By:  

Zafira  12Soc  
English  Review  
 
Unit  10.1  Language  and  self-­‐identity  
The  development  of  a  sense  of  self  
•   We  are  not  born  with  a  sense  of  self,  or  with  any  set  of  the  values  and  behaviours  
which  we  display  throughout  our  lives  
•   We  identify  ourselves  as  distinct  from  others  during  our  early  childhood  
development  
•   Newborn  baby  are  not  aware  of  other  people  
•   At  around  two  months,  a  baby  will  become  responsive  to  others  and  smile  back  at  a  
person.  Overtime,  this  extends  to:  
o   Imitating  the  behaviours  they  have  observed  
o   Their  behaviour  changes  from  passive  to  active  
o   Grasping  an  object  showing  the  baby's  realisation  that  there  is  an  'out  there'  
distinct  from  themselves  
o   Learns  that  other  objects  including  people  have  specific  characteristics  (ex:  a  
shiny,  red  ball)  
o   They  learn  that  they  themselves  have  distinct  properties  
o   With  language  development,  they  are  able  to  distinguish  their  gender,  age  
and  name  
•   Self-­‐identity  is  influenced  by  our  experiences  and  interaction  with  those  around  us  
 
Jean  Piaget  (Swiss  Psychologist)  
•   He  conducted  his  research  about  the  stages  of  development  of  infants  and  children  
•   Cognitive  development  is  about  the  development  of  information  processing  skills  in  
the  brain  
•   Cognitive  and  physical  developments  are  thought  to  be  linked  
 
Anton  Giddens  (Sociologist)  
•   He  stresses  its  importance  to  everything  we  do  and  the  people  we  meet  each  day  
•   He  says  “What  to  do?  How  to  act?  Who  to  be?  Are  focal  questions  for  everyone  
living  in  circumstances  of  late  modernity  (in  the  21st  century)  
 
The  influence  of  language  on  self-­‐identity  
•   The  idea  of  ‘self’  covers  a  variety  of  identities:  
o   Male  or  female  
o   National  identities  (e.g.  Indian  or  South  African)  
o   Tribal  or  regional  identities  
o   Religion  
•   What  role  does  language  play  in  our  sense  of  self-­‐identity?  
o   Voice  –  Is  one  instantly  recognizable  part  of  you.  Your  individual  speech  
pattern  is  knows  as  your  idiolect  
o   Form  of  language  –  The  form  of  language  you  speak  is  similar  to  that  spoken  
in  your  geographical  area  or  social  groups,  is  your  sociolect  
o   Gender,  age,  ethnicity,  religion  and  beliefs,  family  and  friends,  education,  
work  and  social  patterns  are  all  linked  in  with  the  language  you  use  to  live  
your  life  –  Forming  new  identities  and  relationships  
 Conversational  maxims  
•   Whenever  you  speak,  your  intention  is  to  make  sense  to  your  listeners  according  to  
the  rules  and  conventions  of  the  language  
•   Purposes  when  speaking  –  Inform,  question,  greet,  perform,  gossip  
•   Cooperative  principle  –  People  wish  to  express  relevant  information  in  a  clear  
manner  
 
