CHAPTER II

LITERATURE FOUNDATIONS

2.1 Linguistics

When two or more people communicate with each other in speech, we can

call the system of communication that they employ a code. In most cases that code

will be something we may also want to call a languageClahsen, (2009). We should

also note that two speakers who are bilingual, that is, who have access to two codes,

and who for one reason or another shift back and forth between the two languages as

they converse by code-switching are actually using a third code, one which draws on

those two languages. The system is something that each speaker knows, but two very

important issues for linguists are just what that knowledge is knowledge of and how it

may best be characterized.

It isthe study of language how it is put together and how it functionsCarston &

Wearing, (2015)They said that the sounds are brought together and sometimes when

this happens, they change their form and do interesting things. Words are arranged in

a certain order, and sometimes the beginnings and endings of the words are changed

to adjust the meaning. Then the meaning itself can be affected by the arrangement of

words and by the knowledge of the speaker about what the hearer will understand.

Linguistics is the study of all of this. There are various branches of linguistics which

are given their own name, some of which are described below.
 In linguistics, language signs are constituted of four different levels, not just

two: phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. Semantics deals with the

meanings (what is signified), while the other three are all concerned with the

exponent(King & Wardhaugh, 2009). At the lowest level we find that everything is

composed from a small set of sounds, or when we write of letters. In spoken language

the definition of word becomes very tricky. The part of linguistics that deals with how

words are put together into sentences is called syntax(Clahsen, 2009). On the other

hand, words are not the smallest meaningful units oflanguage. It can be said the

primary assumption shared by functional linguists has consistently been that the

forms and structures of language are adapted to, and shaped by, grammar-external

principles, namely their communicative functions. That is, since language is

fundamentally an instrumental tool, it is reasonable to assume that its structures are

informed by the structure of our experience and our cultural models of

experience(Fasold & Connor-Linton, 2014). Functionalists take the internal

organization of language to be a complex adaptive response to the ecological settings

in which language is found, the interactional functions which it serves, and the full

cognitive, social, and physiological properties of the human user. Functional

linguistic research is aimed at clarifying the relationship between linguistic form and

function, and at determining the nature of the functions which appear to shape

linguistic structure, foremost among which are facilitating effective communication

and assisting cognition. Functional linguistics has always included both scholars who

are working on description and those working on explanation.

2.2 Sociolinguistics

According to the sociologist Esa, Muda, Ibrahim, & Mansor, (2017) states

that there is nothing more practical than agood theory.It is concerned with

investigating the relationships between language and society with the goal being a

better understanding of the structure of language and of how languages function in

communicationthe equivalent goal in the sociology of language is trying to discover

how social structure can be better understood through the study of language, e.g., how

certain linguistic features serve to characterize particular social arrangementsLawson,

(2018).

Being familiar with different theoretical models and the methodologies

informing and supporting them as well as understanding how they are related to each

other is thus an essential aspect of what it means to do linguistics (Kobe &

Srivastava, 2013).

From a bird’s eye perspective, the aims of linguistic theorizing can be summarized as

follows:
 • Linguistic theories in the fields of grammar (including phonology,

morphology,syntax) and lexicology are formulated to understand the nature

and structure oflanguage(s).

• Theories in linguistic semantics aim at scientific accounts of the rather

elusivephenomenon of how linguistic elements and structures can convey

meanings.

• Cognitive-linguistic theories try to model what speakers know about

language andhow the structure of languages relates to other cognitive abilities

like perception and attention allocation.

• Psycholinguistic theories try to model what goes on in the minds of language

usersduring ongoing processing and how languages are acquired by children.

• Theories in linguistic pragmatics model how communication works and

howunderstanding comes about.

• Theories in variational linguistics and sociolinguistics explain patterns of

variation(accents, dialects, registers, etc.) and investigate parameters

influencing these patterns(age, sex, social background, etc.).

• Theories in historical linguistics try to model why and in which ways

languages change and are related to each other historically.

2.3 Language

Language has been a subject of serial investigations. The complex

characteristic ascribedto language in this paper is informed by a consideration ofthe

manifold manifestations of theconceptinscholarly contextsSchembri & Johnston,

(2012). Apart from thegeneral components like grammar, phonology andsemantics

through whichlanguage can be assessed of language which canfurther beinvestigated

in various sub-fields like sociolinguistics, pragmatics, stylistics,among others,

depending on interest. Register and style usually are situated in thesocial and

stylisticaspects of language and are traditionally considered as varietiesof language.It

is an important aspect in our daily life.We need and we uselanguage everyday.

It plays an important role in communication. Throughlanguage people are able

to express their feeling, ideas, or intention clearly. Theyare also able to get

information easily byreading newspaper, watching televisionor follow the popular

home page in Instagram. In short, language is the main andimportant tool in

communication.In a traditional sense, “register is avariety of a language used for a

particularpurpose or in a particular setting” This simplepresentation contains two

importantvariables: purpose and setting. It suggests that the resourcesof a language

can bevariously used based on the goal of communication as well as the

speechcontext.

