Alyanna Angelina M. Cabral Political Science 199.

1
2012-65902
Review of Related Literature
Social exclusion has disempowered PWDs from participating in the electoral process.
Firstly, social exclusion involves marginalization and when PWDs’ concerns are disregarded,
there is poor implementation of laws on PWDs. An example of this is the Magna Carta for
Disabled Persons. Because of poor implementation of this Magna Carta, PWDs continue to lack
access to basic services. Another example is the Comelec Resolution 9485, which aims to
improve the accessibility of polling precincts. Because of poor implementation, polling places
remained inaccessible for PWDs, thus they felt discouraged to vote and choose to stay at home.
Also, PWDs would need assistance in order to vote. Moreover, it was reported that some PWDs
who were not provided with express lanes chose to go home instead of waiting in long lines
(VERA Files, 2013).
Related to PWDs being disregarded, they also face discrimination. Regarding
registration, some PWDs do not register as voters because they feel discriminated. It was
reported that some election officers are not sensitive to the needs of PWDs and seem to not be
aware of PWDs’ right to vote (Bernal, 2013). Also, due to discrimination, PWDs perceive their
impairments as something to be ashamed about. One report says that PWDs do not go out to vote
because they feel ashamed of their disabilities (Fuertes, Ignacio, & Paredes, 2012).
Other factors which make PWDs socially excluded are the self-identities they form due to
their impairments. Since they need some form of assistance in their everyday lives, they feel
dependent. This makes them perceive themselves as subordinate to others. Due to this feeling of
subordination, they also feel that they have little role in nation building.
Moreover, because of marginalization and discrimination, PWDs suffer from poverty.
Discrimination leads to the unequal opportunity in employment faced by PWDs. Thus, PWDs
are more likely to be unemployed because they are seen as incompetent. Unemployment leads to
poverty, and poverty is associated with the marginalization of PWDs in terms of basic services
such as education and health services. Due to marginalization and discrimination, PWDs feel that
they are insignificant in the society. Therefore, PWDs are disempowered to participate in the
electoral process since they feel that their voice will always be unheard as long as they are
marginalized and discriminated upon.
 The research question for this study is “What is the effect of the Comelec Resolution
9485 on the participation of PWD voters in elections?” The proper implementation of Comelec
Resolution 9485 will reflect the effectiveness of our laws for PWDs, such as the Magna Carta for
Disabled Persons. Based on how effective the implementation of Comelec Resolution 9485 is,
the exclusion of PWDs in the electoral process will be assessed. Then, the effect of this exclusion
on the participation of PWDs in elections will be examined.
Previous related literatures were reviewed. First, studies by Naami and Mikey-Iddrisu,
and Patrick highlighted societal factors as the main contributor to the non-participation of PWDs
from socio-economic and political processes. A study in Ghana showed the effect of
empowerment programs on the level of poverty among PWDs. According to Naami & Mikey-
Iddrisu (2013), empowerment programs, which aimed to reduce poverty among PWDs in Ghana,
helped these PWDs earn a source of livelihood and encouraged them to voice out their issues
regarding social exclusion, marginalization, discrimination, etc. Consequently, these
empowerment programs increased PWDs’ socio-economic and political participation, thus
reducing poverty. Furthermore, this study builds on the theory that the link between poverty and
disability is attributed to capitalism and socio-cultural factors such as discrimination.
Meanwhile, the study by Patrick examined citizens’ attitudes towards the extension of
work-related conditionality operable on disabled people. Through focus group discussions, the
researcher also showed that “disabled participants spoke of their desire to work being impeded,
not by a lack of ‘employability’ but by the daily experience of discrimination and various
barriers to inclusion”. Furthermore, the researcher stated that work-related conditionality for
PWDs is not the true solution for increasing employment rate among PWDs. Instead, social
exclusion which further disables PWDs should be addressed (Patrick, 2011).
Some of the literatures reviewed have used qualitative research approaches in their study
about PWDs. One study is by Becker, Stuifbergen, and Tinkle, the Qualitative Evaluation
Research was used as a theoretical framework for analysis.
Qualitative Evaluation Research checks the effectiveness, efficiency and goal attainment
of political, social and ecological programmes, measures, models and laws, of pedagogic
and therapeutic types of intervention, of social, cultural and technical innovations and
organizational changes in complex and constantly self-regenerating environments (Flick,
von Kardoff, & Steinke, 2004).