Paul  Grice  (Philosopher)  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Conversational  face  
•   Conversational  face  when  each  speaker’s  sense  of  his  or  her  own  linguistic  image  
and  worth  
•   The  theory  of  face  was  initiated  by  Erving  Goffman  in  1967  
•   Strategies  to  manage  face-­‐threatening  acts  help  in  all  manner  of  conversational  
situations:  
o   Positive  politeness  –  By  being  complimentary  to  the  person  they  are  
speaking  to  before  starting  a  potentially  face-­‐threatening  act  
(e.g.  compliments,  use  of  title,  mutually  understood  jargon,  nicknames)  
§   It  is  used  to  make  the  listener  feel  good  about  themselves,  their  
By  Penelope  
interests  or  possessions,  and  are  frequently  used  in  situations  where  
Brown  
the  speakers  know  each  other  fairly  well  
For  example,  “You  look  great/sad,  can  I  help?”  “Would  you  be  so  kind  as  
to  pass  me  the  sugar?”  
o   Negative  politeness  
(e.g.  “I  hope  you  don’t  mind  if  I…”,  “Would  you  mind  if  I  asked  you  to…?”)  
§   May  be  used  to  mitigate  a  request  or  situation  by  the  speaker,  which  
they  wish  to  impose  and  which  would  potentially  restrict  the  freedom  
of  someone  else  in  the  conversation  
For  example,  “You  wouldn’t  be  able  to  pass  me  the  sugar,  would  you?”.  In  
both  of  these  circumstances  the  speaker  expects  the  listener  will  comply  
with  their  request  
•   Disagreements  are  an  inevitable  part  of  discourse  and  the  management  of  
differences  of  opinion  is  closely  related  to  face-­‐saving  strategies.  The  adversative  
conjunction  are  used  to  avoid  disagreements  (e.g.  “but”,  “however”)  
 
 
 
Key  Terms  
•   Self  -­‐>  An  individual’s  separate  existence  from  other  people  
•   Early  childhood  development  -­‐>  The  physical,  intellectual,  emotional  and  social  
development  which  takes  place  from  birth  to  primary  school  years  
•   Self-­‐identity  -­‐>  An  individual’s  awareness  of  their  own  unique  characteristics  in  
relation  to  the  social  groups  around  them  
•   Idiolect  -­‐>  The  distinctive  patter  of  an  individual’s  speech  
•   Sociolect  -­‐>  The  style  of  speech  shared  by  people  in  a  particular  region  or  social  
group  
•   Cooperative  principle  -­‐>  The  principle  that  speakers  usually  mean  what  they  say  and  
that  hearers  accept  this  in  trying  to  work  out  the  meaning  
•   Conversational  face  -­‐>  The  image  that  a  person  has  of  themselves  as  a  
conversationalist  
•   Face-­‐threatening  acts  -­‐>  Acts  or  words  which  appear  to  threaten  the  self-­‐esteem  of  
a  speaker  
•   Positive  politeness  -­‐>  Friendly  strategies  to  make  the  participant  feel  good  about  
themselves  
•   Negative  politeness  -­‐>  Strategies  intended  to  avoid  giving  offence  and  imposing  on  
others  by  showing  respect  
•   Adversative  conjunction  -­‐>  A  connecting  word  which  starts  an  idea  opposing  the  
one  which  has  just  been  stated  
 
Unit  10.2  Theories  of  language  and  self-­‐identity  
Cognitive  skills  
1.   Perception  
2.   Attention  
3.   Memory  
4.   Motor  skills  
5.   Language  
6.   Visual  and  spatial  processing  
 
Theories  of  language  and  self-­‐identity  
è   The  theories  of  language  and  self-­‐identity  are  about  how  the  language  that  is  
learned  and  used  becomes  a  meaningful  part  of  a  person’s  ideas  about  themselves  
and  in  relation  to  other  people  
(e.g.  ‘self-­‐image’,  ‘self-­‐esteem’,  ‘self-­‐worth’,  ‘self-­‐regard’,  ‘self-­‐respect’)  
 
