SIGNIFICANCE OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION

 Communication is the process of exchanging information.

 Main barriers are language and distance

Methods of communication:

 Face to face
 Signals
 Written word (letters)
 Electrical innovations:
o Telegraph
o Telephone
o Radio
o Television
o Internet (computer)

Communication between early human beings was limited to face-to-face encounters. Long-distance communication was first accomplished by
sending simple signals such as drumbeats, horn blasts, and smoke signals and later by waving signal flags. When message were relayed from
one location to another, even greater distances could be covered.

The distance over which communication could be sent was extended by the written word. For many years, long-distance communication was
limited to the sending of verbal or written messages by the human runner, horseback, ship and later trains.

Then telegraph, telephone, radio, TV, internet have increased out ability to share information.

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

All electronic communication systems have a transmitter, a communication channel or medium, and a receiver. The process of communication
begins when a human being generates some kind of message, data, or other intelligence that must be received by others. A message may also
be generated by a computer or electronic current. In electronic communication systems, the message is referred to as information, or an
intelligence signal. This message, in the form of an electronic signal, is fed to the transmitter, which then transmits the message over the
communication channel. The message is picked up by the receiver and relayed to another human. Along the way, noise is added in the
communication channel and in the receiver. Noise is the general term applied to any phenomenon that degrades or interferes with the
transmitted information.

1. Transmitter

 collection of electronic components and circuits that converts the electrical signal into a signal suitable for transmission over a given
medium.
 made up of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned circuits and filters, modulators, frequency mixers, frequency synthesizers, and other
circuits.

2. Communication Channel

 medium by which the electronic signal is sent from one place to another.
 Types of media include
o Electrical conductors
o Optical media
o Free space
o System-specific media (e.g., water is the medium for sonar)

3. Receivers
 collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts the transmitted message from the channel and converts it back into a
form understandable by humans
 contain amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and filters, and a demodulator or detector that recovers the original intelligence
signal from the modulated carrier

Transceivers

 electronic unit that incorporates circuits that both send and receive signals.
 Examples are:
o Telephones
o Fax machines
o Handheld CB radios
o Cell phones
o Computer modems

Attenuation

 degradation
 It is proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver

Noise

 random, undesirable electronic energy that enters the communication system via the communicating medium and interferes with the
transmitted message.

TYPES OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION

1.Simplex

 The simplest method

 one-way
 Examples are:
o Radio
o TV broadcasting
o Beeper (personal receiver)

2. Full Duplex

When people can talk and listen simultaneously, it is called full duplex. The telephone is an example of this type of communication.

3. Half Duplex

 The form of two-way communication in which only one party transmits at a time
 Examples are:
o Police, military, etc. radio transmissions
o Citizen band (CB)
o Family radio
o Amateur radio
Analog Signal

 is a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or current.

 Examples are:
o Sine wave
o Voice
o Video (TV)

Digital Signals

 Digital signals change in steps or in discrete increments.

 Most digital signals use binary or two-state codes.
 Examples are:
o Telegraph (Morse code)
o Continuous wave (CW) code
o Serial binary code (used in computers)

Digital Signals

Many transmissions are of signals that originate in digital form but must be converted to analog form to match the transmission medium.

Ex. Digital data over the telephone network.

 Analog signals can be transmitted digitally.

 —They are first digitized with an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter.
 —The data can then be transmitted and processed by computers and other digital circuits.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

 The range of electromagnetic signals encompassing all frequencies

Frequency

 is the number of cycles of a repetitive wave that occur in a given period of time
 measured in cycles per second (cps).
 The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz).

Wavelength

 distance occupied by one cycle of a wave and is usually expressed in meters.

 also the distance traveled by an electromagnetic wave during the time of one cycle.
 represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ).

Wavelength

λ = speed of light ÷ frequency

Speed of light = 3 × 108 meters/second

Therefore:

λ = 3 × 10^8 / f

 
Examples:

A. Find the wavelengths of

1. 150 MHz signal

2. 430 MHz signal
3. 8 MHz signal
4. 750 kHz signal

Answers:

1. 2 m

2. 0.6977 m

3. 37.5 m

4. 400 m

B.

1. What is the frequency of a signal with a wavelength of 1.5 m?

2. A signal travels a distance of 75 ft in the time it takes to complete 1 cycle. What is its frequency?
3. The maximum peaks of an electromagnetic wave are separated by a distance of 8 in. What is the frequency in megahertz? In
gigahertz?

žAnswers:

1. 200 MHz

2. 13.12 MHz

3. 1477.8 MHz and 1.4778 GHz

Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF) 30–300 Hz.

Voice Frequencies (VF) 300–3000 Hz.

Very Low Frequencies (VLF) include the higher end of the human hearing range up to about 20 kHz.

Low Frequencies (LF) 30–300 kHz.

300–3000 kHz
Medium Frequencies (MF)
AM radio 535–1605 kHz.

Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF) 30–300 Hz.

Voice Frequencies (VF) 300–3000 Hz.

 Very Low Frequencies (VLF) include the higher end of the human hearing range up to about 20 kHz.

Low Frequencies (LF) 30–300 kHz.

300–3000 kHz
Medium Frequencies (MF)
AM radio 535–1605 kHz.

Microwaves and Super High Frequencies (SHF) 1–30 GHz

Satellite communication, radar, wireless LANs, microwave ovens 3- 30GHz

Extremely High Frequencies (EHF)

30–300 GHz
Satellite communication, computer data, radar

Optical Spectrum

 The optical spectrum exists directly above the millimeter wave region.

 Three types of light waves are:
o Infrared
o Visible spectrum
o Ultraviolet

Optical Spectrum: Infrared

 Infrared radiation is produced by any physical equipment that generates heat, including our bodies.
 Infrared is used:
o In astronomy, to detect stars and other physical bodies in the universe,
o For guidance in weapons systems, where the heat radiated from airplanes or missiles can be detected and used to guide
missiles to targets.
o In most new TV remote-control units, where special coded signals are transmitted by an infrared LED to the TV receiver
to change channels, set the volume, and perform other functions.
o In some of the newer wireless LANs and all fiber-optic communication.

Optical Spectrum: The Visible Spectrum

 Just above the infrared region is the visible spectrum we refer to as light.

 Red is low-frequency or long-wavelength light
 Violet is high-frequency or short-wavelength light.
 Light waves’ very high frequency enables them to handle a tremendous amount of information (the bandwidth of the baseband
signals can be very wide).

