, gas at room temperature; sodium chloride – white, solid at room temperature, not
poisonous.
6 Very different.
7 The word ‘chlorine’ is changed to ‘chloride’.
8 One.
9 One.
10 Two.
11 Carbon is solid at room temperature. Carbon monoxide is a gas at room temperature.
12 All the atoms in an element are the same. A compound contains more than one type of atom.
13 Water is a liquid at room temperature.

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7.4 Mixtures

1 Pour the sandy water through the fine sieve – and collect the clean water that comes through in
a glass; put the sandy strawberries in the colander and pour water over them; heat the salty
water until all the water evaporates – salt will remain in the container.
2 The different substances in mixtures are not joined together. The atoms of the different
elements in a compound are joined together.
3 Use a magnet – the iron nails will be attracted to the magnet, the copper tacks will not be.
4 Elements – nitrogen, oxygen, argon. Compound – carbon dioxide.
5 Three from: glucose, fructose, sucrose, citric acid, ascorbic acid.
6 It is a mixture of sweet things and sour things. The properties of a mixture are similar to the
properties of the substances in it.
7 There might not be enough active ingredient in the tablet to make the person feel better.
8 Yes. Sucrose is not an active ingredient, so the amount of sucrose in a tablet makes no
difference to its effectiveness.
9
Are the elements joined Are its properties similar to,
together or just mixed up? or different from, the properties
of the elements?

Mixture of elements Mixed up Similar

Compound Joined together Different

7.5 Elements and compounds

1 Element – oxygen; compound – water.

2 Sulphate, nitrate, chloride.
3 Distil the mixture.
4 Metals – calcium (Ca) and iron (Fe); non-metal – phosphorus (P).
5 The calcium would fizz in your mouth as it reacted with the water there.
6 Two from iron, sulfur, oxygen. The elements are joined together in iron sulfate.
7 To find the mean of six numbers, add the numbers up and then divide the total by 6.
8 Got smaller.
9 Got smaller.
10 Either reason is a possibility.
11 The larger sample is more reliable.
12 The scientist’s research might be influenced by his own interests.

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8.1 What are chemical reactions?

1 All the reactions are irreversible. New substances are created in each reaction.
2 Burning – flames, smell, get hotter; cooking – smell, get hotter, maybe flames; plant – difficult
to detect any of these signs; tooth in cola – difficult to detect any of these signs; vinegar and
bicarbonate of soda – fizzing.
3 Liquid chocolate can be solidified; you can taste the sugar in tea and it is possible to get the
sugar out of the tea; you can melt the ice to get liquid water back.
4 Chemical reaction – irreversible and make new substances.
5 Reversible change – you can taste the coffee in the solution and it is possible to get the coffee
powder back out of the solution.
6 Reversible change – steam condenses to make liquid water again.
7 Chemical change – irreversible (you cannot get the raw carrot back!)

8.2 Reversible changes

1 Filter the seawater. The sand will be in the filter paper.

2 Heat the mixture until the water evaporates, or leave the seawater in a warm place until the
water evaporates.
3 The salts were dissolved in the water in a reversible process – seawater is a mixture of water
and dissolved salts.
4 Heat from the Bunsen burner.
5 The steam cools down.
6 In the round-bottomed flask.
7 Their boiling points are too high.
8 Blue and yellow.
9 Blue.
10 Water.
11 Four.
12 The green pigment.
13 The orange pigment.
14 Diagram similar to page 92.
15 Examples include measuring blood alcohol levels or looking for traces of explosives on the
body hair of suspect bombers.

8.3 Burning

1 Burning fuels in vehicles, burning gas in cookers, burning gas or coal or oil to generate
electricity, burning gas or oil to heat houses (and any other sensible use).
2 They transfer energy as heat.
3 It is irreversible and makes new substances (e.g. ash); you can see flames; you can feel heat;
you may notice a smell.
4 The oxygen required for the burning reaction cannot get to the wood.
5 The splint glows more brightly in pure oxygen.
6 No – the splint still burns in air, a mixture which includes nitrogen gas.
7 Try burning the splint in pure nitrogen, argon or carbon dioxide.
8 Iron oxide.
9 Magnesium oxide.
10 Aluminium and oxygen.
11 Magnesium and oxygen.
12 Magnesium oxide.
13 Iron + oxygen → iron oxide; calcium + oxygen → calcium oxide; zinc + oxygen → zinc oxide;
magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide.
14 Oxygen.
15 Combustion.