The  main  theories  about  the  cognitive  skills  
1)   Historical  background  
•   Philosophers  used  to  think  that  language  acquisition  was  part  of  a  person's  
general  ability  to  reason.  They  had  no  awareness  of  cognitive  abilities.    
•   Descartes,  a  French  Philosopher  (1596-­‐1650),  thought  that  'it  requires  very  
little  reason  to  be  able  to  speak.'  
2)   Using  the  brain  to  make  meaning  of  the  language  learned  
•   Early  in  the  20th  century,  linguists  realized  that  learning  a  language  involved  
how  to  put  meaning  on  the  words  and  phrases  learned  
 •   Linguist  suggested  that  cognitive  skills  involving  the  brain  develop  alongside  
the  lexis  and  grammar  of  a  language  learned  
3)   Behavourism  (John  Watson)  
•   Acquisition  of  self  takes  place  alongside  the  acquisition  of  language  
•   Language  is  developed  from  the  child’s  observation  and  imitation  of  those  in  
the  world  around  them  
•   Thought  and  emotions  are  explained  in  terms  of  encouraging  desired  
behaviour  
4)   Empiricism  (John  Locke)  
•   This  theory  states  that  our  sense  of  self-­‐identity  and  our  knowledge  of  
language  come  through  our  sense  and  experiences,  and  not  through  any  
reasoning  or  logical  argument  
•   John  Locke  published  a  book  in  1960  which  argued  that  the  mind  at  birth  was  
a  ‘clean  slate’  on  which  all  experiences  developed  
5)   Innatism  (Plato)  
•   This  theory  puts  forward  the  idea  that  the  human  brain  enables  it  to  master  
the  complexities  of  language  
•   That  the  mind  is  born  with  ideas  goes  against  the  ‘blank  slate’  
6)   Nativism  (Noam  Chomsky)  
•   A  theory,  based  in  innatism,  with  the  view  that  the  individual  is  born  with  
genetic  abilities  which  include  the  development  of  language  
•   Language  Acquisition  Device  (LAD)  enables  the  initial  development  of  
language  which  then  interacts  with  an  individual’s  childhood  experiences  
within  a  society  to  produce  both  language  and  a  sense  of  self  
 
Key  Terms  
•   Cognitive  skills  -­‐>  Brain  skills  which  are  needed  to  perform  any  mental  and  physical  
task.  They  are  concerned  with  mechanisms  of  carrying  out  these  tasks,  rather  than  
with  any  knowledge.  Cognitive  abilities  are:  perception,  attention,  memory,  motor  
skills,  language  and  thought;  visual  and  spatial  processing.  
•   Perception  -­‐>  Recognition  and  interpretation  through  the  senses  
•   Attention  -­‐>  Being  able  to  concentrate  on  a  particular  mental  or  physical  task  and  
sustaining  that  concentration  over  other  distractions  in  the  environment  
•   Memory  -­‐>  The  storage  and  retrieval  of  information  in  the  brain.  Memory  is  divided  
into  short-­‐  term  memory  (the  ability  to  actively  retain  a  small  amount  of  
information)  and  long  Term  memory  (where  information  is  stored  for  an  indefinite  
period  of  time  and  can  be  retrieved).  
•   Motor  skills  -­‐>  The  ability  to  move  the  body  and  to  manipulate  objects  
•   Language  -­‐>  The  skill  which  changes  sounds  into  words  to  be  spoken  
•   Visual  and  spatial  processing  -­‐>  The  ability  to  understand  relationships  between  
objects  and  to  visualize  images  and  ideas  in  the  imagination  
 
 
 
 
 
 Unit  10.3  Language  and  thought  
Language  and  thought  in  developing  self-­‐identity  
•   Theories  about  language  and  thought  take  different  perspectives:  
o   Rational  thinking  involve  language  
o   Some  linguists  believe  that  language  and  thought  are  two  separate  entities,  
with  thought  coming  first,  then  language  as  the  vehicle  for  expressing  it  
o   Both  language  and  thought  are  essential  to  interact  
 
Theories  of  language  and  thought  
•   Edward  Sapir  believed  connections  b/w  language,  thinking  &  culture  exists  and  
believed  that  language  shapes  an  individual’s  personality  
 