 In Becker, Stuifbergen, and Tinkle’s study, the effectiveness of reproductive health care
services was evaluated based on the experiences of women with disabilities who sought for these
services. By recording the experiences of these women with disabilities, the researchers were
able to identify the barriers to quality reproductive health care services. Moreover, the purpose of
this study is to examine how reproductive health care can be improved based on the needs of
women with disabilities.
Another study using this approach is a study by Friske which investigated whether
disabled veteran employees experience discrimination in their workplace. Moreover, this study
analyzes the decision-making activities of companies when dealing with disabled veterans. The
theoretical framework of this study is that the treatment of employers towards disabled veterans
is influenced by how the disability was sustained during one’s military service (Friske, 2004).
Friske made use of the Qualitative Evaluation Research approach to evaluate the provision of
assistance for disabled veterans. Consistent with the Qualitative Evaluation Research approach,
Friske evaluated the effectiveness of the federal government in assisting disabled veterans
through the Department of Veterans Affairs and also through legislation (Friske, 2004).
There were also studies which made use of different theories to explore the perception of
PWDs about their quality of life. First, Albrecht and Devlieger, used the Balance Theory
framework in explaining PWDs’ perception about their quality of life.
Fritz Heider originated Balance Theory to show how people develop their relationships
with other people and with things in their environment. Balance Theory says that if
people see a set of cognitive elements as being a system, then they will have a preference
to maintain a balanced state among these elements. In other words, if we feel we are 'out
of balance', then we are motivated to restore a position of balance. The felt discomfort at
imbalance will increase with the strength of the attitude and the overall interest in the
matter (ChangingMinds.Org, n. d.).
By analyzing the responses of 153 PWDs describing their quality of life, the researchers aimed
to understand what a poor/fair quality of life is for PWDs. Furthermore, they were able to
develop a framework wherein the quality of life for PWDs is understood as “the ability of the
self to build and manage a balance between the body, mind and spirit in searching for a state of
well-being and to establish and maintain a harmonious relationship with the environment”
(Albrecht & Devlieger, 1999, p. 986). Consequently, PWDs perceive their quality of life to be
poor because of the imbalance between the body, mind and spirit. To illustrate, if a PWD has a
positive mentality about his capabilities, but he/she is unable to take control of his body and
continue to experience pain because of failure to consider the more general purpose of the
functioning of his/her body, then a PWD feels depressed because he/she will be unable to
actualize what his/her mind dictates. Regarding PWDs’ relationship with the environment,
integrating PWDs into the mainstream society by reducing external barriers increase the quality
of life for PWDs. (Albrecht & Devlieger, 1999).
Aside from Albrecht and Devlieger, Lutz also conducted a study about PWDs’ perception
on their quality of life. However, Lutz made use of a different theory, which is Grounded Theory
in order to gain an understanding about the perspective of PWDs regarding how disability affects
their quality of life. Grounded theory is defined as “a widely utilised qualitative research
methodology that seeks to inductively distil issues of importance for specific groups of people,
creating meaning about those issues through analysis and modelling of theory” (Mills, 2006). In
this study, it was also found that PWDs assess their quality of life based on the extent of how the
lives they had match the lives they wanted to have (Lutz, 2000).
Meanwhile, some studies also made use of the Grounded Theory in order to analyze the
perceptions of PWDs and identify different variables regarding PWDs’ perception of
independence and their accommodation in the workplace. Firstly, In Pusch’s study about how
PWDs perceive their independence, the researcher made use of the Constructionist Grounded
Theory as an approach to the gathering and analysis of data. Unlike in Objective Grounded
Theory, in which the researcher sees himself as a neutral observer in his data collection and
analysis, the Constructionist Grounded Theory recognizes the two-way process of creating
meanings between the researcher and the participant (Pusch, 2003).
In this study, the researcher gathered data by asking PWDs about the different issues and
concerns that are related to their independence. From this, the researcher was able to have a
better understanding of the issues under a PWD’s perspective and was able to better understand
the meanings PWDs ascribe to independence. Furthermore, based on their definitions of
independence, the researcher was able to identify the environmental variables which either push
or prevent PWDs from achieving such independence. Consistent with the Grounded Theory,
which “looks at how variables are “grounded,” that is, given meaning and acted upon in the
human life experience,” Pusch was able to arrive at the meanings PWDs attach to independence
by analyzing the issues and concerns of PWDs in their everyday lives (Pusch, 2003, p. 22).
Like what was done in Pusch’s study, where he was able to identify the variables that
affect PWD’s attainment of independence, Williams also used the Grounded Theory in his study
about the accommodation of PWDs in the workplace. Williams made use of this theory in
gathering data about the perspectives of PWDs and from there the researcher was able to identify
the variables determining the ease or difficulty of accommodating PWDs in the workplace.