Optical Spectrum: Ultraviolet

 Ultraviolet is not used for communication

 Its primary use is medical.

Infrared  0.1mm-700nm
Visible light  400-800 nm

Ultraviolet  4-400 nm

BANDWIDTH

 žBandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal.

 žIt is also the frequency range over which a receiver or other electronic circuit operates.

  BW = f2-f1

Examples:

1. A commonly used frequency range is 902-928 MHz. What is the width of this band? (Answer BW=26MHz)
2. A television signal occupies a 6 MHz bandwidth. If the low frequency limit of channel 2 is 54 MHz, what is the upper frequency limit?
(Answer: f2=60MHz)

 žThe modulation process causes other signals, called sidebands, to be generated.

o For example, in AM broadcasting, audio signals up to 5kHz can be transmitted.
 žChannel bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies required to transmit the desired information.

More Room at the Top

 Today, virtually the entire frequency spectrum between approximately 30 kHz and 300 MHz has been spoken for.
 There is tremendous competition for these frequencies, between companies, individuals, and government services in individual
carriers and between the different nations of the world.
 The electromagnetic spectrum is one of our most precious natural resources.
 Communication engineering is devoted to making the best use of that finite spectrum.
 Great effort goes into developing communication techniques that  minimize the bandwidth required to transmit given information and
thus conserve spectrum space.
 This provides more room for additional communication channels and gives other services or users an opportunity to take advantage
of it.

Spectrum Management and Standards

Spectrum management is provided by agencies set up by the United States and other countries to control spectrum use.

Federal Communications Commission- regulatory body whose function is t allocate spectrum space, issue licenses, set standards and police
the airwaves.

National Telecommunications and Information Administration- performs a similar function for government and military services

Standards are specifications and guidelines necessary to ensure compatibility between transmitting and receiving equipment.

The term used to describe the ability of equipment from one manufacturer to work compatibly with that of another is interoperability.

 žAmerican National Standards Institute

 žElectronic Industries Alliance
 žEuropean Telecommunications Standards Institute
 žInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
 žInternational Telecommunications Union
 žInternet Engineering Task Force
 žTelecommunications Institute of America

MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

žModulation and multiplexing are electronic techniques for transmitting information efficiently from one place to another.

žThese techniques are basic to electronic communication

Baseband Transmission

 Baseband information can be sent directly and unmodified over the medium or can be used to modulate a carrier for transmission over the
medium.

 žPutting the original voice, video or digital signals directly into the medium
 žIn many instances, baseband signals are incompatible with the medium.
 žBaseband information signal is normally used to modulate a high frequency signal called a carrier.

Broadband Transmission

 takes place when a carrier signal is modulated, amplified, and sent to the antenna for transmission.
 The two most common methods of modulation are:
o Amplitude Modulation (AM)
o Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Another method is called phase modulation (PM), in which the phase angle of the sine wave is varied.

Multiplexing

 process of allowing two or more signals to share the same medium or channel.
 The three basic types of multiplexing are:
o Frequency division
o Time division
o Code division

JOBS AND CAREERS IN THE COMMUNICATION INDUSTRY

žThe electronics industry is roughly divided into four major specializations:

1.Communications

2.Computers

3.Industrial controls

4.Instrumentation

Types of Jobs

 Engineers design communication equipment and systems.

 Technicians install, troubleshoot, repair, calibrate, and maintain equipment.
 Engineering Technicians assist in equipment design, testing, and assembly.

 Technical sales representatives determine customer needs and related specifications, write proposals and sell equipment.

 Technical writers generate technical documentation for equipment and systems.

 Trainers develop programs, generate training and presentation materials, and conduct classroom training.

Major Employers

The communication electronics industry is made up of the following segments:

 Manufacturers
 Resellers
 Service Organizations
 End users

AM CONCEPTS

 In amplitude modulation (AM) the information signal varies the amplitude of the carrier sine wave.
 The instantaneous value of the carrier amplitude changes in accordance with the amplitude and frequency variations of the
modulating signal.
 An imaginary line called the envelope connects the positive and negative peaks of the carrier waveform.

The carrier frequency remains constant during the modulation process, but its amplitude varies in accordance with the modulating signal. An
increase in the amplitude of the modulating signal causes the amplitude of the carrier to increase. Both the positive and the negative peaks of
the carrier wave vary with the modulating signal. An increase or a decrease in the amplitude of the modulating signal causes a corresponding
increase or decrease in both the positive and the negative peaks of the carrier amplitude.

An imaginary line connecting the positive peaks and negative peaks of the carrier waveform gives the exact shape of the modulating
information signal. This imaginary line on the carrier waveform is known as the envelope.

 In AM, it is particularly important that the peak value of the modulating signal be less than the peak value of the carrier.

Vm < Vc

 Distortion occurs when the amplitude of the modulating signal is greater than the amplitude of the carrier.

Values for the carrier signal and the modulating signal can be used in a formula to express the complete modulated wave. First, keep in mind
that the peak value of the carrier is the reference point for the modulating signal; the value of the modulating signal is added to or subtracted
from the peak value of the carrier. The instantaneous value of either the top or bottom voltage envelope v1 can be computed by using the
equation v1 = Vc + vm = Vc + Vm sin 2pifmt

Which expresses the fact that the instantaneous value of the modulating signal algebraically adds to the peal value of the carrier. Thus we can
write the instantaneous value of the complete modulated wave v2  by substituting v1 for the peak value of carrier voltage Vc as follows: v2 = v1
sin 2pifct

Now substituting the previously derived expression for v1 and expanding, we get the following: v2 = (Vc + Vm sin 2pifmt) sin 2pifct = Vc sin
2pifct + (Vm sin 2pifmt)(sin 2pifct)

Modulator

 is a circuit used to produce AM

 Circuit that changes a lower frequency baseband or intelligence signal to a higher-frequency signal
 Amplitude modulators compute the product of the carrier and modulating signals.
 Circuits that compute the product of two analog signals are also known as analog multipliers, mixers, converters, product detectors,
and phase detectors

Demodulator / Detector
 A circuit used to recover the original intelligence signal from an AM wave

MODULATION INDEX AND PERCENTAGE OF MODULATION

 The modulation index (m) is a value that describes the relationship between the amplitude of the modulating signal and the
amplitude of the carrier signal.

m = Vm / Vc

 This index is also known as the modulating factor or coefficient, or the degree of modulation.

