ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS II

(LECTURE)
NEE 321

AC FUNDAMENTALS

PREPARED BY:
ENGR. GERALDINE B. TUALLA
 Alternating Current
 Voltages of ac sources alternate in polarity and vary in
magnitude
 Voltages produce currents that vary in magnitude and
alternate in direction
 A sinusoidal ac waveform starts at zero
 Increases to a positive maximum
 Decreases to zero
 Changes polarity
 Increases to a negative maximum
 Returns to zero
AC Waveform Characteristics
The Period, (T) is the length of time in
seconds that the waveform takes to repeat
itself from start to finish.

The Frequency, (ƒ) is the number of

times the waveform repeats itself within a
one second time period. Frequency is the
reciprocal of the time period, ( ƒ = 1/T )
with the unit of frequency being the Hertz,
(Hz).

The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or

intensity of the signal waveform measured
in volts or amps

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The Wavelength

• The time it takes for a sine

wave to complete one cycle
is defined as the period of
the waveform. The distance
traveled by the sine wave
during this period is referred
to as WAVELENGTH.
 AC Waveform Characteristics
Peak Value
The PEAK value of the wave is the highest value the wave reaches
above a reference value. The reference value normally used is zero.

Peak to Peak Value

The PEAK TO PEAK value is the vertical distance between the top and
bottom of the wave. It will be measured in volts on a voltage
waveform.
 AC Waveform Characteristics

Instantaneous value
The instantaneous value is “the value of an alternating quantity at a particular
instant of time in the cycle.
Some common waveshapes (waveforms).
Example 1: Given the sinusoidal waveform

8V

-8V

a.) What is the peak value?

b.) What is the instantaneous value at 0.3 sec and 0.6 sec?
c.) What is the peak to peak value of the waveform?
d.) What is the period of the waveform?
e.) How many cycles are shown?
f.) What is the frequency
Example 2: Determine the period of the following waveforms
1 sec 1 sec

T T
(a) 1 sec (b)

T
(c) 9
Example 3:

Find the period of a periodic waveform with a frequency of

a) 60Hz
b) 1000Hz

Example 4: Determine the frequency of the waveform of following

By increasing the number of poles, the number of cycles
per revolution is increased. A four-pole generator will
produce two complete cycles in each revolution.
Frequency output of an AC generator

𝑷𝑵
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝒇 = , 𝑯𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒛
𝟏𝟐𝟎

Where:
Ν is the speed of rotation in r.p.m.
P is the number of poles
 Phasors

The sine wave can be represented as the projection of a

vector rotating at a constant rate. This rotating vector is
called a phasor.

90

180 0 0 90 180 360

 Phasors

The position of a phasor at any instant can be expressed

as a positive angle, measured counterclockwise from 0
or as a negative angle equal to  - 360.

positive angle of 

negative angle of  - 360

phasor
 Angular velocity of a phasor

 When a phasor rotates through 360 or 2 radians, one

complete cycle is traced out.

 The velocity of rotation is called the angular velocity ().

 = 2f

(Note that this angular velocity is expressed in radians per

second.)
 Sine wave equation

Instantaneous values of a wave are shown as e or i. The

equation for the instantaneous voltage (v) of a sine wave is

𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

Where:
𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 = instantaneous value
𝐸𝑚 and 𝐼𝑚 = maximum/Peak value

𝜔𝑡 = 𝜃 = instantaneous angular position of rotating coil of generator,

in rad or degrees
 Sample Problems

1. An emergency diesel generator is rated at 220V, 60Hz.

a.) How many poles are there if its rated speed is 900 rpm?
b.) If its desired to generate voltage at 50 Hz., at what speed must
it be driven

2. How fast a 6-pole generator must rotate in order to produce

frequency of 60 Hz.?

3. Determine the angular velocity of a sine wave having a

frequency of 60 Hz.
 Sample Problems

4. Given 𝜔 = 200𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐, how long will it take the sinusoidal

waveform to pass through an angle of 90°

5. Find the angle through which a sinusoidal waveform of

60Hz. Will pass a point in a period of 5msec.

6.
a.) Determine the angle at which the magnitude of the sinusoidal
function 𝑒 = 10𝑠𝑖𝑛377𝑡 is +4V

b.) Determine the time at which this +4V is attained?

 Sample Problems

7. Given 𝑖 = 6 × 10−3 𝑠𝑖𝑛1000𝑡, determine 𝑖 at 𝑡 = 2𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐

8. A 60 cycle alternating current has a max value of 40A, It

crosses the time axis in a positive direction when t=0,
determine
a.) time when it first reached 25A
b.) time when it first reached -25A
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c.) value of 𝑖 when 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
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