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16 Sodium oxide.
17 Aluminium + oxygen → aluminium oxide.
18 Sulfur and oxygen.

8.4 Burning hydrocarbons

1 To provide energy.
2 Oxygen.
3 Carbon dioxide and water.
4 They escape from the exhaust pipe.
5 Carbon dioxide and water.
6 Cooking, heating homes, to heat chemicals in labs.
7 Methane and oxygen.
8 Carbon dioxide and water.
9 They escape into the air.
10 In the atmosphere.
11 They help to make the Earth hotter.
12 Mainly a mixture of hydrocarbons.
13 Distillation.
14 The remains of dead animals and plants that died millions of years ago.
15 To provide energy.
16 Butane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water.

8.5 More useful chemical reactions

1 Smell and bang.

2 Nitrogen gas.
3 Makes new substances.
4 Reactants are water and car dioxide; products are glucose and oxygen.
5 The fruit.
6 Burn the wood to heat a home or cook food over a fire.
7 –
8 Distillation.
9 Polyester and water.
10 No – chemical reactions are irreversible.
11 Carbon dioxide and water.
12 Oxygen.
13 To stay alive, grow, make seeds and fruit.

8.6 Global warming

1 Flooding, extinctions, reduced harvests of food crops.

2 Oceans.
3 Global warming will have impacts in areas studied by scientists with many different specialisms.
4 They don’t know how human behaviour will change, or how systems will react to increasing
amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
5 –
6 Increased demand for electricity and transport, or any other sensible answer.
7 Burning fossil fuels to generate electricity or to fuel vehicles produces carbon dioxide gas.
8 Methane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
9 The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been increasing since 1960.
10 Readings were taken over many years and in many places.
11 The values for each activity depend on many factors.
12 Aeroplane.

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13 Train produces least; walking or cycling produce even less carbon dioxide.
14 In 2007, people consume more and travel more than they did in 1907.
15 Switching off lights and appliances when not in use; cycling, walking or taking public
transport instead of going by car; other sensible answers.

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9.1 Using electricity

1 Student’s individual response.

2 Student’s individual response.
3 Examples include equipment can be used outside; does not rely on a mains supply; no trailing
leads to fall over.
4 Examples include batteries need recharging or replacing, only provide a low voltage.
5 B.
6 A – complete the circuit by adding another lead from cell to lamp. C – turn one cell around.
7 It is quicker; standard symbols used so everyone understands.
8 Close the switch.
9 Diagram as series diagram A on page 103.
10 All three bulbs are dimmer.
11 All three bulbs are as bright as the bulbs in question 9.
12 Brighter than normal.
13 C.
14 B.
15 It breaks the circuit; there is no longer a complete path for the current.
16 Dimmer; brighter.
17 Circuit diagrams equivalent to A, B, C on page 102.
18 Circuit diagram as series circuit C on page 103 but with three bulbs.

9.2 Electric current

1 X, Y and Z are all the same brightness as X alone.

2 X and Z.
3 Y and Z.
4 in parallel: you can switch them independently; if one bulb breaks the others still work; the
lights are the same brightness no matter how many are switched on.
5 Circuit diagram for a bulb and cell.
6 Ammeter symbol added in series anywhere around circuit.
7 They get dimmer.
8 Current decreases (to 0.67A).
9 0.1A.
10 0.4A.
11 0.3A.
12 None.
13 The current in each bulb stays the same when you add more bulbs. You cannot switch the
lamps independently. If one bulb ‘blows’ the other bulbs still light.
14 A parallel circuit.

9.3 All about voltage

1 Motion, movement, kinetic energy.

2 The battery with the highest voltage.
3 The total voltage or available energy is shared so the more bulbs the less energy to push the
current through each one, so the current falls.
4 2V.
5 6V.
6 When there is a break in the circuit (e.g. switch opened) or battery runs out.
7 Current is due to a flow of electrons and the electrons cannot escape or be lost.
8 6.
9 9V.

