Accepted Manuscript

Experimental investigation of Al2O3/water nanofluids on the effectiveness of solar

flat-plate collectors with and without twisted tape inserts

L. Syam Sundar, Manoj K. Singh, V. Punnaiah, Antonio C.M. Sousa

PII: S0960-1481(17)31017-0
DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2017.10.056
Reference: RENE 9344

To appear in: Renewable Energy

Received Date: 22 August 2017

Revised Date: 16 October 2017
Accepted Date: 19 October 2017

Please cite this article as: Sundar LS, Singh MK, Punnaiah V, Sousa ACM, Experimental investigation
of Al2O3/water nanofluids on the effectiveness of solar flat-plate collectors with and without twisted tape
inserts, Renewable Energy (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2017.10.056.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
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Experimental investigation of Al2O3/water nanofluids on the effectiveness of solar flat-

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plate collectors with and without twisted tape inserts

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L. Syam Sundar1,*, Manoj K. Singh1, 2,*, V. Punnaiah3, Antonio C.M. Sousa1

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Centre for Mechanical Technology and Automation (TEMA-UA), Department of Mechanical

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Engineering, University of Aveiro, Portugal

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Centre for Nano and Material Science, Jain University, Bangalore, India

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Electrical Engineering Section, Engineering Department, Center for DNA Fingerprinting and

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Diagnostics (CDFD), Department of Biotechnology, MoS&T, Hyderabad, India

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*authors: sslingala@gmail.com (LSS), 75.manojsingh@gmail.com (MKS)

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Abstract

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The thermal effectiveness of solar water heaters can be enhanced if passive heat transfer

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enhancement techniques are used. Among the most effective passive heat transfer

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enhancement techniques are the increase of the working fluid thermal conductivity and of its

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flow turbulence. In this paper, Al2O3 nanofluids and twisted tape inserts are the passive

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techniques used to enhance the heat transfer and, consequently the thermal effectiveness of
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the solar water heater. In the solar water heating system considered in this study, the collector

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is essentially mimicked by a tube with or without a twisted tape, in which flows water or
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nanofluids. Results of the heat transfer experiments indicate that for a Reynolds number of
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13000 the heat transfer enhancement for 0.3% volume concentration of nanofluid is 21% for

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the plain tube and it is further enhanced to 49.75% when a twisted tape of H/D = 5 is inserted

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in the tube. The maximum friction penalty of 1.25-times was observed for 0.3% nanofluid
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with H/D = 5 when compared to water in a plain collector. The thermal effectiveness of the

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plain collector is enhanced to 58%, when the 0.3% nanofluid is used and it is further
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enhanced to 76% with a twisted tape of H/D = 5 at a mass flow rate of 0.083 kg/s. Solar
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water heaters, in which the collectors have twisted tape inserts and nanofluids, have thermal

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performances increases that largely outweigh pressure drop losses. Under the same operating

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conditions, the nanofluids/twisted tape inserts collector outperforms that with water and no

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twisted tapes.

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Keywords: Solar flat plate collector; nanofluid; heat transfer; friction factor; thermal

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effectiveness; twisted tape inserts

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1. Introduction

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Solar energy is one of the non-conventional energy sources, which is abundantly available on

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the earth surface. Solar thermal technology converts the energy of the sun directly into heat,

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which is usually stored by using an appropriate working fluid, and it can be used in heating or

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cooling systems. The typical solar heating system consists of a collector; a heat transfer

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circuit that includes the fluid and the means to circulate it; and a storage system including a

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heat exchanger [1]. Solar flat plate collectors are one of the most popular types of solar

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collectors for commercial and residential applications. They are simple in design, operate at

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medium to low temperatures, and have few mechanical parts. However, they have

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comparatively low effectiveness and outlet temperatures. Beside the conventional methods to

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increase the solar collector effectiveness, one of the most effective methods is replacing the

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working fluid, which is typically water, by high thermal conductivity fluids, such as

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nanofluids. The nanofluids are prepared by dispersing nano-meter size solid metallic or non-

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metallic particles into the base fluids, which may be, among others, water, ethylene glycol,
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and propylene glycol. The nanofluids were first discovered by Choi [2] and his team in 1991

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by dispersing carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in base fluids and they observed high thermal

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conductivity values for these nanofluids. Later on, Masuda et al. [3] corroborated that the

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thermal conductivity of CNTs–water nanofluids was higher than that of their base liquids.

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The research work related to nanofluids circulating in solar flat plate collectors was

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studied by Natarajan and Sathish [4] using carbon nanotubes/water nanofluids and suggested
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if these fluids are used as a heat transport medium, it increases the effectiveness of the

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conventional solar water heater. Tyagi et al. [5] theoretically analyzed the capability of
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Al2O3/water nanofluids circulating in a non-concentrating direct absorption solar collector

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(DAC) and in a conventional solar flat plate collector and they found that the effectiveness of

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DAC is up to 10% higher than that of the flat plate collector. Otanicar and Golden [6] studied

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the environmental and economic effects using nanofluids in solar flat plate collector and
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compared the results with conventional solar collectors. Otanicar et al. [7] observed 5%

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enhancement in effectiveness of solar thermal collectors using nanofluids as an absorbing

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medium. Yousefi et al. [8] investigated experimentally the effect of pH variation of 0.2%

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weight fraction (wt.) MWCNT/water nanofluid on the effectiveness of a flat plate solar

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collector. Their experimental results indicate that by increasing the difference between the pH

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of the nanofluid and the pH of the MWCNT isoelectric point, the collector effectiveness is

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enhanced accordingly. Yousefi et al. [9] experimentally studied the effectiveness of
Al2O3/water nanofluid flow in a solar flat plate collector and observed an increase of
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effectiveness of 28.3% for 0.2% wt. Yousefi et al. [10] studied experimentally the effect of

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MWCNT nanofluid, as absorbing medium, on the effectiveness of a flat plate solar collector

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at weight fraction of 0.2% and 0.4% wt, and mass flow rates of nanofluid ranging from

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0.0167 to 0.05 kg/s and they observed that by increasing the weight fraction from 0.2% to

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0.4%, there is a substantial increase in the effectiveness. Shojaeizadeh et al. [11] studied

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experimentally the effect of propylene glycol (PG) concentration variation in propylene

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glycol–water solution at various mass flow rates (0.0167, 0.0333, 0.05 kg/s) on the

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effectiveness of a flat-plate solar collector and they observed that PG–water at 25% PG

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concentration and mass flow rate of 0.0167 kg/s the effectiveness of the flat-plate solar

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collector is reduced by 15.68%, as compared to that of 0% PG (pure water). Karami et al.

