INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

 Factors Affecting Communication

1. Low-Context/Direct vs. High-Context/Indirect cultures
 Association/Relationship
• Relationships begin and end
quickly. circle's boundary is not
clear.
• Things get done by following
procedures and paying attention
to the goal.
• One's identity is rooted in
oneself and one's accomplishments.
• Social structure is decentralized
Interaction/Communication
• Low use of nonverbal elements.
• Verbal message is explicit/direct.
• Communication is seen as a way of
exchanging information, ideas, and
opinions.
• Disagreement is depersonalized.
Territoriality/Space
• Sense of privacy.
• Keep distance on first
acquaintance
Temporality/Time
• Things are scheduled to be
done at particular times, one thing at a time.
• Change is fast.
• Time is a commodity.
Association/Relationship
• Relationships depend on trust,
build up slowly, are stable.
• How things get done depends
on relationships with people and
attention to group process.
• One's identity is rooted in
groups (family, culture, work).
• Social structure and authority
are centralized.
Interaction/Communication
• High use of nonverbal elements.
• Verbal message is implicit/indirect.
• Communication is seen as an art form — a
way of engaging someone.
• Disagreement is personalized
Territoriality/Space
• Space is communal.
• People stand close to each
other, share the same
space.
Temporality/Time
• Everything has its own time. Time is not
easily scheduled; needs of people may
interfere with keeping to a set time
• Change is slow.
• Time is a process
Learning/Reasoning Learning/Reasoning
• Thinking is inductive, • Thinking is deductive,
proceeds from specific to proceeds from general to
general. specific.
• Learning occurs by • Learning occurs by first
following explicit directions observing others as they
and explanations of others. model or demonstrate and
• Individual orientation is then practicing.
preferred for learning and • Groups are preferred for
problem solving. learning and problem solving.
• Speed is valued. • Accuracy is valued.

2. Stereotype, generalization, and ethnocentrism

Stereotype: rigid preconceptions which are applied to all members of a group or to an

individual over a period of time, regardless of individual variations.
Generalization: a statement describing general behavior that does not apply all the time
Ethnocentrism: tendency to interpret or judge all other groups, their environments, and
their communication according to the values and behaviours of our own culture

 Language and culture

"Knowledge of the world's languages and cultures is more vital than ever. In order to compete
in the global community, we must be able to communicate effectively and to appreciate,
understand, and be able to work in the framework of other cultures." (US senator, Paul Simon)

In the past, culture used to be distinct from language; nowadays, it has become integral to it.

"A language is part of a culture and culture is part of language; the two are intricately
interwoven so that one cannot separate the two without losing the significance of either
language or culture." (Douglas Brown, 1994)

Culture: Values, attitudes and communication behaviours shared by a majority of a group of

people that distinguish that group from other groups.

Communication: A two-way process by which two or more individuals try to exchange

meaning: ideas, feelings, symbols, etc.

“Culture and communication are inseparable because culture not only dictates who talks to
whom, about what, and how the communication proceeds, it also helps to determine how
people encode messages, the meanings they have for messages, and the conditions and
circumstances under which various messages may or may not be sent, noticed, or
interpreted... Culture...is the foundation of communication.
  Characteristics of verbal language that can lead to misunderstanding in IC
1. Language is inherently ambiguous
From one culture to the next some words and phrases are used to mean different
things:
a. Word level
He is a lion. # She is a lion.

Different word using habits

Ex: “Áo lạnh” = “áo ấm

b. Sentence level
Linguistic knowledge + pragmatic knowledge
Ex: “What time is it?”
-> ≠ meanings
c. Discourse-level ambiguity
Pragmatic and sociolinguistic knowledge
- East Asian discourse: saving the best or most significant point for last
- “non-invitation”: pre-closing a conversation in American or English cultures
• Saying “sorry”:

2. Language is arbitrary

The arbitrariness of language arises at 3 levels: (Meaning of linguistics signs # form)

• Lexicon
• Grammar and Syntax
• Discourse
a. The arbitrariness of lexicon
• The meanings of many words are interpreted differently by people of the same language but
from different cultural backgrounds.
lexicon level: THE EYE OF THE NEEDLE
Ex: A Turkish visitor to the U.S. refused to have a hot dog because he thought it was made of
dog meat, which it was against his religious beliefs to eat.

b. The arbitrariness of grammar and syntax

Passive voice vs. “bị” and “được”
Ex: Nó bị phạt. (He is punished.)
Nó được khen. (He is praised.)
But: Nó bị điểm kém. (He gets bad mark.)
Anh ấy lấy được người vợ tốt. (He has got a good wife.)

b. The arbitrariness of language: Discourse level

• Asian speakers often follow the “topic-comment” pattern of discourse organization.
-> Pattern: because of Y (topic, background, or reasons), X (comment, main point, or action
suggested)”
 • Westerners tend to begin their speech with the main point first -> to attract the
listener’s attention and prepare their own argument for it.
-> Pattern: “X (comment, main point, or action suggested) because of Y (topic,
background, or reasons)”.
-> negative social consequences:
“the unfair and prejudicial stereotypes of the “inscrutable” Asian or of the frank and rude
westerner”
(Ron Scollon and Suzanne Wong Scollon,2001, p. 2)

3. Language is diverse
The diversity of language: Dialects and slang
A husband (a Vietnamese northerner) said to his wife (a Vietnamese southerner) during
a meal: “Đưa môi đây”, but the wife got ashamed and ran away.