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9.4 Magnetism

1 Lodestone is a magnet so attracts pins (from photo); magnets have two different poles so two
pieces of lodestone may attract or repel (from text).
2 Iron filings cling to the end.
3 Steel.
4 X is North; Y is South.
5 Steel paperclip is attracted to the bar magnet; paperclip is magnetised by the magnetic field
around the bar magnet.
6 They are either two North poles or two South poles.
7 Iron, nickel, steel.
8 Diagram A shows numerous field lines in the area between the two magnets, and less strong
fields around each magnet. X is not shown. Diagram B is similar to the picture opposite
question 6. X lies between the two magnets.
9 North pole points to the bottom left part of the matchbox; South pole points to the top right
part of the matchbox.

9.5 Electromagnets

1 The direction of the magnetic field would reverse.

2 A bar magnet.
3 It does not stay magnetised; it loses its magnetism as soon as the current is switched off.
4 It stays magnetised; it keeps its magnetism when the current is switched off.
5 Any sensible method; e.g. measure the greatest load it can pick up.
6 Because the electric circuit is repeatedly connected (make) and disconnected (break).
7 There is no friction between train and track.
8 Will not remove wooden splinters.
9 Examples include cranes in steelworks or similar to move magnetic materials around;
electromagnetic door lock (e.g. in some hotels); relays (used to switch on the large current
needed by the starter motor of a car or in telephone exchanges).
10 Bigger current; more turns on coil/solenoid.
11 Iron allows the magnetism to be switched on and off by switching the current on and off; steel
keeps its magnetism.
12 Electromagnet, attached to a moveable crane, is placed above the car to be moved; current is
switched on and car is attracted to the electromagnet; crane moves car; current is switched off
and car is released.
13 The strength of the electromagnet can be varied to suit the size and depth of the splinter; the
electromagnet can be positioned correctly before switching on the current.

9.6 Discovering electricity

1 Student’s individual response.

2 Animal electricity caused by an electric fluid carried to the frog’s muscles by the nerves.
3 Humans have nerves and muscles just like frogs.
4 Different people at different times got the same result; the results are reproducible.
5 Current flowed between two different metals surrounded by flesh, which is full of water, as
water conducts electricity.
6 The volt.
7 The ampere.
8 They were friends who met and talked to each other frequently; communications were poor so
other scientists could not discuss their ideas easily.
9 Further research or experiments to test each theory in different ways.

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10.1 What is energy?

1 Light/thermal energy; kinetic energy; sound energy; kinetic energy; thermal energy.
2 Thermal energy.
3 Bonfire – light energy + a little sound energy; bike – sound energy + thermal energy.
4 Any sensible answer: e.g. breathing, walking.
5 Kinetic energy of the rider (pedalling).
6 Any sensible answer: e.g. thermal energy.
7 Thermal and light energy.
8 Kinetic, thermal, chemical, light, sound, electrical.
9 a Kinetic energy. b Chemical energy.
10 Coal, oil, natural gas.
11 Chemical; light; thermal.

10.2 Food for thought

1 Any sensible answer: e.g. breathing, talking, jumping.

2 He needs energy for other things too: e.g. breathing, to come down the mountain,
he might get lost.
3 2 kJ.
4 Cheese.
5 Any sensible answer: e.g. people on special diets such as low fat, low saturated fats or low salt.
6 Any combination that adds up to 1500 kJ: e.g. 5 bananas; slice of pizza and portion of baked
beans.
7 Examples include high energy value, ready to eat, portable, small.
8 Energy needed to grow bigger bones, muscles, brains, etc.
9 Include a range of different types of food such as sources of protein, carbohydrates, fats,
vitamins, minerals.
10 Jogger.
11 Do more exercise.
12 15 000 000 J.
13 1500 kJ.
14 ½ hour.