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[12] prepared 70:30 (in volume ratio) water and ethylene glycol based CuO nanofluid and

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they studied the thermal performance of a domestic solar water heater and they observed

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increase up to 9-17% in collector effectiveness using nanofluids, when compared to that of

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the base fluid.
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Faizal et al. [13] conducted a numerical analysis to design a smaller solar collector

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that can produce the same desired output temperature by using CuO, SiO2, TiO2 and Al2O3

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nanofluids, respectively. Gupta et al. [14] analyzed the effectiveness of Al2O3/water flow in a

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conventional tube in plate type solar collectors and they observed 8.1% and 4.2%

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effectiveness enhancement for nanofluid flow rates of 1.5 and 2 lpm (liters per minute).

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Colangelo et al. [15] developed a new technique to avoid the sedimentation of the
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nanoparticles in traditional solar flat panels by designing transparent tubes, they observed that

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the main sedimentation parameter is the flow velocity; to control it, a standard flat panel was
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modified changing the cross-section of the lower and top header of the panel. Chougule et al.

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[16] studied tilt angles of 31.5o and 50o for a solar flat plate collector with carbon

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nanotubes/water as a working fluid and they observed higher effectiveness for the 50° tilt

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angle with and without tracking. Chaji et al. [17] used TiO2/water nanofluids circulating in a
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solar flat plate solar collector (FPSC) with flow rates of 36, 72 and 108 l/m2.hr and particles

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concentrations of 0.1%, 0.2% and 0.3% wt.; the addition of the nanoparticles to the water

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leads to enhancement of the FPSC effectiveness ranging from 3.5% (0.1% wt.) to 10.5%

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(0.3% wt.), the results also indicate that for mass flow rates of 36, 72 and 108 l/m2.hr with

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water as base fluid are 47.12, 49.98 and 54.57, respectively. Alim et al. [18] theoretically

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analyzed the entropy generation, heat transfer enhancement capability and pressure drop of

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Al2O3, CuO, SiO2, TiO2 nanofluids flow inside a flat plate solar collector and they observed
that CuO nanofluids reduced entropy generation by 4.34% and enhanced the heat transfer
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coefficient by 22.15% with a penalty in pumping power of 1.58%. Polvongsri and Kiatsiriroat

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[19] analyzed experimentally solar collector performance using silver nanofluid as working

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fluid. Mahian et al. [20] in their review paper describe in considerable detail the applications

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of nanofluids in solar thermal engineering systems. Gorji and Ranjbar [21] experimentally

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studied the thermal performance of graphite, magnetite and silver nanofluids in a direct

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absorption solar collector and observed magnetite nanofluids gained the highest thermal and

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exergy efficiencies compared to graphite and silver nanofluids. Bianco et al. [22] used Al2O3

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nanofluids in a PV/T panel to improve the performance of the device and observed Nusselt

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number and average heat transfer coefficient for nanofluids increased in a range between 2%

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and 15%. Bellos and Tzivanidis [23] investigated the utilization of Al2O3, CuO, TiO2 and Cu

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nanofluids in solar parabolic trough collectors to operate organic Rankine cycle and observed

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higher performance for CuO nanofluids. Jouybari et al. [24] investigated the thermal

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performance of SiO2 nanofluid flow through a flat plate solar collector with the metal porous

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foam filled channel and observed thermal efficiency is improved up to 8.1%. Bellos and
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Tzivanidis [25] investigated the yearly thermal and electrical enhancement of a hybrid PV

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operating with Cu nanofluids and observed thermal performance enhancement is about

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4.35%, while the electrical and exergetic enhancements are 1.49% and 3.19% respectively.

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Javadi et al. [26] also review the benefits in terms of performance improvement brought by

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the use of nanofluids in solar collectors.

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The effectiveness of solar flat plate collector can also be enhanced by inserting
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turbulence promoters in the flow conducts, those are twisted tape inserts [27], longitudinal

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strip inserts [28], and helical tape inserts [29]. Experiments for water circulating in a solar
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water system with twisted tape inserts were first analyzed by Kumar and Prasad [30] and they

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observed heat transfer enhancement ranging from 18% to 70% and corresponding pressure

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drop increase of 87% to132%, when compared to plain collectors. The twisted tape inserts by

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increasing the turbulence levels yield heat transfer augmentation, but friction also increases.
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However, in general, the increase in friction, as an increase in pumping power, when

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compared to the heat transfer enhancement is negligible. Jaisankar et al. [31] investigated

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experimentally heat transfer, friction and thermal performance of twisted tape solar water

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heater with various twist ratios and, as observed by other researchers, they found higher

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collector efficiencies for tubes fitted with twisted tape inserts than those with no inserts. In

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another study, Jaisankar et al. [32] used helical twisted tape inserts to study the thermal

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performance of thermosyphon solar water heater systems and their findings indicate that
enhanced heat transfer was accompanied by an increase in pressure drop. Jaisankar et al. [33]
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investigated heat transfer and friction factor characteristics of thermosyphon solar water

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heater system with full- length twist, twist fitted with rod and spacer fitted at the trailing edge

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for lengths of 100, 200 and 300 mm for twist ratios of 3 and 5. Jaisankar et al. [34], as a

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follow-up of their previous studies, investigated heat transfer and friction factor

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characteristics of thermosyphon solar water heater with full length left–right twist, twist fitted

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with rod and spacer at the trailing edge for lengths of 100, 200 and 300 mm for twist ratio 3

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and 5. Martin et al. [35] conducted experiments for water circulating in a solar collector by

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providing wire coil inserts and observed solar collector increases in thermal effectiveness of

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15%.

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It is apparent from the reviewed literature that there are no studies covering the solar

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flat plate collectors, which use nanofluids in combination with twisted tape inserts. The aim

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of the experimental investigation is to study the effectiveness of a flat plate solar collector

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using a nanofluid as the absorbing medium. The selected nanofluid contains Al2O3

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nanoparticles dispersed in distilled water, and the experiments were conducted for the
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collector with no inserts and with three different twist tape inserts (H/D = 15, 10 and 5). The

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area of the solar collector is 2 m2 and the collector plates are made of six parallel strips that

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are manufactured by copper pipe rolling.

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2. Preparation of Al2O3 nanofluids

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The nanofluids were prepared by using commercially available Al2O3 spherical nanoparticles
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(average diameter less than 20 nm and density of 3890 kg/m3) dispersed in distilled water. To

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guarantee the stability of the nanoparticles in distilled water, it was used sodium dodecyl
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benzene sulfonate (C18 H29 NaO3 S) as surfactant. The particle volume concentrations of

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0.1% and 0.3% were selected for the experiments; the nanoparticles required for the
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preparation of these concentrations were determined by using Eq. (1), namely:

 

162
  

Volume concentration,  (%) =  #

 
 
AC

 
    ! "
(1)
   !
 