The diversity of language: Idioms and Proverbs

A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.”
“Cleanliness is next to Godliness.”
“The early bird gets the worm.”
4. Language is socio-culturally conditioned
  Non-verbal Behavior in Cross- cultural Communication
1. Definition of Non-verbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is the process by which nonverbal behaviours are used, either
singly or in combination with verbal behaviours, in the exchange and interpretation of
messages within a given situation or context. (Malandro, Barker & Barker, 1989)

2. Forms of Non-verbal Communication

 Proxemics: Spatial/Distance Behavior: Conversational/Interpersonal Distance
 Kinesics: Body Movement: Gestures and Body Positioning; Facial Expressiveness
 Haptics: Touch Behavior
 Oculesics: Gaze behavior: Eye Contact
 Chronemics: time concepts
 Vocalics: tone and voice
 Dress and make-up

Spatial behavior depends on

Nature of the relationship
Personality
Cultural styles

Kinds of “body bubble/body wall”

1. Intimate distance (< 0.5m)
2. Personal distance (0.5m – 1.2m)
3. Social distance (1.2m – 3.0m)
4. Public distance (>3.0m)

KINESICS: Gestures and Body Positioning; Facial Expressiveness

- Body movement that conveys information about an individual
- Specific body movements that carry meaning
Example
• Posture and sitting (status, affiliation, cultural values, good/bad etiquette)
• Gestures: Hand and arm movements (specific actions and the size of the action carry cultural
messages)
• Facial expressions

Haptics: Touch Behavior

High contact vs Low Contact

Oculesics: Eye Contact / Gaze Behavior

• Staring is usually considered rude, esp. at strangers.
• Glancing is quite common and doesn’t mean much
 just to acknowledge another person’s presence
• Too little eye contact may be viewed negatively => lack of interest,
inattention, mistrust
Ex: “He didn’t look at me once. I know he’s guilty. Never trust a person who doesn’t
look you in the eye.” (American Police Officer)
 Dress and Make-up
• attractive = more kind, sensitive, strong, sociable and interesting
• Attractive people find jobs easier and obtain higher starting salaries

 Characteristics of non-verbal behavior that can cause cross cultural

misunderstanding
1.Non-verbal language is less systematized than verbal language.
2. Non-verbal language is culture-bound.
3. Non-verbal language is ambiguous

Cultural differences – Eye contact

• Americans tend to look people in the eye.
• They are uncomfortable without continuous eye contact and assume that the other is
hiding something or being less honest if they look away.

• In Asia, it is a sign of respect to look down, and of disrespect or confrontation to have

continuous eye contact.
• Speakers should avoid looking directly into another person’s eyes for more than a few
seconds at a time.

• In Vietnam, there is the tendency not to sustain eye contact.

• Vietnamese people tend not to make continuous eye contact with those they respect.

Recommendations
3 As rules:
• Awareness
• Alertness
• Adaptation

• 4 Building blocks of culture

1.Concept of self
2. Personal vs societal responsibility
3. Concept of time: monochronic – polychronic
4. Locus of control: internal-external
 Hofstede’s framework
Dimensions of national culture
1. Individualism – Collectivism

2. Power Distance Index

HIGH POWER DISTANCE: These cultures accept that inequalities in power and status are natural
or existential. People accept that some among them will have more power and influence than
others in the same way they accept that some people are taller than others. Those with power
tend to emphasize it, to hold it close and not delegate or share it, and to distinguish themselves
as much as possible from those who do not have power. They are, however, expected to accept
the responsibilities that go with power, especially that of looking after those beneath them.
Subordinates are not expected to take initiative and are closely supervised.

LOW POWER DISTANCE: People in these cultures see inequalities in power and status as man-made
and largely artificial; it is not natural, though it may be convenient, that some people have power over
others. Those with power, therefore, tend to deemphasize it, to minimize the differences between
themselves and subordinates, and to delegate and share power to the extent possible. Subordinates
are rewarded for taking initiative and do not like close supervision.

3. Uncertainty Avoidance Index

Attitude toward uncertainty
Positive low UA
Skeptical high UA
Refers to how a culture feels about change and tradition and about what is new
and different.

It also examines cultural attitudes toward taking risks and failing.

Attitude toward work

Achivement: hard work/effort/performance
Quality of life: balance between work and family life
Examines what motivates people to work, what they want to get out of their work,
and the proper relationship between the demands of work and one’s personal life.
4. Femininity – Masculinity

5. Long term – Short term Orientation (Pragmatism)

Key to productivity
Short term: emphasis on quick results
Long term emphasis on harmony
Looks at what behaviors are valued and rewarded in the workplace and the
relationship between employer and employee.

6. Indulgence – Restraint