10.3 More energy

1 Plants use light energy from the Sun; carbon dioxide and water react together to make glucose
and oxygen.
2 Sun → grass grows → cow eats grass → cow produces milk → milk makes cheese for
Jo to eat.
3 Energy transfer.
4 Coal is made from trees; oil is made from tiny plants and animals in the oceans.
5 Sun → trees grow → coal.
6 Electrical energy → kettle → thermal energy.
7 Kinetic energy → guitar → sound energy.
8 Footballer looks different but is still the same person underneath, similarly energy looks
different but it is still energy; there are many different teams and many (though fewer)
different forms of energy.
9 Two from: energy transfer is often impossible to reverse but a football transfer can be; new
energy form is more than superficially different but a footballer just gets a new outer coating;
footballer still does the same task (kicks a ball) but different energy forms carry out different
tasks.
10 Coal, oil, natural gas.
11 Electrical, sound.

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12 Electrical energy → hair dryer → kinetic energy + thermal energy + sound energy.
13 Sound energy is produced; not all the hot air (kinetic + thermal energy) reaches the hair.

10.4 Storing energy

1 The energy is obtained from chemicals in the battery and it is stored, ready to use when
required.
2 It is stored energy; it has the ability to change into another form of energy.
3 Kinetic energy is the energy of a moving object, it is not stored up.
4 Gravitational potential energy.
5 Kinetic energy.
6 Examples include thermal energy, sound energy.
7 It is stored energy; it has the ability to change into another form of energy.
8 It changes to kinetic energy.
9 Weight of the girl.
10 Gravitational potential energy.
11 Kinetic energy.
12 Elastic potential energy.
13 EPE → KE → GPE.
14 He runs out of energy; it has all been changed into other forms.
15 Chemical, gravitational, elastic.
16 EPE, KE.
17 Trisha.

10.5 Energy supplies

1 Chemical (potential) energy

2 Chemical energy → fossil fuel → thermal energy + light energy
3 Renewable resources will not run out; non-renewable resources will run out one day
4 The Sun does not always shine.
5 It can be burned.
6 Kinetic energy → wind turbine → electrical energy.
7 GPE → falling water → KE → generator → electrical energy.
8 Coal, oil, natural gas, (nuclear).
9 Three from: wind, wave, tidal, biomass, hydroelectric, solar.
10 Examples include high up, open or exposed site, on the coast.
11 Geothermal.

10.6 The energy crisis

1 it is changed into non-useful forms of energy.

2 216 kJ; 43.2 kJ.
3 172.8 kJ.
4 Less thermal energy produced.
5 About 3 times more.
6 Literally everyone must save energy by using energy-saving (low wattage) bulbs if we are to
protect the environment.
7 Examples include TV, refrigerator, dishwasher, computer, mp3 player, CD player, washing
machine.
8 USA.
9 UK 2.7, USA 5.3, China 1.1, India 0.27 (all in tonnes).
10 6890 million tonnes.
11 Description of any three clean methods; e.g. wind power, wave power, hydroelectric power,
solar power.
12 Student’s individual response.

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11.1 Forces, forces everywhere!

1 Pulling.
2 Gravity is almost the same everywhere on Earth, but it is slightly greater at the poles due to
the shape of the Earth.
3 Acts towards the centre of the Earth.
4 Pushing.
5 Bending.
6 Pulling.
7 Arrow is longer.
8 More than 3 seconds.
9 More air resistance, more friction, more drag.
10 Weight.
11 Less air resistance, less friction, less drag, therefore use less fuel.
12 More streamlined, smoother entry into water.

11.2 A balancing act!

1 Gravity, weight.
2 The forces are equal.
3 1660 N.
4 Weight.
5 The car speeds up.
6 The car slows down.
7 1100 N.
8 Weight, gravity.
9 Air resistance.
10 Thrust.
11 Air resistance.
12 The car speeds up.
13 Friction between wheels and road, air resistance, friction in wheel bearings.

11.3 The work of friction

1 To reduce friction.
2 Start higher up the slope.
3 Oil, grease.
4 Less heat generated when using soap, hands do not warm up.
5 The bike will stay still because there is no friction between the wheels and the ice.
6 Air flow is not smooth over top surface.
7 More miles per gallon, lower fuel cost.
8 There is less friction.
9 Improves grip, increases friction between wheels and track.
10 Fall flatter, spread arms, open parachute.
11 Friction generates heat.