163 Where  is the % of volume concentration, $%& ' = 3890 kg/m3, $()*+, = 998.5 kg/m3,
164 -()*+, = 15 liters and -%& ' is the weight of the nanoparticles.
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For the preparation of 0.1% and 0.3% volume concentrations of nanofluids, the

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required quantities of 50.69 g and 152.39 g of Al2O3 nanoparticles were dispersed in 15 liters

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of distilled water. The surfactant of sodium dodecyl benzene sulphonate (SDBS)
approximately 1/10th of the weight of nanoparticles i.e. 5 g and 15 g were dispersed in

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distilled water initially and sonicated with ultrasonic vibration (GT SONIC D-series digital

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ultrasonic cleaners) for six hours [27]. After that added nanoparticles and sonicated for one

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day. Figures 1a) and b) depicts the stable Al2O3 nanofluid and the bulk Al2O3 nanofluid

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preparation, respectively. The stability of the nanofluids was expressed in terms of Zeta

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potential. In the present study, the stability of 0.1% and 0.3% volume concentrations were

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measured by using Zetasizer Nano ZS, Malvern instruments and obtained as –37.1 mV and –

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36.3 mV, which means that, the nanofluids has good stability and no particle sedimentation

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was observed for periods longer than six months, while conducting our heat transfer and

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friction factor experiments.

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The following equations were used to estimate the thermo-physical properties of

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Al2O3 nanofluids. The density and specific heat of nanofluids were calculated based on the

181 $./ = $0 + (1 − ) $3/

mixture formula provided by Pak and Cho [36].

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(2)
40,./ = 40,0 + (1 − )40,3/
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The below models were used to predict the viscosity and thermal conductivity of nanofluids.

185 6./ = 63/ (1 + 2.5 )

(i) Einstein [37] model
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(4)
(ii) Maxwell [38] model

187 8./ = 83/ 9 A

:; <:=> <? (:; @:=> )
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:; <:=> @?(:; @:=>)

(5)

188 Where  and 6 denote particle volume concentration and viscosity, respectively, and the
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189 subscripts B, CD and ED refer to particle, base fluid and nanofluid, respectively.
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3. Experimental setup and procedure

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The schematic diagram of the solar flat plate collector system is depicted in Fig. 2, and Figs.
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3 a), b) and c) shows its actual components, namely: solar flat plate collector, flow meter and
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inlet thermocouple, respectively. The dimensions of the solar flat plate collector are shown in

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Fig. 3d. The solar flat plate solar collector system is located at Center for DNA

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Fingerprinting and Diagnostics, Hyderabad, India, with latitude and longitude of 17°22'31"

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N and 78°28'27" E, respectively, and the flat plate collector is placed at a tilt-angle of 45o.

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The specifications of the solar flat collector are listed in Table 1. The flat plate solar collector

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system is of the forced convection type and the flow loop was maintained by using an

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electrical pump. The flat plate solar collector system consists of pump, 20-liter reservoir, flow
meter, pressure gauges, bypass valve arrangement, control drain valve and vacuum breaker.
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Two PT-100 thermocouples, at positions 2 and 4 of Fig. 2, were used to measure the inlet and

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outlet temperatures of the fluid, and, for each thermocouple, its tip was inserted up to the

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center of the pipe; the gap between each tip and the pipe wall was sealed with M-seal. Three

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PT-100 thermocouples measure the surface temperature of the single tube, and one PT-100

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thermocouple measures the air temperature. The thermocouples were connected to a data

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acquisition system, which is attached to a personal computer, where the temperatures were

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recorded. The total solar radiation was measured with a solar radiation sensor (Pyranometer)

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supplied by Electro Mechanical Enterprises, UP, India. The wind speed was measured by a

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digital wind direction and wind speed meter Am 4836c with an accuracy of ± 2% supplied by

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Labmatrix Manufacturing LLP, Bangalore, India. All the instruments were connected to the

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personal computer through an interface.

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The flow rate was controlled by using the pump and by-pass valve arrangement. The

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required flow entered the flat plate collector and the remainder of the fluid flow was sent

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back to the tank with the help of the by-pass valve arrangement. The nanofluids flow through
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the tubes is verified with measuring jar method. The flow meter value and the measuring jar

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method values are same.

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The flow rates were measured by collecting the fluid in a measuring container for a

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specified period of time (60 s) with an estimated uncertainty of ±2.5%. The collected masses

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of 2, 3, 4 and 5 LPM over the specified period of 60 s (0.033, 0.05, 0.066, 0.083 kg/s) were

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used for water, 0.1% and 0.3% nanofluids. The thermocouples used in this study were
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calibrated with cold-bath and hot-bath and it was observed a ±1.5% deviation; the uncertainty

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associated with the solar meter was ± 3.5%.
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3.1. Twisted tape induced fluid flow

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The twisted tape inserts are passive promoters of turbulence aiming to achieve higher heat

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transfer rates. The presence of these inserts in the flow yield: (i) higher local velocities due to
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the reduction of the flow area, accompanied by secondary flow recirculation, (ii) enhanced

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mixing and turbulence by the helically twisted fluid flow and (iii) improved heat transfer in

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the flow because the inserts act as fins. These combined effects cause the heat transfer rate to

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increase. The relatively minor shortcoming associated with the inserts is a small increase in

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pumping power to overcome the pressure drop they cause.

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The twisted tape inserts photograph is shown in Fig. 4a and the twisted tape inserted

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flat plate collector is shown in Fig. 4b. The twisted tape inserts were made of 1 mm-thick and
9 mm-width of aluminum strip and the dimensions of twisted tape are reported in Table 2.
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The clearance of 1 mm was set between the inner diameter of the tube and the width of the

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tape to allow the smooth insertion of inserts into the tube (test section). The two ends of the

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aluminum strip were inserted into lathe - one end at the headstock and the other end at the tail

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stock; by rotating the head stock manually, the helix pitches of 135, 90 and 45 mm were

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achieved; therefore, the twist ratios (H/D) of the inserts are equal to 15, 10 and 5,

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respectively. Considering the twisted tapes are relatively tight fit in the test section (tube)

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their fin effect is neglected. The convective heat transfer coefficient on the twisted tape

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surface is sufficiently high to assume that the tape and the adjacent fluid are at the same

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temperature. The mass flow rates for water or nanofluids flow in a plain tube were used for

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the water or nanofluids flow in a plain tube with twisted tape inserts.

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3.2. Test method

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Thermal performance of solar flat plate collectors is commonly evaluated using ASHRAE

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Standard 93-86 [39]. Collector thermal performance is calculated by determining collector
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instantaneous effectiveness for different incident solar radiations, ambient temperatures, and

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inlet fluid temperatures. Intensity of incident solar radiation as well as useful heat gain by the

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working fluid is measured under steady state conditions.

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3.3. Time constant

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As per ASHRAE Standard 93-86 [39] steady-state conditions should be maintained during
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the data acquisition period and also during a specified time interval prior to the data

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acquisition period, known as pre-data period. For attaining steady state conditions the
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standard specifies the variation of the volume flow rate should be within the greater of ±2%,

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or ±0.005 gpm (for water, ~0.0631 kg/s) and the variation of the irradiation should be within

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±32 W/m2. The thermal performance of the solar collector is determined by obtaining the
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values of instantaneous effectiveness for different combinations of incident radiation,
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ambient temperature, and inlet fluid temperature. Consequently, it is required to conduct the

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measurement of the rate of incident solar radiation as well as the rate of energy added to the

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working fluid as it passes through the collector, all under steady state or quasi-steady-state

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conditions. In addition, tests must be performed to determine the transient thermal response

267
characteristics of the collector.