The  Sapir-­‐Whorf  hypothesis  
•   Edward  Sapir  and  his  student  Benjamin  Lee  Whorf  developed  their  own  hypothesis  
about  language  and  thought  
•   The  strong  form  of  the  Sapir–Whorf  hypothesis  claims  that  people  from  different  
cultures  think  differently  because  of  differences  in  their  languages  
•   So,  native  speakers  of  Hopi  perceive  reality  differently  from  native  speakers  of  
English  because  they  use  different  languages,  Whorf  claimed.    
•   Overall,  the  ideas  relating  to  the  link  between  language  and  thought  are  as  follows:  
o   Linguistic  determinism  –  Language  determines  the  way  we  think.  A  society  is  
confined  by  its  language.  The  words  we  use  directly  frame  our  thoughts.    
§   Linguistic  determinism  is  the  concept  that  language  and  its  structures  
limit  and  determine  human  knowledge  or  thought,  as  well  as  thought  
processes  such  as  categorization,  memory,  and  perception.    
§   The  term  implies  that  people's  native  languages  will  affect  their  
thought  process  and  therefore  people  will  have  different  thought  
processes  based  on  their  mother  tongues.  
o   Linguistic  reflectionism  –  The  language  which  is  used  only  reflects  the  
thoughts  of  its  speakers,  so  language  influences  people's  views  of  their  world  
but  does  not  determine  it.  
§   Linguistic  reflectionism  suggests  that  language  simply  reflects  the  
needs,  views  and  opinions  of  its  users.    
o   Linguistic  relativity  -­‐  States  that  the  structure  of  a  language  does  affect  the  
speaker's  world.  This  idea  was  arrived  at  through  a  study  of  the  lexis  and  
syntax  available  in  different  languages.  
§   Linguistic  relativity  is  a  general  term  used  to  refer  to  various  
hypotheses  or  positions  about  the  relationship  between  language  and  
culture  
§   Sapir–Whorf  suggests  that  the  way  we  perceive  and  categorize  reality  
is  partly  determined  by  the  language  we  speak;  and  cultural  
relativity  implies  that  verbalization  of  concepts  in  a  particular  
language  is  often  culturally  conditioned.  
Criticisms  of  the  Sapir-­‐Whorf  language  and  thought  hypothesis  
•   Critics  argue  that  this  way  of  thinking  is  backward.  Language  is  instead  an  expression  
of  culture,  and  it  is  culture  that  determines  and  influences  thought  processes.  
 o   Language  only  shapes  reality  to  the  extent  that  it  is  given  meaning  and  power  
by  a  society  and  a  culture.  
•   The  Boas-­‐Jakobson  principle  replaces  the  idea  that  an  human  agent  is  incapable  of  
thinking  outside  the  limits  imposed  by  language  by  the  notion  that  language  
facilitates  or  encourages  some  thoughts  by  making  certain  concepts  accessible.  
•   The  Boas-­‐Jakobson  principle  states  that,  in  theory,  every  thought  can  be  expressed  
in  every  language  but  that  languages  differ  in  the  types  of  information  they  require  
speakers  to  mention  when  they  use  the  language  
 
Universalism  
•   The  theory  of  universalism,  ideas  of  which  were  circulated  in  the  1960s,  suggests  
that  language  is  a  reflection  of  human  thoughts  and  that  all  languages  are  similar  
with  shared  patterns  and  concepts    
•   Universalism  is  based  on  the  idea  that  thoughts  can  be  expressed  in  many  different  
ways,  or  in  many  different  languages.  An  idea  in  one  language  can  be  translated  into  
another  
 