In practice, linguists do not find it at all easy to write grammars because the

knowledgethat people have of the languages they speak is extremely hard to

describeTobalase, (2017). It is certainlysomething different from, and is much more

considerablethan, the kinds of knowledge we seedescribed in most of the grammars

we find on library shelves, no matter how good thosegrammars may be. Anyone who
knows a language knows much more about that language than iscontained in any

grammar book that attempts to describe the language. What is also interesting isthat

this knowledge is both something which every individual who speaks the language

possesses(since we must assume that each individual knows the grammar of his or her

language by thesimple reason that he or she readily uses that language) and also some

kind of shared knowledge,that is, knowledge possessed by all those who speak the

language.It is also possible to talk about‘dead’ languages, e.g., Latin or Sanskrit.

However, in such cases we should note that it is the speakers who are dead, not the

languages themselves, for these may still exist, at least in part.

2.4 Writing

Writing is the frame work of our communication. We are encountered with

writing every day of our lives. Whether it be an office memo, restaurant menu, or a

love letter. Writing is incredibly pliable; it can use to give information, an opinion, a

question, or poetry. Words can take a bounty of forms within writing. The words you

use can show who you are as a person, the things writing has done in our lives and the

world is profound.

Writing has been with us for several thousand years, and nowadays is more

important than ever. Having spread steadily over the centuries from clay tablets to

computer chips, it is poised for further dramatic advances. Although hundreds of

millions of people are still unable to read and write, humanity relies on writing to an
unprecedented extentCoulmas (2012). It is quite possible that, today, more

communication takes place in the written than in the oral mode. There is no objective

measure, but if there were any doubts, the Internet explosion has laid to rest the idea

that for the human race at large writing is only a ‘minor’ form of communication. It is

not risky to call writing the single most consequential technology ever invented. The

immensity of written record and the knowledge conserved in libraries, data banks,

and multilayered information networks make it difficult to imagine an aspect of

modern life unaffected by writing. ‘Access’, the catchword of the knowledge society,

means access to written intelligence. Writing not only offers ways of reclaiming the

past, but is a critical skill for shaping the future.

Writing is rarely possible without reading, but reading is possible without

writing. Bothare simply different waysof construction knowledge. Paragraphs and

essays can be written in different types or stylesWelch’s, (2017). A writer will choose

a type depending on what he or she wishes to accomplish, what sort of material is to

be discussed, and what kind of effect she wants to have on the reader. Generally

speaking, there are four types of writing, though normally these types are mixed

together.

1. Narrative: The narrative paragraph or essay tells a story, justlike a narrator in a

play (though it shouldbe atrue story,unlike a short story or a play). Narrative

writing is best usedto illustrate the "personal developmental path" a person

(oftenyourself) has taken toreach a particular point in his/her life.As aresult, it is

 normally written in a firstpersonpoint of view. True narrativewriting is unusual,

becauseit is demanding.A narrativemust havea conflictthat is overcome.This is

the coreof anynarrativeformof writing, be it a paragraph, an essay, or a story).In

anessay, it usually means a single incident/anecdote,where the narrator

experiences some brief challenge that is met and (hopefully) survived.This

"overcoming" should in turn lead tosome form of understanding.Simply

describing or explaining one's surroundingsis not a narrative. You need a (brief)

establishment of setting, an explanation of the challenge, and theresolution of

thischallenge.Inother words, youneed a plot.

2. Descriptive writing paints a picture. In its pure form, nothing muchhappens.

"Description" tells us what something looks like, feels like, tasteslike, soundslike

or smells like without action or events. It doesn't explain a relationship or

aprocess beyond one self. It focuses on one's immediate subjective perceptions.

Thus, descriptive writing connects the outer world with our inner feelings. It is

usually concerned with creating averbal picture of what we experience and feel at

onemoment, and it will use many rich and vivid adjectives and adverbs. So, as a

writer, you should make the reader long to smell the rich essence of the trees, the

haunting call of the wolves, or the rank odour of the sewer. If that's what you're

writing about descriptive paragraphs and essaysare usually written in the first

person point of view, and are much more emotional and personal than expository

writing. It should be said that you will rarely write a purely descriptive passage.
 Normally speaking, descriptive writing is mixed in with other styles as a

supplement.