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The heat capacity of a collector can be explained in term of a time constant. The time

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reaction of solar flat plate collector is very important to select the correct time intervals for
steady-state effectiveness analysis. The time constant of solar flat plate collector is the time
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required for the fluid leaving the collector to reach 63.2% of its final steady state value after a

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step change in incident radiation, which could be determined as the following relation [7].
FGH,I − GJ KNFGH,J − GJ K = 1⁄L = 0.368
273
(6)
In which, GH,I is the collector outlet fluid temperature after time t, GH,J is the collector outlet
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initial fluid temperature and Ti is the collector inlet fluid temperature.

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3.4. Effectiveness calculation

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The experiments were performed at different inlet temperatures of working fluid according to

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Standard 93–86 [39]. The measurements were taken for ambient, inlet and outlet temperature,

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global solar intensity and the mass flow rate of the working fluid. The useful heat gain, Qu by

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the fluid was calculated by using Eqs. (7) and (8), namely:

282
(7)
OP = ST UV WXY Z[ − \] (GJ − G) )^
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(8)
Where, OP is the useful heat gain (W), QR is the mass flow rate of fluid, (kg/s), 40 is the heat
284 capacity of water or nanofluid (J/kg K), GH is the outlet fluid temperature of the solar
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285 collector (K), ST is the surface area of the solar collector (m2), UV is the heat removal factor,
286 Z[ is absorptance–transmittance product, XY is the global solar radiation (W/m2), \] is the
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287 overall loss coefficient of the solar collector, and G) is the ambient temperature (K).
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The thermal effectiveness performance of solar collectors is commonly described in
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terms of the Hottel–Whillier–Bliss [40-43] equation, which can be formulated as:

_J = UV Z[ − UV \] ` d
Ya @Y
bc

291
(9)

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If the thermal effectiveness test is performed at near the normal incidence conditions so that
UV Z[ is constant and both UV and \] are constant within the range of tested temperatures,

293 based on Eq. (9), a straight line will result when the effectiveness is plotted against ` d
Ya @Y
bc
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295
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to UV Z[. At this point the temperature of the fluid entering the collector equals the ambient
for the test data. The intersection of the line with the vertical effectiveness axis equals

296
297 optical effectiveness. The slope of the line is equal to UV \] . This parameter indicates how
temperature and collector effectiveness is at its maximum and it is commonly known as the

298
299
energy is removed from the solar collector and it is known as removal energy parameter. At

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the intersection of the line with the horizontal axis, the effectiveness is zero and this operating

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point, known as the stagnation point, occurs when there is no fluid flow in the collector.

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3.5. Experimental uncertainty analysis

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The present error analysis takes into account the errors associated with the data acquisition

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system, and the measured quantities including solar intensity and flow. The equation for the

306
uncertainty analysis is as follows:
\e< = ∑.Jhi \g,J
<

307
(10)
Where \e is the total uncertainty associated with the calculated parameter y and \g,J is the
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scatter root sum square of each measured quantity.
The uncertainty of the solar collector effectiveness (\j ) was obtained by the root sum
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square method (RSS), based on Eq. (10) using the following relation:

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∆lR < ∆(Ym @Ya ) < <
F\j K = ` lR d + ` d + ` b cd
< ∆b
Ym @Ya c
(11)

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Taking into consideration the tests conducted in the present study, the maximum uncertainty

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for the collector effectiveness is around 6%. The uncertainties associated with the three

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measured quantities are listed in Table 3.
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3.6. Data collection

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The collectors with and without twisted tape inserts were tested simultaneously under actual
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outdoor conditions. The data was collected between 10 AM to 3 PM. The collectors were

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south facing at a tilt angle of 45o, which is the most suitable for this particular geographical
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321 (ii) mass flow rates, QR = 0.033, 0.05, 0.066 and 0.083 kg/s, (iii) volume concentrations,  =
location. The operating parameters tested were: (i) twisted tape inserts, H/D = 15, 10 and 5
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323 radiation range from 800 to 1000 - ⁄Q< . The data recorded was inlet, outlet and ambient
0.1% and 0.3%, (iv) Reynolds number range from 5000 to 13500 (v) the intensity of solar

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325
temperatures, mass flow rate, pressure drop and intensity of solar radiation. The raw

326
experimental data were reduced to obtain the required results.
C

327
AC

328
4. Results and discussions

329
4.1. Heat transfer of water or nanofluid flow in a plain collector

330
The convective heat transfer of water or nanofluid flow in a collector is estimated based on

331
the Newton’s law of cooling and the expression is given below.

332 O = QR × 40 × (GH − GJ )
Heat gained by water or nanofluid flow
(12)

10
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
333
334
The experimental heat transfer coefficient of water or nanofluids is calculated based on the

335
Eq. (13) by using the values obtained with Eq. (12), and the surface temperature of the tube

336
(Ts), and the bulk mean temperature (Tb) of water or nanofluids.
Experimental heat transfer coefficient Fℎ+g0 K

337 ℎ+g0 =
p
% (Yq @Y= )
(13)

338 Where, S = rst; Gv = and G3 =

Yw Y Y Ym Ya
x <

339

PT
Where, Gi , G< and Gx are the surface temperatures of the tube, GJ , GH is the inlet and outlet
340
341
temperatures of the fluid.

RI
Experimental Nusselt number F|}+g0 K

342 |}+g0 =
~ ; ׀

SC
:

343
(14)

344
Where, k is the thermal conductivity of the water or nanofluids, depending on the working

345
U
fluid being used.

346
Prandtl number (Pr)
AN
‚ =
ƒ„;
:

347
(15)

348
For the case of the collector with no inserts, Dittus-Boelter [44] equation was used for
M

349
comparison purpose; this equation is formulated as.
|} = 0.023…L †.‡ ‚ †.ˆ
350
(16)
D

351
The preliminary experiments were conducted for the collector with no inserts and with water
TE

352
as the working fluid. In Fig. 5 it is presented the comparison between the experimental

353
Nusselt number values estimated by using Eq. (14) and those obtained with Dittus-Boetler

354
EP

[44] equation. The Eq. (16) is suitable for calculating the Nusselt number of water only. A

355
maximum deviation of ±2.5% was observed between experimental and theoretical Nusselt

356
number values. The water was replaced with nanofluids and the experiments were repeated,
C

357
the same Eq. (14) is used for the estimation of the experimental Nusselt number for Al2O3
AC

358
nanofluids and the data is reported in Fig. 6. It can be noticed that the Nusselt number

359
increases with increasing particle volume concentration and Reynolds number. The heat

360
transfer enhancement in what concerns the concentration is due to the nanoparticles, which

361
yield increased thermal conductivity, surface area and Brownian motion. In comparison to

362
water, for the 0.1% volume concentration, the Nusselt number enhancement is 6.36% and

363
14.33% at Reynolds number values of 5000 and 13500, respectively. Also by comparing to

364
water, for the 0.3% volume concentration, the Nusselt number enhancement is 8.53% and
20.9% at Reynolds number values of 5000 and 13500, respectively.