11.4 Bouncing up

1 250 N.
2 Student’s individual response.
3 4 N.
4 Weight.
5 Diagram shows upward force of 4 N and downward force of 10 N.
6 Upthrust.
7 0 N.

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8 3 m.
9 30 m.
10 2.0 m.
11 is 0.4 m.
12 To make sure the person on the end of the rope does not stretch the rope so far they hit
the ground.
13 To make sure the springs do not break or stretch so much they lose their elastic property.
14 1500 million N.

11.5 Faster and slower

1 5 m/s.
2 75 km/h.
3 60 m.
4 6 m/s.
5 1000 m.
6 5 minutes.
7 2400 m.
8 28 minutes.
9 7 minutes.
10 100 metres per minute.
11 Distance and time taken.
12 300 s.
13 C travelling at a constant speed.

11.6 Forces at work

1 Push.
2 Push.
3 Pull.
4 Stretch.
5 200 N.
6 Rough.
7 The belt would slip.
8 It might appear to be running slower.
9 Push.
10 Equal.
11 Push.
12 Diagrams showing downward force from head of hammer and twisting force around
screwdriver.
13 Student’s individual responses, e.g. twist tap, pull drawer, twist milk bottle lid, pull oven door,
push microwave button.

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12.1 Early days

1 In the west.
2 A satellite.
3 Right.
4 Night.
5 24 hours.
6 June.
7 March and September.
8 1 year; 365¼ days.
9 Earth tilts towards Sun in summer and away from Sun in winter.
10 It is summer.
11 Because of the Earth’s tilt on its axis.
12 Near the equator.
13 Constant amount of sunlight all through the year; similar distance to Sun in both seasons.
14 June.
15 December 21st.

12.2 Our bit of space

1 They reflect light from the Sun.

2 Water was present in the past.
3 An asteroid hitting Earth would be very damaging to Earth.
4 778 million km.
5 Jupiter.
6 Ten times larger.
7 Venus – 1.08 m; Earth – 1.50 m; Mars – 2.28 m; Jupiter – 7.78 m; Saturn – 14.27 m;
Uranus – 28.71 m.
8 The four planets closest to the Sun ‘inner’ and the four furthest ‘outer’; distance from Mars to
Jupiter is proportionately larger than any other distance.
9 Atmosphere is CO2; greenhouse gas traps energy from Sun.
10 Distances either too big or too small.

12.3 What goes around

1 Earth.
2 Space telescope.
3 Further to travel, larger orbit distance; travels more slowly.
4 Mercury.
5 Half.
6 New Moon.
7 Earth, Moon and Sun need to be in a perfectly straight line.
8 Ice melts and releases dust that reflects light.
9 Sun.
10 Waxing Moon appears to increase in size, waning Moon appears to decrease in size.
11 They think it is night time.
12 Moving away from the Sun.

12.4 GPS and TV

1 Need to keep in same position above Earth’s surface.

2 So they can see things clearly, see whole surface.
3 They are closer to Earth, travel faster, have shorter orbit distance.
4 At office supervising the tagged person.
5 Satnav only has information about roads – not their suitability for certain vehicles or conditions.

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6 http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html provides viewing information.

7 A satellite is any object orbiting a larger object.
8 Too big, too heavy to send up all at once.

12.5 Where did it all begin?

1 Solar system is one star and its surrounding planets; galaxy is a collection of solar systems.
2 Idea of selecting small sample then scaling up, e.g. count number of word in one line, repeat
and average, multiply by lines on the page, multiply by pages in the book.
3 Over 4 years.
4 2.5 million years.
5 9 500 000 000 000 km.
6 Student’s individual response.
7 Dinosaurs were extinct well before man arrived on Earth.
8 Avoids dealing with such big numbers.
9 The light has taken so long to reach us we see them as they were millions/billions of years ago.
10 It would take too long.

12.6 Is anybody out there?

1 Difficult to grind lenses accurately enough; easier to make large mirrors.

2 No telescope powerful enough.
3 No atmosphere to blur images.
4 Neil Armstrong.
5 Student’s individual response to include such things as being away from family and friends,
having to get on with fellow astronauts, need to be very fit.
6 Student’s individual response.

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