 Multiplying the modulation index by 100 gives the percentage of modulation.

Example:

If the carrier voltage is 9 V and the modulating signal voltage is 7.5 V, calculate the modulation factor and the percentage of modulation.

(Answer: m = 0.8333      %m = 83.33%)

Overmodulation and Distortion

 The modulation index should be a number between 0 and 1.

 If the amplitude of the modulating voltage is higher than the carrier voltage, m will be greater than 1, causing distortion.
 If the distortion is great enough, the intelligence signal becomes unintelligible.

Percentage of Modulation

 The modulation index is commonly computed from measurements taken on the composite modulated waveform.

Using oscilloscope voltage values:

Vm= (Vmax-Vmin)/2

Vc= (Vmax+Vmin)/2

m= (Vmax-Vmin)/(Vmax+Vmin)

Example:

 Suppose that on an AM signal, the Vmax(p-p) value read from the graticule on the oscilloscope screen is 5.9 divisions and Vmin(p-
p) is 1.2 divisions.

A.What is the modulation index? (Answer: m=0.662)

B.Calculate Vc, Vm, and M if the vertical scale is 2 V per division. (Answers: Vc=7.1V,  Vm=4.7V,  m=0.662)

SIDEBANDS AND THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN

 Side frequencies, or sidebands are generated as part of the modulation process and occur in the frequency spectrum directly above
and below the carrier frequency.

 
Sideband Calculations

 Single-frequency sine-wave modulation generates two sidebands.

 Complex wave (e.g. voice or video) modulation generates a range of sidebands.
 The upper sideband (fUSB) and the lower sideband (fLSB) are calculated:

fUSB = fc + fm    and    fLSB = fc − fm

The AM wave is the algebraic sum of the carrier and upper and lower sideband sine waves. (a) Intelligence or modulating signal. (b) Lower
sideband. (c  ) Carrier. (d  ) Upper sideband. (e  ) Composite AM wave.

Frequency-Domain Representation of AM

 A plot of signal amplitude versus frequency is referred to as frequency-domain display.

 A spectrum analyzer is used to display the frequency domain as a signal.

 Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower sideband frequencies.

BW = fUSB−fLSB

Example:

 A standard AM broadcast station is allowed to transmit modulating frequencies up to 5 kHz. If the AM station is transmitting on a
frequency of 980 kHz, compute the maximum and minimum upper and lower sidebands and the total bandwidth occupied by the AM
station.

Answers:

  fUSB = 980 + 5 = 985 kHz

  fLSB = 980 – 5 = 975 kHz

  BW = fUSB – fLSB = 985 – 975 = 10 kHz

  BW = 2 (5 kHz) = 10 kHz

Pulse Modulation

 When complex signals such as pulses or rectangular waves modulate a carrier, a broad spectrum of sidebands is produced.
 A modulating square wave will produce sidebands based on the fundamental sine wave as well as the third, fifth, seventh, etc.
harmonics.
 Amplitude modulation by square waves or rectangular pulses is referred to as amplitude shift keying (ASK).

 ASK is used in some types of data communications.

Pulse Modulation

 Continuous-wave (CW) transmission can be achieved by turning the carrier off and on, as in Morse code transmission.
 Continuous wave (CW) transmission is sometimes referred to as On-Off keying (OOK).
 Splatter is a term used to describe harmonic sideband interference.

AM POWER

 In radio transmission, the AM signal is amplified by a power amplifier.

 A radio antenna has a characteristic impedance that is ideally almost pure resistance.
 The AM signal is a composite of the carrier and sideband signal voltages.
 Each signal produces power in the antenna.

 Total transmitted power (PT) is the sum of carrier power (Pc ) and power of the two sidebands (PUSB and PLSB).

  PT = Pc + PLSB + PUSB

PT= Pc(1+(m^2/2))

Examples:

1.If the carrier of an AM transmitter is 100 W and it is modulated 100 percent, what is the total AM power? (Answer: 1500W)

2.An AM transmitter has a carrier power of 30 W. The percentage of modulation is 85 percent. Calculate (a) the total power and (b) the power
in one sideband. ((Answers: Pt= 40.8W and Psb(one)= 5.4W)

 When the percentage of modulation is less than the optimum 100, there is much less power in the sidebands.
 Output power can be calculated by using the formula

                                 PT = ((IT)^2)R

  where IT is measured RF current and R is antenna impedance

 The greater the percentage of modulation, the higher the sideband power and the higher the total power transmitted.
 Power in each sideband is calculated

PSB = PLSB = PUSB = Pcm^2 / 4

 Maximum power appears in the sidebands when the carrier is 100 percent modulated.

SINGLE SIDEBAND MODULATION

 In amplitude modulation, two-thirds of the transmitted power is in the carrier, which conveys no information.
 Signal information is contained within the sidebands.
 Single-sideband (SSB) is a form of AM where the carrier is suppressed and one sideband is eliminated.

Examples:

1.An antenna has an impedance of 40Ω. An unmodulated AM signal produces a current of 4.8 A. The modulation is 90%. Calculate (a) the
carrier power (b) the total power (c) the sideband power.

2.The transmitter in example 1 experiences an antenna current change from 4.8 A unmodulated to 5.1 A. What is the percentage of
modulation?

3.What is the power in one sideband of the transmitter of example 1?

Answers:

 1. Pc=921.6W, Pt=1295W, Psb=373.4W

 2. %m=51%
 3. Psb=186.6W

DSB Signals

 The first step in generating an SSB signal is to suppress the carrier, leaving the upper and lower sidebands.
 This type of signal is called a double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSSC) signal. No power is wasted on the carrier.
 A balanced modulator is a circuit used to produce the sum and difference frequencies of a DSSC signal but to cancel or balance out
the carrier.
 DSB is not widely used because the signal is difficult to demodulate (recover) at the receiver

SSB Signals

 One sideband is all that is necessary to convey information in a signal.

 A single-sideband suppressed carrier (SSSC) signal is generated by suppressing the carrier and one sideband.

SSB Signals

SSB signals offer four major benefits:

1.Spectrum space is conserved and allows more signals to be transmitted in the same frequency range.

2.All power is channeled into a single sideband. This produces a stronger signal that will carry farther and will be more reliably received at
greater distances.

3.Occupied bandwidth space is narrower and noise in the signal is reduced.

4.There is less selective fading over long distances.