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365
366
4.2. Heat transfer of water or nanofluid flow in a flat collector with twisted tape inserts

367
For the collectors with twisted tape inserts, the equation of Sarma et al. [45] is commonly
used to determine the Nusselt number; this equation is given as.

|}
‰Š‹i† Œ < Ž = 0.974 − 0.783 ‰Š‹i†
W…L^ + 0.35 ‰Š‹i† W…L^<
s
‚ i⁄x `1 +  d

368 −0.0273‰Š‹i† W…L^x

PT
(17)
400 < …L < 130000; 2.5 < ⁄s < 10; 4 < ‚ < 460
369
370

RI
The heat transfer and friction factor experiments were conducted for solar collector with three

371
different twisted tape inserts for water as a circulating fluid. Eq. (14) is also used to estimate

372

SC
of Nusselt number of water flow in the presence of twisted tape inserts; the data is shown in

373
Fig. 7 along with the values obtained using Eq. (17) of Sarma et al. [45]. The experimental

374
Nusselt number values of twisted tape inserts of H/D = 15, 10 and 5 are in very good

375 U
agreement with the values predicted using the relation proposed by Sarma et al. [45]. For
AN
376
water with twisted tape of H/D = 15, the Nusselt number, as compared to that for flow with

377
no inserts, increased to 3.70% and 7.98% at Reynolds number values of 5000 and 13500,

378
M

respectively; for water with twisted tape of H/D = 5, the Nusselt number, as compared to that

379
for flow with no inserts, increased to 7.34% and 13.76% at Reynolds number values of 5000

380
D

and 13500, respectively.

381
These experiments were repeated for the solar collector with three different twisted
TE

382
tape inserts but using the nanofluid as the working fluid. Eq. (14) is used again to estimate the

383
experimental Nusselt number of nanofluid with twisted tape inserts and the data is reported in
EP

384
Fig. 8. For the 0.1% volume concentration of nanofluid, the presence of twisted tape of H/D

385
= 15, as compared to no twisted tape (Fig. 6), yields an increase in Nusselt number of 5.25%

386
and 11.06% for Reynolds number values of 5000 and 13500, respectively; for the same
C

387
concentration and Reynolds number values, the presence of the twisted tape of H/D = 5
AC

388
causes an increase in Nusselt number of 9.82% and 21.18%, respectively. For the 0.3%

389
volume concentration of nanofluid, the comparison between twisted tape of H/D = 15 and no

390
twist tape indicates an increase of the Nusselt number of 6.97% and 14.46% at Reynolds

391
number values of 5000 and 13500, respectively; for the same concentration and Reynolds

392
number values, the twisted tape of H/D = 5 yields a Nusselt number enhancement of 11.91%

393
and 24.80%, respectively. As already discussed, in comparison with the plain tube the tubes

394
with twisted tapes exhibit higher Nusselt number values, because the tape inserts generate
swirl flow, which leads to an extended flow path through the tube and to improved fluid
12
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
395
396
mixing, resulting in a thinner thermal boundary layer along the tube wall and consequent

397
enhanced convective heat transfer. The trend of increased Nusselt number values with

398
increasing particle volume concentration and Reynolds number and decreasing of twist ratio

399
was also observed by Sundar et al. [27], and Wongcharee and Eiamsa-ard [46].

400
401
4.3. Friction factor of water or nanofluid flow in a flat collector

PT
402
It is important to note that the use of nanoparticles in the base fluid under results in a friction

403
penalty. To determine the pressure drop (∆P) across the tube, two 4 mm holes made on the

404

RI
tube surface are connected to a U-tube manometer with carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) as

405
manometric fluid is connected to record. The Fanning friction factor (f) is estimated for either

SC
406
water or nanofluids by using the following expression.

D’g0 =
(∆“)
” –
` d "
(18)
• 

407
408 U
For the tube with no inserts, the experimentally-determined Fanning friction factor values are
AN
409
compared against those predicted by Blasius [47] equation, which is given as.
D = 0.3164 …L @†.<—
410
(19)

411
The experimental friction factor data for the tube with no inserts and with water as the
M

412
working fluid was determined by using Eq. (18); this data is reported in Fig. 9 along with the

413
predictions obtained with Eq. (19) for the purpose of validation. The deviation between
D

414
measured and theoretical values is found to be ±3.0%. Similar experiments were conducted
TE

415
for the nanofluids and the friction factor values were also determined using Eq. (18); the data

416
is reported in Fig. 10. In comparison to water values, the friction factor increased by 13% and

417
EP

by 15% for 0.1% and 0.3% for volume concentration of nanofluid, respectively, with a

418
Reynolds number of 13500 for both cases. As expected, the dispersion of Al2O3 nanoparticles

419
in the base fluid leads to an increase in friction factor; however, as compared to the benefit
C

420
derived from the heat transfer augmentation, the friction factor penalty can be considered
AC

421
negligible.

422
423
4.4. Friction factor of water or nanofluid flow in a flat collector with twisted tape inserts

424
For the collectors with twisted tape inserts, the equation of Sarma et al. [45] is commonly
used to determine the friction factor; this equation is given as.

D
Œ Ž = 0.474 − 0.3 ‰Š‹i† W…L^ + 0.065 ‰Š‹i† W…L^<
s x.x˜‡
`1 +  d

13
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
425 −4.66 × 10@x ‰Š‹i† W…L^x (20)
400 < …L < 130000; 2.5 < ⁄s < 10; 4 < ‚ < 460
426
427
The friction factor of the solar flat plate collector with different twisted tape inserts and using

428
water as the circulating fluid was estimated with Eq. (18); the data is presented in Fig. 11

429
along with the predictions based on Eq. (20) [45]; The experimental and predicted values are

430
in good agreement with a maximum deviation of ± 3.0%. The friction factor with the

PT
431
presence of the twisted tape inserts of H/D = 15 increases, as compared to no inserts

432
condition, by 4% and 9% at Reynolds number of 5000 and 13500, respectively. Similarly, for

433

RI
the twisted tape inserts of H/D = 5, the friction factor increases by 6% and 14% with

434
Reynolds number of 5000 and 13500, respectively.

435

SC
The friction factor analysis for solar flat plate collector with different twisted tape

436
inserts is further extended to nanofluids with different volume concentrations. Once again,

437
the experimental friction factor was estimated using Eq. (18) and the data is reported in Fig.