3. Expository writing "exposes" or explains thingsabout a subject. It is

alsosometimes called "information writing" becauseit gives information about a

person, place, thing, relationship or idea. To accomplish that, it is best developed

by the use of clear reasons, facts and statisticalin formation, cause and

effectrelationships, or examples. Since expository paragraphs are factual, they are

written without emotion and usually written in the third person. Nevertheless, you

can use "I" in your expository writing if the focusis on external, neutral

descriptions andexplanations, rather than personal feelings (personal feelings

moveyou into"descriptivewriting"). Indeed, expository paragraphsand essaysare

sometimesconfusedwith descriptive writing, because both can spend a lot of time

describing things.But again, the big differenceis that expository description

tendstofocusonexternal objects, situations and processes, in order toexplain

something in a neutral, matter of fact manner. Descriptive paragraphs, on the

other hand, tend to focus on our emotional responses as we perceive the world at

one point in time. Persuasive: Thistype ofwriting is probably the most common

form of writing at the university level. Persuasive (or argumentative) writing

attempts to convince the reader that the point of view or course of action

recommended by the writer is valid. Toaccomplish this, the writer must develop a

limited topic which is well defined and debatable,and has more than one side. It
 is important that the author understand other sides of the topic so that the

strongest information to counter the other scan be presented. You may present the

seopposing points of view, but they must be summarizedat the beginning and

then quickly refuted (torefute something means to show it is false or not

particularly important). If you're not sure how todo this, then simply stick to your

side of an argument.While persuasive writing attempts to prove your point of

view, it's usually written in an objective, thirdpersonpoint of view; such a stance

helps demonstrate your objectivity. It should be noted that “argumentative”

writing is said by some to be more rational and empirical (i.e.based on facts),

whereas “persuasive” writing will often use emotional appeals to manipulate

thereader’s sympathy. However, most writing experts view the two terms as

synonymous; few essay are socoldly dispassionate that they will not use strong

and loaded languageto win an argument, and analytic facts are always a good

way to persuade the reader of one side over another.

2.5 Register

Language plays an important role in the daily life of human beings. Therefore,

it is commonly understood that language exists in a society. They are

interdependent. In other words, the language needs the society where it exists, and

thesociety needs the language in their daily life. Language the Social Mirror,

There is no human society that does not depend upon, that is not shaped by and

does not itself shape language

 Moreover, Solano-Flores, (2010)view register in the sociolinguistic

perspective. They state that if sociolinguistics is a wide-ranging term, register

isequally tough to corral. Broadly conceived, a register is a language variety viewed

with respect to its context of use (Schembri & Johnston, 2012). Besides, they

also argue that register entails text and implies a relationship between text and context

Looking at the statement above, it is also worth noting that language

isalways formed in the society. Since the members of the society have

different background and activities, there are also some different languages. The

language of teaching is different from the language of delivering of speech, for

example, Each of them has its own characteristics that are called register. In

linguistic analysis, different styles of language are technically called register. Register

refersto properties within a language variety that associates language with a

givensituation.

There gister study has fours pecific the characteristics are:

1) Register studies involve descriptive analysis of actually occurring discourse.

2) Register studies aimto characterize language varieties.

3) Register studies present formal linguistic characterizations of language varieties

4) Register studies also analyze the situational characteristics of language

varieties, and functional or conventional relationships between form and

situation are posited.

 From the definitions above,we may conclude that sociolinguistic views of each

register are different from the others. The difference can be analyzed from different

points of view.

Further, Halliday and Hasan (1985) propose three aspects that make register

different from each other. The three aspects are field, tenor, and mode. They say that

register is a configuration of meaning that is typically associated with a particular

situational configuration of field, tenor and mode. Moreover, registers may be

narrowly defined by reference to subject matter (Field of Discourse), tomedium

(Mode of Discourse), or to level of formality (Mannerof Discourse) (Hartmann &

Stork, in Alwasilah, 1985:63).

2.6 Previous Study

This research similar with previous research was conducted. (Erwin Ashari, 2016),

the entitle of article is “A Comparative Register Perspective on Turkish Legislative

Language”. He investigated the register on Turkish Legislative while meeting interaction.

This research similar with previous research was conducted.(Warno Edi, 2004), the entitle of

article is “ A Register Analysis in Online Shop Term Facebook”. He investigatet in facebook

habitual chatting when the seller and buyer are interacting on online shop.

2.7 Concluding Remark

 In this selection, the researcher concludes this chapter regarding all theories related

to this research. Register is another complicating factor in any study of language

varieties. Registers are sets of language items associated with discrete occupational or

social groups. Surgeons, airline pilots, bank managers, sales clerks, jazz fans, and

pimps employ different registers. As Ferguson (2011, p. 20) says, “People

participating in recurrent communication situations tend to develop similar

vocabularies, similar features of intonation, and characteristic bits of syntax and

phonology that they use in these situations ”. This kind of variety is a register.

Ferguson adds that its ‘special terms for recurrent objects and events, and formulaic

sequences or “routines,” seem to facilitate speedy communication; other features

apparently serve to mark the register, establish feelings of rapport, and serve other

purposes similar to the accommodation that influences dialect formation.