Disadvantages of DSB and SSB

 Single and double-sideband are not widely used because the signals are difficult to recover (i.e. demodulate) at the receiver.
 A low power, pilot carrier is sometimes transmitted along with sidebands in order to more easily recover the signal at the receiver.

Signal Power Considerations

 In SSB, the transmitter output is expressed in terms of peak envelope power (PEP), the maximum power produced on voice
amplitude peaks.

Examples:

1.An SSB transmitter produces a peak-to-peak voltage of 178 V across a 75 Ω antenna load. What is the PEP?

2.An SSB transmitter has a 24 V dc power supply. On voice peaks the current achieves a maximum of 9.3 A. (a) What is the PEP? (b) What is
the average power of the transmitter?

Answers:

1.PEP= 52.8W

2.PEP=223.2W, Pavg=55.8 to 74.4 W

 
Applications of DSB and SSB

DSB- used in FM and TV broadcasting to transmit two-channel stereo signals and to transmit the color information for a TV picture

SSB- used in marine applications, in the military, and by hobbyists known as radio amateurs (hams)

 A vestigial sideband signal (VSB) is produced by partially suppressing the lower sideband. This kind of signal is used in TV
transmission.

CLASSIFICATION OF RADIO EMISSIONS

 A code is used to designate the types of signals that can be transmitted by radio and wire.
 The code is made up of a capital letter and a number.
 Lowercase subscript letters are used for more specific definition.

Examples of codes:

 DSB two sidebands, full carrier = A3

 DSB two sidebands, suppressed carrier = A3b
 SSB single sideband, suppressed carrier = A3j
 SSB single sideband, 10% pilot carrier = A3a
 Vestigial sideband TV = A3c
 OOK and ASK = A1

The International Telecommunications Union (ITU), a standards organization, uses a code to describe signals.

Examples are:

 A3F amplitude-modulated analog TV

 J3E SSB voice
 F2D FSK data
 G7E phase-modulated voice, multiple signals
 H3E single sideband full carrier

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION

The basic equation for an AM signal is

νAM = Vcsin 2πfct + (Vmsin 2πfmt) (sin 2πfct)

m = Vm / Vc

  νAM = Vcsin 2πfct + (mVc sin 2πfmt) (sin 2πfct)

AM in the Time Domain

 If a circuit’s gain is a function of 1+ m  sin 2πfmt,  the expression for the AM signal is

νAM = A(νc)

  Where A  is the gain or attenuation factor.

 

AM in the Frequency Domain

 Another way to generate the product of the carrier and modulating signal is to apply both signals to a nonlinear component or circuit,
ideally one that generates a square-law function.

A square-law function is one that varies in proportion to the square of the input signals. A diode gives a good approximation of a square-law
response. Bipolar and field-effect transistors (FETs) can also be biased to give a square-law response.

 Diodes and transistors whose function is not a pure square-law function produce third-, fourth-, and higher-order harmonics, which
are sometimes referred to as intermodulation products.
 Intermodulation products are easy to filter out.
 Tuned circuits filter out the modulating signal and carrier harmonics, leaving only carrier and sidebands.

AMPLITUDE MODULATORS

Types of amplitude modulators

 Low-level modulators generate AM with small signals and must be amplified before transmission.
 High-level modulators produce AM at high power levels, usually in the final amplifier stage of a transmitter.

Low-Level AM: Diode Modulator

1. Diode modulator consists of a resistive mixing network, a diode rectifier, and an LC tuned circuit.

2. Transistor modulator consists of a resistive mixing network, a transistor, and an LC tuned circuit.

3. Differential amplifier modulators make excellent amplitude modulators because they have a high gain, good linearity and can be 100 percent
modulated.

High-Level AM

 In high-level modulation, the modulator varies the voltage and power in the final RF amplifier stage of the transmitter.
 The result is high efficiency in the RF amplifier and overall high-quality performance.

1. Collector modulator is a linear power amplifier that takes the low-level modulating signals and amplifies them to a high-power level.

Example:

An AM transmitter uses high-level modulation of the final RF power amplifier, which has a dc supply voltage  VCC of 48 V with a total current  I 
of 3.5 A. The efficiency is 70 percent.

a.What is the RF input power to the final stage?

b.How much AF power is required for 100 percent modulation? (Hint: For 100 percent modulation, AF modulating power  Pm is one-half the
input power.)

c.What is the carrier output power?

d. What is the power in one sideband for 67 percent modulation?

e. What is the maximum and minimum dc supply voltage swing with 100 percent modulation?

Answers:
a.P = 168 W

b.Pm = 84 W

c.Pout = 117.6 W

d.Ps= 18.85 W

e.0 and 96 V

2. Series modulator produces high-level modulation without a large and expensive modulation transformer used in collector modulators.

 It improves frequency response.

 It is, however, very inefficient.
 A series modulator replaces the modulation transformer with an emitter follower.
 The modulating signal is applied to the emitter follower.
 The emitter follower is in series with the collector supply voltage.
 The collector voltage changes with variations in the amplified audio modulating signal.

AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS

 Demodulators, or detectors, are circuits that accept modulated signals and recover the original modulating information.

The simplest and most widely used amplitude demodulator is the  diode. As shown, the AM signal is usually transformer-coupled and applied to
a basic half wave rectifier circuit consisting of  D1 and  R1. The diode conducts when the positive half-cycles of the AM signals occur. During
the negative half-cycles, the diode is reverse-biased and no current flows through it. As a result, the voltage across  R1 is a series of positive
pulses whose amplitude varies with the modulating signal. A capacitor C1is connected across resistor  R1, effectively filtering out the carrier
and thus recovering the original modulating signal.

Diode Detector

 Because the diode detector recovers the envelope of the AM (modulating) signal, the circuit is sometimes called an envelope
detector.
 If the RC time constant in a diode detector is too long, the capacitor discharge will be too slow to follow the faster changes in the
modulating signal.
 This is referred to as diagonal distortion.

2. Synchronous Detection

 Synchronous detectors use an internal clock signal at the carrier frequency in the receiver to switch the AM signal off and on,
producing rectification similar to that in a standard diode detector.
 Synchronous detectors or coherent detectors have less distortion and a better signal-to-noise ratio than standard diode detectors.
 The key to making the synchronous detector work is to ensure that the signal producing the switching action is perfectly in phase
with the received AM carrier.
 An internally generated carrier signal from an oscillator will not work.