438 U
12; it can be observed that friction factor decreases with increasing Reynolds number and,
AN
439
volume concentration and decreases with decreasing twist ratio. It is clear that the use of

440
twisted tape inserts yields higher friction factor values than those for the plain tube. The

441
M

friction factor with the twisted tape of H/D = 15 and 0.1% volume concentration of nanofluid,

442
as compared to that of the plain tube, increases by 5% and 10% for Reynolds number values

443
D

of 5000 and 13500, respectively. For the twisted tape of H/D = 5 and 0.1% volume

444
concentration of nanofluid, the friction factor increases by 11% and 17% for Reynolds
TE

445
number values of 5000 and 13500, respectively. Similar trend is observed for the 0.3%

446
volume concentration nanofluid, with Reynolds number values of 5000 and 13500, the
EP

447
friction factor increases by 6% and 11%, respectively, with the twisted tape of H/D = 15, and

448
13% and 20%, respectively, with the twisted tape of H/D = 5.

449
C

450
4.5. Collector thermal performance
AC

451
4.5.1. Water and nanofluid flow in the collector

452
The thermal performance of solar flat plate collector with water and different volume

453
concentrations of nanofluids was recorded from 10 AM to the time at which the stagnation
point is reached for different mass flow rates (QR = 0.033, 0.05, 0.066 and 0.083 kg/s) with the
454
455 effectiveness versus the reduced temperature parameter, GJ − G) ⁄XY for different mass flow
guarantee that the data fully satisfies the ASHRAE Standard 93–86 [39]. The collector

456 rates of water is reported in Fig. 13a. The experimental data is best fitted with linear relations

14
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
457
458 these parameters, UV \] and UV Z[, are presented in the Table 4 for each flow rate.
to provide the performance characteristic parameters of the collector for different flow rates;

459
460
Observation of Fig. 13a indicates that the collector effectiveness increases with the increasing

461 indicates that UV Z[ value of the collector for 0.083 kg/s is highest, and the UV \] value for this
mass flow rate, and consequently the Reynolds number, from 0.033 to 0.083 kg/s. Table 4

462
463
mass flow rate is lowest. Therefore based on the Eq. (9) the efficiency of the solar collector in

PT
464 The collector effectiveness versus GJ − G) ⁄XY of the plain collector for 0.1% and
this mass flow rate is highest.

465
466

RI
respectively. The UV \] and UV Z[ parameters of the plain collector for water and nanofluid at
0.3% volume concentrations of the nanofluids is reported in Fig. 13b and Fig. 13c,

467
468

SC
different concentrations are presented in Table 4. For the nanofluid, the collector

469
effectiveness increases with increasing values of the mass flow rate and particle volume

470
concentration. The results clearly indicate that the optical effectiveness increases significantly

471 U
with the increasing concentration of nanoparticles. Although the concentrations are modest,
AN
472
the mixing of the nanoparticles in water (base fluid) make the mixture completely opaque

473
improving in this way its absorptivity, and consequently enhancing its energy absorption,

474
M

which is corroborated by the experimental results.

475
476
D

The collector effectiveness versus the parameter GJ − G) ⁄XY was determined for water as the
4.5.2. Water flow in a collector with twisted tape inserts

477
TE

478 15) and the data is presented in Fig. 14; the corresponding parameters UV \] and UV Z[ are
circulating fluid and with twisted tape inserts of three different twist ratios (H/D = 5, 10, and

479
EP

480
presented in Table 5. The collector effectiveness increases with the decrease of twist ratio and

481
increase of mass flow rate. This finding for the twist ratio is an interesting one as the decrease

482
C

of the twist ratio yields an increase in residence time and consequently an increase in the

483
plate temperature values; however, the eventual increase of the heat losses to the atmosphere
AC

484
is offset by the increase of the heat absorbed by the circulating fluid. For the mass flow rate

485
of 0.083 kg/s and considering the value of 0.0037 on the abscissa in Fig. 14, the thermal

486
effectiveness is 59%, 65% and 72% for H/D = 15, 10 and 5, respectively, whereas for the

487
plain collector it is around 53%.

488
489

15
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
490
491 The collector effectiveness versus GJ − G) ⁄XY data for the collector with 0.1% nanofluid and
4.5.3. Nanofluid of 0.1% concentration in a collector with twisted tape inserts

492
493
with twisted tape inserts of three different twist ratios is reported in Fig. 15; the
corresponding parameters UV \] and UV Z[ are listed in Table 5. The collector effectiveness
494
495
increases with the decrease of twist ratio and increase of mass flow rates. For the mass flow

496
rate of 0.083 kg/s and taking for the purpose of comparison the abscissa value of 0.0056 in

PT
497
the Fig. 15, the thermal effectiveness is 68%, 69% and 73% for twisted tape of H/D = 15, 10

498
and 5, respectively, whereas for the plain collector it is around 58%. The increase of the

499

RI
collector thermal effectiveness is due to two main factors (i) increase of thermal conductivity

500
of fluid due to the presence of the nanoparticles (ii) increase of residence time due to increase

501

SC
of flow path with additional mixing and turbulence generation, yielding an increase of the

502
outlet temperature of the fluid.

503
504 U
The collector effectiveness versus GJ − G) ⁄XY data for the collector with 0.3% nanofluid and
4.5.4. Nanofluid of 0.3% concentration in a collector with twisted tape inserts
AN
505
506
with twisted tape inserts of three different twist ratios is reported in Fig. 16; the
corresponding parameters UV \] and UV Z[ are listed in Table 6. For the mass flow rate of
507
M

508
0.083 kg/s and taking for the purpose of comparison the abscissa value of 0.0064 in the Fig.

509
D

16, the thermal effectiveness is 74%, 78%, 81% for twist ratios of H/D = 15, 10 and 5,

510
respectively, whereas for the plain collector it is around 65%. The present findings present a
TE

511
similar trend to those of Kumar and Prasad [30] for water flow in a solar collector with

512
twisted tape inserts.
EP

513
514
5. Conclusion

515
C

The enhancement of the direct absorption solar collector effectiveness by using Al2O3/water

516
nanofluid was studied experimentally. The study considered four different flow rates i.e.
AC

517
0.033, 0.05, 0.066 and 0.083 kg/s, respectively, the nanofluid with two volume concentrations

518
of 0.1% and 0.3%, and twisted tape inserts of twist ratios of 5, 10 and 15, respectively. The

519
collector effectiveness increases with the increase of mass flow rate and the increase of

520
particle volume concentration. The collector effectiveness for the mass flow rate of 0.083

521
kg/s increases to 9.4% and 22% with 0.1% and 0.3% volume concentration of nanofluids,

522
respectively, compared to that of the collector using water as circulating fluid. The collector
effectiveness is further increased with the decrease of the twist ratio of the inserts. For a

16
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
523
524
collector with water as the circulating fluid at a mass flow rate of 0.083 kg/s, the twisted tape

525
of H/D = 5 causes an effectiveness enhancement of 32.07% as compared to the effectiveness

526
of the collector with no inserts. The collector with twisted tape of H/D = 5 and mass flow rate

527
of 0.083 kg/s, the effectiveness enhancement using the nanofluid with 0.1% and 0.3% volume

528
concentrations is 37.73% and 52.80%, respectively, as compared to the effectiveness of the

529
collector with no inserts and using water. The results clearly indicate that significant

PT
530
enhancement in solar radiation absorption and consequent collector effectiveness makes

531
nanofluids a suitable heat transfer fluid for solar thermal applications. For the same operating

532

RI
conditions, the twisted tape inserts in solar water heaters, either using water or nanofluids,

533
yield further enhancement in thermal performance as compared to that of the solar water

534

SC
heaters with no inserts.