Language  and  social  equality  
Examples  of  language  changes  which  have  reinforced  greater  social  equality  for  various  
groups:  
•   Gender  –  Traditional  words  for  employment  imply  that  only  men  can  do  certain  jobs  
(e.g.  'policeman',  'fireman').  These  words  have  been  neutralised  to  make  them  
applicable  to  all  (e.g.  'police  officer',  'firefighter').    
•   Comedy  –  Certain  types  of  comedy  are  now  not  acceptable,  such  as  personal  or  
derogatory  comments  at  the  expense  of  people's  physical  appearance  (e.g.  their  size  
and  shape).    
•   Ethnicity  –  Politically  correct  language  combats  many  unpleasant  racist  slurs  and  
insults.  In  many  countries  it  is  illegal  to  use  racist  language,  gestures  and  acts.    
•   Workplace  changes  –  The  increasing  number  of  women  in  senior  roles  in  workplaces  
throughout  the  world  breaks  down  the  assumption  that  the  boss  will  always  be  a  'he'  
and  that  the  secretary  or  personal  assistant  will  be  a  'she'.    
•   Age  –  In  the  European  Union  and  other  places,  it  is  illegal  to  discriminate  in  terms  of  
age  and  this  is  usually  taken  to  mean  older  people.  There  is  anecdotal  evidence  that  
older  women  in  particular  are  subject  to  ageist  discrimination.  Changing  attitudes  
about  ageing  have  made  people  aware  of  words  that  reinforce  stereotypes  (e.g.  
'decrepit,'  'senile')  and  the  need  to  avoid  mentioning  age  unless  it  is  actually  
relevant.  Terms  like  'elderly',  'aged',  'old'  and  'geriatric'  are  increasingly  replaced  by  
'older  person',  'senior  citizens'  or  'seniors'.  
•   Disability  –  For  instance,  the  term  'handicapped'  has  generally  been  replaced  by  the  
term  'disabled'.  A  United  States  government  paper  states  that  the  term  'disabled'  is  
less  desirable  than  'people  with  disabilities'  because  the  former  implies  that  a  
person's  disability  is  the  whole  person  rather  than  just  one  of  many  persona  l  
characteristics.  In  Australia,  the  government-­‐led  National  Disability  Strategy  has,  as  
one  of  its  core  principles,  the  inclusion  and  participation  in  everyday  life  of  people  
living  with  a  disability.  
 •   Religious  beliefs  –  These  can  be  respected  in  language  usage.  In  a  multi-­‐faith  society,  
for  example,  the  term  'Christian  name'  does  not  apply  to  all  religions  and  so  would  
be  replaced  by  'first  name'  or  'personal  name'.  
Political  correctness  (PC)  
•   Political  correctness  has  worthy  intentions  of  treating  all  people  equally.  However,  
some  PC  language  has  been  ridiculed  for  being  over-­‐sensitive.  
•   For  instance,  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  UK  city  of  Manchester  should  change  its  
name  to  'Personchester',while  a  person  without  hair  should  be  referred  to  as  'follicly  
challenged'  instead  of  'bald'.  
•   There  are  concerns  that  policing  and  controlling  language  denies  freedom  of  speech,  
and  that  certain  powerful  groups  are  adopting  dictatorial  methods.  However,  if  
people  are  brought  up  to  treat  others  respectfully,  then,  hopefully,  this  will  bring  
about  a  more  tolerant  society.  
 
Key  Terms  
•   Linguistic  determinism  -­‐>  The  idea  that  the  structure  of  a  language  determines  the  
thought  processes  of  its  speakers  
•   Linguistic  reflectionism  -­‐>  The  idea  that  the  language  reflects  the  thoughts  and  ideas  
of  a  culture,  the  opposite  of  linguistic  determinism  
•   Linguistic  relativity  -­‐>  The  idea  that  the  structure  of  language  affects  a  person’s  view  
of  the  world,  either  very  directly,  as  in  linguistic  determinism,  or  as  a  much  more  
indirect  and  weaker  influence  
•   Stereotype  -­‐>  A  very  generalised  opinion  or  idea  about  a  type  of  person  or  group  of  
people.  It  is  a  simplified  and  biased  image  and  often  produces  negative  feelings  
about  those  concerned  
•   Political  correctness  -­‐>  Avoiding  offence  to  any  group  of  people  who  may  be  seen  to  
be  at  a  disadvantage  because  of  their  race,  gender,  disability  or  any  social  
disadvantages