BALANCED MODULATOR

 A balanced modulator is a circuit that generates a DSB signal, suppressing the carrier and leaving only the sum and difference
frequencies at the output.
 The output of a balanced modulator can be further processed by filters or phase-shifting circuitry to eliminate one of the sidebands,
resulting in a SSB signal.
 Types of balanced modulators include lattice, 1496/1596 IC, and the analog multiplier.

 
Lattice Modulator

 The lattice modulator consists of an input transformer, an output transformer and four diodes connected in a bridge circuit.
 The carrier signal is applied to the center taps of the input and output transformers.
 The modulating signal is applied to the input transformer.
 The output appears across the output transformer.

 The carrier sine wave is considerably higher in frequency and amplitude than the modulating signal.
 The carrier sine wave is used as a source of forward and reverse bias for the diodes.
 The carrier turns the diodes off and on at a high rate of speed.
 The diodes act like switches that connect the modulating signal at the secondary of T1 to the primary of T2.

IC Balanced Modulators

 The 1496/1596 IC is a versatile circuit available for communication applications.

 It can work at carrier frequencies up to 100 MHz.
 It can achieve a carrier suppression of 50 to 65 dB.
 The 1496/1596 IC can operate as a balanced modulator or configured to perform as an amplitude modulator, a product detector, or
a synchronous detector.

IC Balanced Modulators: Analog Multiplier

 An analog multiplier is a type of integrated circuit that can be used as a balanced modulator.
 Analog multipliers are often used to generate DSB signals.
 The analog multiplier is not a switching circuit like the balanced modulator.
 The analog multiplier uses differential amplifiers operating in the linear mode.
 The carrier must be a sine wave and the multiplier produces the true product of two analog inputs.

SSB CIRCUITS

Generating SSB Signals: The Filter Method

 The filter method is the simplest and most widely used method of generating SSB signals.

The figure shows a general block diagram of an SSB transmitter using the i lter method. The modulating signal, usually voice from a
microphone, is applied to the audio amplifier, the output of which is fed to one input of a balanced modulator. A crystal oscillator provides the
carrier signal, which is also applied to the balanced modulator. The output of the balanced modulator is a  double-sideband (DSB)signal. An
SSB signal is produced by passing the DSB signal through a highly selective bandpass filter that selects either the upper or lower sideband.

Generating SSB Signals: Phasing Method

 The phasing method of SSB generation uses a phase-shift technique that causes one of the sidebands to be canceled out.

It uses two balanced modulators, which effectively eliminate the carrier. The carrier oscillator is applied directly to the upper balanced
modulator along with the audio modulating signal. The carrier and modulating signal are then both shifted in phase by 90° and applied to the
second, lower, balanced modulator. The phase-shifting action causes one sideband to be canceled out when the two balanced modulator
outputs are added to produce the output.

DSB and SSB Demodulation

 To recover the intelligence in a DSB or SSB signal, the carrier that was suppressed at the receiver must be reinserted.
 A product detector is a balanced modulator used in a receiver to recover the modulating signal.
 Any balanced modulator can be used as a product detector to demodulate SSB signals.

 Assume, e.g., that a 3-kHz sine wave tone is transmitted by modulating a 1000-kHz carrier. With SSB transmission of the upper sideband, the
transmitted signal is 1000 + 3 = 1003 kHz. Now at the receiver, the SSB signal (the 1003-kHz USB) is used to modulate a carrier of 1000 kHz.
See (a). If a balanced modulator is used, the 1000-kHz carrier is suppressed, but the sum and difference signals are generated. The balanced
modulator is called a  product detector because it is used to recover the modulating signal rather than generate a carrier that will transmit it.
The sum and difference frequencies produced are 2003 and 3 kHz.

Fig.(b) shows a widely accepted convention for representing balanced modulator circuits. Note the special symbols used for the balanced
modulator and low-pass filter.

GAIN, ATTENUATION AND DECIBELS

Most electronic circuits in communication are used to manipulate signals to produce a desired result.

All signal processing circuits involve:

 Gain
 Attenuation

Gain

 Gain means amplification. It is the ratio of a circuit’s output to its input.

Example:

What is the voltage gain of an amplifier that produces an output of 750 mV for a 30 uV input? (Answer: Av = 25,000)

Most amplifiers are also power amplifiers, so the same procedure can be used to calculate power gain AP  where Pin is the power input
and Pout is the power output.

Power gain (Ap) = Pout / Pin

Example:

The power output of an amplifier is 6 watts (W). The power gain is 80. What is the input power? (Answer: Pin = 75 mW)

 An amplifier is cascaded when two or more stages are connected together.

 The overall gain is the product of the individual circuit gains.

Examples:

1. Three cascaded amplifiers have power gains of 5, 2, and 17. The input power is 40 mW. What is the output power? (Answer: Pout = 6.8 W)

2. A two-stage amplifier has an input power of 25 uW and an output power of 1.5 mW. One stage has a gain of 3. What is the gain of the
second stage? (Answer: A2 = 20)

Attenuation

 Attenuation refers to a loss introduced by a circuit or component.

A = output/input = Vout/Vin

 Circuits that introduce attenuation have a gain that is less than 1.

 With cascaded circuits, the total attenuation is the product of the individual attenuations.

Total attenuation is the product of individual attenuations of each cascaded circuit

Examples:

1. A voltage divider that has values of R1 = 10 kΩ and R2 = 470 Ω.

a. What is the attenuation? (Answer: A1 = 0.045)

b. What amplifier gain would you need to offset the loss for an overall gain of 1? (Answer: .A2 = 22.3)

2. An amplifier has a gain of 45,000, which is too much for the amplification. With an input voltage of 20 uV, what attenuation factor is needed
to keep the output voltage from exceeding 100 mV? Let A1 = amplifier gain = 45,000; A2 = attenuation factor; AT = total gain.   (Answer: A2 =
0.1111)

Decibels

 The decibel (dB) is a unit of measure used to express the gain or loss of a circuit.
 The decibel was originally created to express hearing response.
 A decibel is one-tenth of a bel.