535
536
Acknowledgement

537 U
The authors, LSS and MKS, acknowledge Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT,
AN
538
Portugal) for the financial support received through the grant: SFRH/BPD/100003/2014. The

539
author ACMS acknowledges the 2017–Visiting Scientist Fellowship awarded to him under

540
M

the Chinese Academy of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative.

541
TEMA/DEM researchers also acknowledge FCT grant UID/EMS/00481/2013–FCT and the

542
D

infrastructures support CENTRO-01-0145-FEDER-022083.

543
TE

544 ST
Nomenclature

545
Surface area of solar collector (m2)
40
EP

546
Heat capacity (J/kg K)
40,3/
547
Heat capacity of base fluid (water) (J/kg K)
40,.0 Heat capacity of nanoparticles (Al2O3) (J/kg K)
C

548 40,./ Heat capacity of nanofluid (J/kg K)

549
AC

s
550
Twisted tape diameter
UV
551
Heat removal factor
XY
552
Global solar radiation (W/m2)

553
Twisted tape pitch
QR
554
Mass flow rate of fluid flow (kg/s)
OP
555
Rate of useful energy gained (W)
…< Correlation coefficient

17
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
556 ™
557
Time (s)
G)
558
Ambient temperature (K)
GJ
559
Inlet fluid temperature of solar collector (K)
GH
560
Outlet fluid temperature of solar collector (K)
GH,J
561
Collector outlet initial fluid temperature (K)
GH,v
562
Collector outlet fluid temperature after time t (K)
\]

PT
563
Overall loss coefficient of solar collector (W/m2 K)

564

RI
565 Z[
Greek symbols

566
Absorptance-transmittance product
Z

SC
567
Time constant of solar collector (min)
_J
568
Instantaneous collector effectiveness

569
U
Volume fraction of nanoparticles in nanofluid

570
AN
571
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572
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595
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and non-Newtonian fluids in helical coils with laminar and turbulent flow, Exp.
Thermal and Fluid Sci. 44 (2013) 792–804.

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654
655
(30) A. Kumar, B.N. Prasad, Investigation of twisted tape inserted solar water heaters –

656
heat transfer, friction factor and thermal performance results, Renewable Energy 19

657
(2000) 379–398.

658
(31) S. Jaisankar, T.K. Radhakrishnan, K.N. Sheeba, Experimental studies on heat

659
transfer and friction factor characteristics of forced circulation solar water heater

660
system fitted with helical twisted tapes, Solar Energy 83 (2009) 1943–1952.

PT
661
(32) S. Jaisankar, T.K. Radhakrishnan, K.N. Sheeba, Studies on heat transfer and friction

662
factor characteristics of thermosyphon solar water heating system with helical

663

RI
twisted tapes, Energy 34 (2009) 1054–1064.

664
(33) S. Jaisankar, T.K. Radhakrishnan, K.N. Sheeba, Experimental studies on heat

665

SC
transfer and friction factor characteristics of thermosyphon solar water heater system

666
fitted with spacer at the trailing edge of twisted tapes, Applied Thermal Eng. 29

667
(2009) 1224–1231.

668 U
(34) S. Jaisankar, T.K. Radhakrishnan, K.N. Sheeba, S. Suresh, Experimental
AN
669
investigation of heat transfer and friction factor characteristics of thermosyphon

670
solar water heater system fitted with spacer at the trailing edge of Left–Right twisted

671
M

tapes, Energy Conversion and Management 50 (2009) 2638–2649.

672
(35) R.H. Martín, A. García, J. Pérez-García, Influence of wire-coil inserts on the

673
D

thermo-hydraulic performance of a flat-plate solar collector, Journal of Physics:

674
Conference Series 395 (2012) 012057, 1–8.
TE

675
(36) B.C. Pak, Y.I. Cho, Hydrodynamic and heat transfer study of dispersed fluids with

676
submicron metallic oxide particles, Exp. Heat transfer 11 (1998) 151–170.
EP

677
(37) A. Einstein, Investigation on theory of Brownian motion, 1st Ed. Dover publications,

678
USA, 1956.

679
(38) J.C. Maxwell, A treatise on electricity and magnetism, 2nd Edition, Oxford
C

680
University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1904.
AC

681
(39) ASHRAE Standard 93–86, 1986. Methods of testing to determine the thermal

682
performance of solar collectors. Atlanta, GA, USA.

683
(40) A. Whillier, Solar energy collection and its utilization for house heating. Sc. D.

684
Thesis, MIT (1953).

685
(41) A. Whillier, Design factors influencing collector performance, low temperature

686
engineering. In: Application of solar energy, ASHRAE, New York, 1967.

687
(42) H.C. Hottel, A. Whillier, Evaluation of fat plate collector performance, Trans. Conf.
on the use of solar energy 2 (1) 74, University of Arizona Press, 1958.
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688
689
(43) R.W. Bliss, The derivation of several plate efficiency factors useful in the design of

690
flat plate solar heat collectors, Solar Energy 3 (1959) 55–64.

691
(44) F.W. Dittus, L.M.K. Boelter, Heat transfer in automobile radiators of the tubular

692
type, University of California Publication in Engineering, 11 (1930) 443–461.

693
(45) P.K. Sarma, T. Subramanyam, P.S. Kishore, V. Dharma Rao, S. Kakac, A new

694
method to predict convective heat transfer in a tube with twisted tape inserts for

PT
695
turbulent flow, Int. J. Thermal Sci. 41 (2002) 955–960.

696
(46) K. Wongcharee, S. Eiamsa-ard, Heat transfer enhancement by using CuO/water

697

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nanofluid in corrugated tube equipped with twisted tape, Int. Comm. in Heat and

698
Mass Transfer 39 (2012) 251–257.

699

SC
(47) H. Blasius, Boundary layers in liquids with low friction, Z. Math. Phys., 56 (1908)

700
1–37.