Meanwhile, Williams also made use of the Social Capital Theory in integrating these variables
and explaining disability accommodation outcomes. “Social capital may be defined as those
resources inherent in social relations which facilitate collective action. Social capital resources
include trust, norms, and networks of association representing any group which gathers
consistently for a common purpose” (Harvard Kennedy School, n. d.). Using the Social Capital
Theory, the researcher showed that the accommodation of disabled workers is influenced by the
trust, norms, and solidarity with other members of the organization. It was found that disability
affects the ability to comply with such norms and maintain a bounded solidarity (Williams,
2004).
Lastly, there was a literature reviewed focusing in how PWDs form identities. Engstrom
conducted a study about PWDs’ identity processes. In his study about the identity processes of
“adults after they have experienced spinal cord injury causing them to become wheelchair users”,
Engstrom used the Identity Control Theory as a framework (Engstrom, 2004, p. 27).
Identity Control Theory is defined as a theory focusing on “the nature of persons’
identities (who they are) and the relationship between the persons’ identities and their behavior
within the context of the social structure within which the identities are embedded” (Burke, n.
d.). According to Burke, Identity Control Theory assumes that identity is formed by several
factors:
(1) identity standard that defines who one is in a group, a role, or as a person, (2) social
behavior in a situation, (3) self-relevant perceptions of reflected appraisals, or how one
appears in a situation, and (4) comparator, which is the comparison made between the
identity standard and the reflected appraisals (as cited in Engstrom, 2004, p.27).
In analyzing the nature of PWDs’ identities, Engstrom focused on how a PWD’s identity
is affected by a major life change, and took into consideration these factors to come up with his
interpretations. His study revealed that PWDs, after gaining physical impairments, experience
identity interruption which creates incongruency between their reflected appraisals and identity
standards. Moreover, it was revealed that the loss of social identities and role identities make
PWDs unable to behave in social contexts that will verify their salient personal identities
(Engstrom, 2004).
Overall, the literature reviewed made use of different approaches in terms of collecting
and analyzing data. First, some literature used a Qualitative Evaluation Research approach,
wherein experiences of PWDs are analyzed in order to evaluate the effectiveness of health care
services provided for disabled women and assistance provided for disabled veterans. Second, one
literature made use of the Balance Theory framework in explaining how PWDs perceive their
quality of life. Third, one literature used the Identity Control Theory in explaining how the
identity processes of PWDs were affected by the gaining of an impairment. Lastly, one literature
made use of the Constructionist Grounded Theory as an approach in gathering data. Through this
approach, wherein the relevant issues and concerns of PWDs were analyzed, the researcher was
able to arrive at PWDs’ meanings of “independence” and was able to identify the environmental
variables which either push or prevent PWDs from achieving such independence.
Regarding the applicability of these theories and approaches to the proposed research
about the impact of exclusion on PWD’s participation in the electoral process, the Balance
Theory framework, Identity Control Theory, and the Constructionist Grounded Theory can help
the proposed research in understanding the perceptions of a PWD about himself/herself and
about other external variables. The Social Capital Theory can be used to highlight how disability
affects social relationships. The Qualitative Evaluation Research can be applied to the proposed
research in terms of evaluating the effectiveness of the laws for PWDs in the Philippines.
The Balance Theory can be used to demonstrate that PWDs, who consider themselves as
having a high quality of life despite having impairments, are able to participate in elections
because they are in control of their body, they are aware that the functioning of their body has a
greater purpose, and they have a positive mentality. The Identity Control Theory can be used to
show that PWDs do not participate in elections because of the loss of social identities and role
identities, thus they perceive themselves as insignificant and are discouraged to vote. The
Constructionist Grounded Theory can be used the same way as how it was used in Pusch’s study.
Through this approach, it can be shown that from the issue of inaccessibility of elections PWDs’
meaning of independence can be defined as having the capability to go to polling places without
assistance. Through this meaning, the barriers to PWD’s independence can be identified such as
the lack of accessible polling places, poor implementation of laws for PWDs, etc. The Social
Capital Theory can be used to demonstrate the how PWDs are socially excluded by showing how
disabilities negatively affect the social relationship between PWDs and non-PWDs. Because of
this poor social relationships, PWD voters face difficulty in being accommodated by election
officers and other voters. Lastly, the Qualitative Evaluation Research can demonstrate how the
experiences of PWDs in participating in the past elections can be used to evaluate the Comelec
Resolution 9485.
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