AT(dB) = A1(dB) + A2(dB) + ……+ An(dB)

Decibels: Decibel Calculations

 Voltage Gain or Attenuation

dB = 20 log Vout/ Vin

 Current Gain or Attenuation

dB = 20 log Iout/ Iin

 Power Gain or Attenuation

dB = 10 log Pout/ Pin

Examples:

1. An amplifier has an input of 3 mV and an output of 5 V. What is the gain in decibels? (Example: dB = 64.4)

2. A filter has a power input of 50 mW and an output of 2 mW. What is the gain or attenuation? (Answer: dB = -13.98)

Decibels: Antilogs

 The antilog is the number obtained when the base is raised to the logarithm which is the exponent.
 Antilogs are used to calculate input or output voltage or power, given the decibel gain or attenuation and the output or input.
 The antilog is the base 10 raised to the dB/10 power.

Examples:
1. A power amplifier with a 40 dB gain has an output power of 100 W. What is the input power? (Answer: Pin = 10mW)
2. An amplifier has a gain of 60 dB. If the input voltage is 50 uV, what is the output voltage? (Answer: Vout = 50 mV)

Decibels: dBm and dBc

 When a decibel value is computed by comparing a power value to 1 mW, the result is a value called the dBm. This is a useful
reference value.

 The value dBc is a decibel gain attenuation figure where the reference is the carrier.

Examples:

1. A power amplifier has an input of 90 mV across 10 kΩ. The output is 7.8 V across an 8 k Ω speaker. What is the power gain, in decibels?
You must compute the input and output power levels first. (Answer: Ap(dB) = 39.7 dB)

2. An amplifier has a power gain of 28 dB. The input power is 36 mW. What is the output power? (Answer: Pout = 22.71 W)

3. A circuit consists of two amplifiers with gains of 6.8 and 14.3 dB and two filters with attenuations of -16.4 and -2.9 dB. If the output voltage is
800 mV, what is the input voltage? (Answer: Vin = 650.4 mV)

4. Express Pout = 12.3 dBm in watts. (Answer: Pout = 17 mW)

TUNED CIRCUITS

 Tuned circuits - made up of inductors and capacitors that resonate at specific frequencies.

Reactive Components

 All tuned circuits and many filters are made up of inductive and capacitive elements.
 Opposition to alternating-current flow offered by coils and capacitors is known as reactance.
 Reactance is expressed in ohms (Ω).

Reactive Components: Capacitors

 A capacitor used in an ac circuit charges and discharges.

 Opposition to alternating current offered by a capacitor is known as capacitive reactance (Xc).

Xc=1/(2pifC)

Example:

What is the capacitive reactance of a 100-pF capacitor at 2 MHz? (Answer: 796.2 Ω)

Reactive Components: Inductors

 Inductor (coil or choke) - is a winding of multiple turns of wire.

 If the applied voltage and current are varying, this causes a voltage to be self-induced into the coil winding.
 This process has the effect of opposing current changes in the coil. This effect is known as inductance.
 Henry (H) - basic unit of inductance
o practical values: mH and nH regions
 Opposition to alternating current offered by inductors is continuous and constant and is known as inductive reactance (XL).
 XL=2pifL

Example:

What is the inductive reactance of a 40-μH coil at 18 MHz? (Answer: 4522 Ω)

Reactive Components: Resistors

 At low frequencies, a standard resistor offers nearly pure resistance.

 At high frequencies, a resistor’s leads have inductance and stray capacitance.

Reactive Components: Skin Effect.

 Skin effect is the tendency of electrons flowing in a conductor to flow near and on the outer surface of the conductor frequencies in
the VHF, UHF, and microwave regions.
 This process increases the resistance of the conductor and greatly affects the performance of the circuit.

Tuned Circuits and Resonance

 Tuned circuit - made up of inductance and capacitance and resonates at a specific frequency, the resonant frequency.
 The terms tuned circuit and resonant circuit are used interchangeably.
 Tuned circuits are frequency-selective and respond best at their resonant frequency.

Tuned Circuits and Resonance: Series Resonant Circuits

 Series resonant circuit - made up of inductance, capacitance and resistance connected in series.

 Resonance occurs when inductive and capacitive reactances are equal.

Examples:

1. What is the resonant frequency of a 2.7-pF capacitor and a 33-nH inductor? (Answer: 533 MHz)

2. What value of inductance will resonate with a 12pF capacitor at 49MHz? (Answer: 879 nH)

 Bandwidth (BW) - narrow frequency range over which the current is highest.

 Half-power points - current levels at which the frequency response is 70.7% of the peak value of resonance.
 Quality (Q) - ratio of the inductive reactance to the total circuit resistance.
 Selectivity - how a circuit responds to varying frequencies.

BW=fr/Q

fr= (f1+f2)/2               f1= fr - (BW/2)          f2= fr + (BW/2) 

Examples:

1.What is the bandwidth of a resonant circuit with a frequency of 28 MHz and a Q of 70? (Answer: 400 kHz)

2.The upper and lower cutoff frequencies of a resonant circuit are found to be 8.07 and 7.93 MHz. Calculate (a) bandwidth (b) the approximate
resonant frequency (c) Q

(Answers: a. BW = 140 kHz, b. 8 MHz, c. 57.14)

3. What are the approximate 3-dB down frequencies of a resonant circuit with a Q of 200 at 16 MHz? (Answers:
f1 = 15.96 MHz,  f2 = 16.04 MHz)

Tuned Circuits and Resonance: Parallel Resonant Circuits

 Parallel resonant circuit - formed when the inductor and capacitor of a tuned circuit are connected in parallel with the applied
voltage.
 The resonant frequency (fr) is inversely proportional to inductance and capacitance.

 At resonance, a parallel tuned circuit appears to

o have infinite resistance
o draw no current from the source
o have infinite impedance
o act as an open circuit.
 However, there is a high circulating current between the inductor and capacitor, storing and transferring energy between them.
 Because such a circuit acts as a kind of storage vessel for electric energy, it is often referred to as a tank circuit and the circulating
current is referred to as the tank current.

Example:

What is the impedance of a parallel LC circuit with a resonant frequency of 52 MHz and a Q of 12? L = 0.15 uH (Answer: 592 ohms)

FILTERS

 A filter is a frequency-selective circuit.

 Passive filters are created using components such as: resistors, capacitors, and inductors that do not amplify.
 Active filters use amplifying devices such as transistors and operational amplifiers.

Basic kinds of filter circuits:

 Low-pass filters only pass frequencies below a critical (cutoff) frequency.

 High-pass filters only pass frequencies above the cutoff frequency.
 Bandpass filters pass frequencies over a narrow range between lower and upper cutoff frequencies.
 Band-reject filters reject or stop frequencies over a narrow range between lower and upper cutoff frequencies.
 All-pass filters pass all frequencies over a desired range but have a predictable phase shift characteristic.