701
702 U
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703
704
705
M

706
707
D

708
TE

709
710
EP

711
712
713
C

714
AC

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717
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719
720
721
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722 Table 1: Flat plate collector specifications
Parameter Description
Collector area (m2) 2
Absorber plate thickness (mm) 0.6
Inner and outer diameter of absorber tubes (mm) 10 and 11
Tube spacing (mm) 0.15
System capacity 120 LPD
Temperature output (ºC) 60

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Solar collectors coatings Selectively coated
Absorber fin, header and riser material Copper
Absorber coating Selectively coated "NALSUN"

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Box material Aluminum (extruded and anodized)
Collector insulation Rock wool pads for side and bottom

SC
Flanges Brass, round with four bold holes
Glass Special toughened glass 4mm thick
Sealing and gaskets EPDM rubber
Hardware Stainless steel screws
Reflector foil
U Aluminum 50 µ
AN
Box dimensions (mm) 2030 x 1030 x100
Aperture size (m2) 2.0
Number of risers 9
M

Header size (mm) 25.4

Protrusion inside the header (mm) 2
Connecting nuts, bolts & washers Stainless steel 304
D

Gaskets connections EPDM punched

Number of panel boxes 1
TE

Collector area (m2) 2

Application Bathing
Circulation Thermosyphon
EP

Storage tank for hot water capacity (liters) 1000

Material Stainless steel SS 304
Thickness (mm) 1.2
C

Tank insulation material density (kg/m3) 48

Insulation thickness (mm) 100 mm
AC

Cladding material Aluminum 24 SWG

System piping Braided hose pipe
Sacrificial anode Yes

723
Tanks SS304 / SS316

724
725
726
727
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728 Table 2: Dimensions of twisted tape inserts

D (mm) H (mm) (H⁄D)

S. No. Diameter Pitch Twist ratio

1 9 135 15
2 9 90 10

729
3 9 45 5

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730 Table 3: Results of uncertainty analysis

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S. No. Parameter Uncertainty (%)
1 Solar intensity ± 3.5%

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2 Mass flow rate ± 2.5%

731
3 Temperature difference ± 1.5%

732
733 U
Table 4: F UŸ and F Z[ of the plain collector with water and nanofluids
AN
Base fluid mR (kg/s) UV \] UV Z[ …<
M

0.033 15.12 0.513 0.997

0.050 13.26 0.534 0.987
Water
D

0.066 11.60 0.545 0.985

TE

0.083 10.97 0.567 0.995

0.033 16.43 0.575 0.991
0.050 15.95 0.598 0.986
EP

0.1% nanofluid
0.066 14.83 0.627 0.983
0.083 13.57 0.650 0.978
C

0.033 17.81 0.721 0.975

AC

0.050 16.42 0.760 0.968

0.3% nanofluid
0.066 15.97 0.806 0.888

734
0.083 14.39 0.834 0.961

735
736
737
738

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739 Table 5: UV \] and UV Z[ of plain collector for water with twisted tape inserts
Twist ratio mR, (kg/s) UV \] UV Z[ …<
0.033 15.53 0.550 0.991
0.050 14.12 0.584 0.984
H/D = 15
0.066 13.93 0.616 0.964
0.083 12.51 0.634 0.987

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0.033 15.92 0.591 0.977
0.050 14.53 0.629 0.991
H/D = 10

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0.066 14.07 0.666 0.966
0.083 13.87 0.699 0.954

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0.033 16.23 0.641 0.974
0.050 15.48 0.700 0.958
H/D = 5

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0.066 13.24 0.719 0.951

740
0.083 12.70 0.756 0.962
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741
742 Table 6: UV \] and UV Z[ of plain collector for 0.1% nanofluid with twisted tape inserts
M

Twist ratio QR, (kg/s) UV \] UV Z[ …<

D

0.033 17.67 0.636 0.990

TE

0.050 17.53 0.687 0.991

H/D = 15
0.066 16.11 0.720 0.982
0.083 15.46 0.767 0.990
EP

0.033 18.18 0.674 0.987

0.050 16.92 0.696 0.982
C

H/D = 10
0.066 16.61 0.733 0.983
AC

0.083 16.24 0.773 0.989

0.033 19.37 0.722 0.993
0.050 17.51 0.740 0.989
H/D = 5
0.066 16.66 0.774 0.980

743
0.083 16.34 0.821 0.981

744
745
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746 Table 7: UV \] and UV Z[ of plain collector for 0.3% nanofluid with twisted tape inserts
Twist ratio mR, (kg/s) UV \] UV Z[ …<
0.033 21.60 0.764 0.992
0.050 19.16 0.784 0.975
H/D = 15
0.066 18.27 0.838 0.973
0.083 16.15 0.854 0.961

PT
0.033 21.46 0.793 0.992
0.050 20.38 0.829 0.99
H/D = 10

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0.066 17.70 0.848 0.976
0.083 17.19 0.897 0.970

SC
0.033 22.38 0.847 0.977
0.050 20.83 0.866 0.990
H/D = 5

U
0.066 19.08 0.894 0.992

747
0.083 18.04 0.938 0.94
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748
749
M

750
751
D

752
753
TE

754
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755
756
757
758
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Fig. 1(a) stable Al2O3 nanofluid, (b) bulk Al2O3 nanofluid preparation.
AN
M
D
TE
C EP

759
AC

760
761
762
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of the solar flat plate collector system

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M
D
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EP

763
764
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765
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Fig. 3 (a) Photograph of solar flat plate collector, (b) flow meter (c) fluid inlet thermocouple.

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(d)

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766
767
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768
769
Fig. 3 (d) Dimensions of the solar flat plate collector
M

770
771
D

772
TE

773
774
775
EP

776
777
C

778
AC

779
780
781

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(a)

782
783

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784
785
Fig. 4 (a) Schematic representation of a twisted tape insert

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(b)

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M
D
TE
EP

786
787
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788
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Fig. 4 (b) solar flat plate collector with twisted tape inserts inside the tubes

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789
790
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791
792
Fig. 5 Comparison between experimental and theoretical Nusselt number values for water
D

circulating in a collector with no inserts.

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793
794
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795
796
Fig. 6 Nusselt number as a function of volume concentration and Reynolds number in a
D

collector with no inserts.

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797
798
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799
800
Fig. 7 Nusselt number comparison between experimental and predicted (solid lines) values
D

for the flat collector with twisted tape inserts

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801
802
M

803
804
Fig. 8 Nusselt number as a function of nanoparticles volume concentration, twist tape ratio
D

and Reynolds number

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805
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806
807
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808
Fig. 9 Comparison between experimental and predicted friction factor values for the plain

809
collector with water as the working fluid.
D
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AC

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810
811
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812
813
Fig. 10 Friction factor comparison of nanofluid in plain collector
D

814
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815
816
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817
818
Fig. 11 Friction factor comparison between experimental and predicted (solid lines) values
D

for the flat collector with twisted tape inserts

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819
820
M

821
822
Fig. 12 Friction factor comparison of nanofluid in plain collector with twisted tape inserts
D

823
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824
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825
826 Fig. 13 Effectiveness versus (GJ − G) )⁄XY curve of plain collector for water and nanofluids
M

827
828
D

829
830
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832
833 Fig. 14 Effectiveness versus (GJ − G) )⁄XY data for the collector with water and with twisted
M

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835
tape inserts
D

836
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838
839 Fig. 15 Effectiveness versus GJ − G) ⁄XY data for the collector with 0.1% nanofluid and with
840
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841
twisted tape inserts

842
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843

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844
845
M

846 Fig. 16 Effectiveness versus GJ − G) ⁄XY data for the collector with 0.3% nanofluid and with
847
D

848
twisted tape inserts
TE
C EP
AC

42