RC Filters

 RC filters use combinations of resistors and capacitors to achieve a desired frequency response.

 Most RC filters are of the low-pass or high-pass type.
 Any low-pass or high-pass filter is effectively a frequency-dependent voltage divider.

RC Filters: Low-Pass Filter

 Low-pass filter - circuit that introduces no attenuation at frequencies below the cutoff frequency but completely eliminates all signals
with frequencies above the cutoff.
 Low-pass filters are sometimes referred to as high cut filters.

 Cutoff frequency / Critical frequency

Example:

What is the cutoff frequency of a single-section RC low-pass filter with R=8.2 kΩ and C=0.0033 uF? (Answer: fco= 5.88 kHz)
 

RC Filters: High-Pass Filter

 High-pass filter - passes frequencies above the cutoff frequency with little or no attenuation but greatly attenuates those signals
below the cutoff.
 The basic high-pass filter is a voltage divider with the capacitor serving as the frequency-sensitive component.
 A high-pass filter can be implemented with a coil and a resistor.

Example:

What is the closest standard EIA resistor value that will produce a cutoff frequency of 3.4 kHz with a 0.047 uF capacitor in a high-pass RC
filter? (Answer: R = 996 Ω   The closest standard values are 910 and 1000 Ω, with 1000 being the closest.)

RC Filters: RC Notch Filter

 Notch filters (bandstop or band-reject filters) - attenuate a narrow range of frequencies around a center point (frequency).
 A simple notch filter implemented with resistors and capacitors is called a parallel-T or twin-T filter.

f notch= 1/ (2piRC)

Example:

What values of capacitors would you use in an RC twin-T notch filter to remove 120 Hz is R= 220kΩ? (Answer: 2C = 0.012 uF)

LC Filters

 LC  filters - use combinations of inductors and capacitors to achieve a desired frequency response.
 They are typically used with radio frequency (RF) applications.

 Passband is the frequency range over which the filter passes signals.
 Stop band is the range of frequencies outside the passband; that is, the range of frequencies that is greatly attenuated by the filter.
 Attenuation is the amount by which undesired frequencies in the stop band are reduced.
 Insertion loss is the loss the filter introduces to the signals in the passband.
 Impedance is the resistive value of the load and source terminations of the filter.
 Ripple is a term used to describe the amplitude variation with frequency in the passband.
 Shape factor is the ratio of the stop bandwidth to the pass bandwidth of a bandpass filter.
 A pole is a frequency at which there is a high impedance in the circuit.
 Zero is a term used to refer to a frequency at which there is zero impedance in the circuit.
 Envelope delay or time delay is the time it takes for a specific point on an input waveform to pass through the filter.
 Roll-off or attenuation rate is the rate of change of amplitude with frequency in a filter.

Types of Filters

 Butterworth: The Butterworth filter effect has maximum flatness in response in the passband and a uniform attenuation with
frequency.
 Chebyshev: Has extremely good selectivity, and attenuation just outside the passband is very high, but has ripple in the passband.
 Cauer (Elliptical): Produces greater attenuation out of the passband, but with higher ripple within and outside of the passband.
 Bessel (Thomson): Provides the desired frequency response (i.e., low-pass, bandpass, etc.) but has a constant time delay in the
passband. 
Types of Filters: Mechanical and Bandpass Filters

 Mechanical filter - uses resonant vibrations of mechanical disks to provide the selectivity.

 Bandpass filters - allow a narrow range of frequencies around a center frequency to pass with minimum attenuation but rejects
frequencies above and below this range.

Types of Filters: Band-Reject Filters

 Band-reject filters ( bandstop filters) - reject a narrow band of frequencies around a center or notch frequency.

Active Filters

 Active filters are frequency-selective circuits that incorporate RC networks and amplifiers with feedback to produce low-pass, high-
pass, bandpass, and bandstop performance. Advantages are:
 Gain
 No inductors
 Easy to tune
 Isolation
 Easier impedance matching

 A special form of active filter is the variable-state filter, which can simultaneously provide low-pass, high-pass, and bandpass
operation from one circuit.

Crystal and Ceramic Filters

 Crystal and ceramic filters are made of thin slivers of quartz crystal or certain other types of ceramic materials.
 Crystals and ceramic elements are widely used in oscillators to set frequency of operation to a precise value.

 Crystals and ceramic elements are also used as circuit elements to form filters, specifically bandpass filters.

Crystal and Ceramic Filters: Surface Acoustic Wave Filters

 The surface acoustic wave (SAW) filter is a special form of a crystal filter designed to provide the exact selectivity required by a
given application.
 SAW filters are normally used at very high radio frequencies where selectivity is difficult to obtain.
 They are widely used in modern TV receivers, radar receivers, wireless LANs, and cell phones.

Switched Capacitor Filters

 Switched capacitor filters (SCFs), also known as analog sampled data filters or commutating filters,  are active IC filters made of op
amps, capacitors, and transistor switches.
 They provide a way to make tuned or selective circuits in an IC without the use of discrete inductors, capacitors, or resistors.
 The secret to the SCF is that all resistors are replaced by capacitors that are switched by MOSFET switches.

FOURIER THEORY
 One method used to determine the characteristics and performance of a communication circuit or system, specifically for non-sine
wave approach, is Fourier analysis.
 The Fourier theory states that a nonsinusoidal waveform can be broken down into individual harmonically related sine wave or
cosine wave components.
 A square wave is one classic example of this phenomenon.

Basic Concepts

 Fourier analysis states that a square wave is made up of a sine wave at the fundamental frequency of the square wave plus an
infinite number of odd harmonics.
 Fourier analysis allows us to determine not only sine-wave components in a complex signal but also a signal’s bandwidth.

Time Domain Versus Frequency Domain

 Analysis of variations of voltage, current, or power with respect to time are expressed in the time domain.
 A frequency domain plots amplitude variations with respect to frequency.
 Fourier theory gives us a new and different way to express and illustrate complex signals, that is, with respect to frequency.

Example

An ac square wave has a peak voltage of 3 V and a frequency of 48 kHz. Find (a) the frequency of the 5th harmonic and (b) the rms value of
the 5th harmonic.

Answers: a. 240KHz, b. 0.537V

Time Domain Versus Frequency Domain

 A spectrum analyzer is an instrument used to produce a frequency-domain display.

The Relationship Between  Rise  Time and Bandwidth

Rise time - time it takes the pulse voltage to rise from its 10 percent value to its 90 percent value.

Fall time - is the time it takes the voltage to drop from the 90 percent value to the 10 percent value.

BW=0.35/tr

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FREQUENCY MODULATION

 In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant and the carrier frequency is changed by the modulating signal.
 With no modulation the carrier is at its normal center or resting frequency.

 Frequency deviation (fd) is the amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal.
 The frequency deviation rate is how many times per second the carrier frequency deviates above or below its center frequency.
 The frequency of the modulating signal determines the frequency deviation rate.
 A type of modulation called frequency-shift keying (FSK) is used in transmission of binary data in digital cell phones and low-speed
computer modems.

 
FM and PM signals. The carrier is drawn as a triangular wave for simplicity, but in practice it is a sine wave. ( a) Carrier. (b) Modulating signal.
(c) FM signal. (d) PM signal.

Example:

A transmitter operates on a frequency of 915 MHz. The maximum FM deviation is ±12.5 kHz. What are the maximum and minimum
frequencies that occur during modulation? (Answers: 915,012.5 kHz and 914,987.5 kHz)

PRINCIPLES OF PHASE MODULATION

 When the amount of phase shift of a constant-frequency carrier is varied in accordance with a modulating signal, the resulting output
is a phase-modulation (PM) signal.
 Phase modulators produce a phase shift which is a time separation between two sine waves of the same frequency.
 The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal, the greater the phase shift.
 The maximum frequency deviation produced by a phase modulator occurs during the time that the modulating signal is changing at
its most rapid rate.

A frequency shift occurs in PM only when the modulating signal amplitude varies. (a) Modulating signal. (b) FM signal. (c) PM signal.

Relationship between the Modulating Signal and Carrier Deviation

 In FM and in PM, the frequency deviation is directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
 In PM, the maximum amount of leading or lagging phase shift occurs at the peak amplitudes of the modulating signal.
 In PM the carrier deviation is proportional to both the modulating frequency and the amplitude.

Phase-Shift Keying

 The process of phase modulating a carrier with binary data is called phase-shift keying (PSK) or binary phase-shift keying (BPSK).
 The PSK signal has a constant frequency, but the phase of the signal from some reference changes as the binary modulating signal
occurs.

MODULATION INDEX AND SIDEBANDS

 Any modulation process produces sidebands.

 When a constant-frequency sine wave modulates a carrier, two side frequencies are produced.
 Side frequencies are the sum and difference of the carrier and modulating frequency.
 The bandwidth of an FM signal is usually much wider than that of an AM signal with the same modulating signal.

Modulation Index

 The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency is known as the modulation index (mf).

mf=fd/fm

 In most communication systems using FM, maximum limits are put on both the frequency deviation and the modulating frequency.
 In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum permitted frequency deviation is 75 kHz and the maximum permitted modulating
frequency is 15 kHz.
 The modulation index for standard FM broadcasting is therefore 5.

Example:

What is the deviation ratio of TV sound if the maximum deviation is 25 kHz and the maximum modulating frequency is 15 kHz? (Answer: 1.667)

Bessel Functions

 The equation that expresses the phase angle in terms of the sine wave modulating signal is solved with a complex mathematical
process known as Bessel functions.
 Bessel coefficients are widely available and it is not necessary to memorize or calculate them.

Example:

What is the maximum modulating frequency that can be used to achieve a modulation index of 2.2 with a deviation of 7.48 kHz? (Answer: 3.4
kHz)

Bessel Functions

 Narrowband FM (NBFM) is any FM system in which the modulation index is less than π/2 = 1.57, or

mf < π /2.

 NBFM is widely used in communication. It conserves spectrum space at the expense of the signal-to-noise ratio.

Example:

State the amplitudes of the carrier and the first four sidebands of an FM signal with a modulation index of 4. (Answers: Jo= -0.4, J1= -0.07, J2=
0.36, J3= 0.43, J4= 0.28)

FM Signal Bandwidth

 The higher the modulation index in FM, the greater the number of significant sidebands and the wider the bandwidth of the signal.
 When spectrum conservation is necessary, the bandwidth of an FM signal can be restricted by putting an upper limit on the
modulation index.

Example:

What is the maximum bandwidth of an FM signal with a deviation of 30 kHz and a maximum modulating signal of 5 kHz as determined by:


o Bessel
 o Carson’s Rule

(Answers: 90kHz, 70kHz)

NOISE SUPPRESSION EFFECTS OF FM

 Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors, automotive ignition systems, and power line switching that produces transient
signals.
 Noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with high frequencies.
 Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and interfere with it.
 Some noise completely obliterates signal information.

 FM signals have a constant modulated carrier amplitude.

 FM receivers contain limiter circuits that deliberately restrict the amplitude of the received signal.
 Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal are effectively clipped by limiter circuits.
 This amplitude clipping does not affect the information content of the FM signal, since it is contained solely within the frequency
variations of the carrier.

Preemphasis

 Noise can interfere with an FM signal and particularly with the high-frequency components of the modulating signal.
 Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy and contains a lot of harmonics and other high-frequency components.
 To overcome high-frequency noise, a technique known as preemphasis is used.
 A simple high-pass filter can serve as a transmitter’s pre-emphasis circuit.
 Pre-emphasis provides more amplification of only high-frequency components.

Preemphasis

 A simple low-pass filter can operate as a deemphasis circuit in a receiver.

 A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency response to its normal flat level.
 The combined effect of preemphasis and deemphasis is to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for the high-frequency components
during transmission so that they will be stronger and not masked by noise.

FREQUENCY MODULATION VERSUS AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Advantages of FM

 FM typically offers some significant benefits over AM.

 FM has superior immunity to noise, made possible by clipper limiter circuits in the receiver.
 In FM, interfering signals on the same frequency are rejected. This is known as the capture effect.
 FM signals have a constant amplitude and there is no need to use linear amplifiers to increase power levels. This increases
transmitter efficiency.

Disadvantages of FM

 FM uses considerably more frequency spectrum space.

 FM has used more complex circuitry for modulation and demodulation.
 In the past, the circuits used for frequency modulation and demodulation involved were complex. With the proliferation of ICs,
complex circuitry used in FM has all but disappeared. ICs are inexpensive and easy to use. FM and PM have become the most widely
used modulation method in electronic communication today.