MODULE 4 MEMS (15EC831)

MODULE 4

SCALING LAWS IN MINIATURIZATION

Syllabus

Scaling Laws in Miniaturization

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Scaling in Geometry
4.3 Scaling in Rigid-Body Dynamics
4.4 Scaling in Electrostatic Forces
4.5 Scaling in Fluid Mechanics
4.6 Scaling in Heat Transfer

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4.1 Introduction to Scaling

• A successful industrial product requires meeting consumer expectations to be intelligent and

multifunctional.
• Sensors, actuators, and microprocessors have to be systematically integrated and packaged in
these products.
• The constraints on the size and geometry of the products require miniaturization of these
components to improve on physical appearance, volume, weight and economy.
• There are two types of scaling laws applicable to design of microsystems.
• The first type of scaling law is dependent on the size of objects- such as geometry.
• Here the behavior of the objects is governed by the law of physics
• Ex. Scaling law include the scaling of rigid-body dynamics and electrostatic and
electromagnetic forces.
• The second type of scaling law involves the scaling of phenomenological behavior of
microsystems.
• Here both the size and material properties of the system are involved.
• Ex this is used in thermos fluids in microsystems

4.2 Scaling in Geometry

• Volume and surface are two physical quantities that are frequently involved in micro device
design.
• Volume relates to the mass and weight of device components.
• Ex. thermal inertia is related to the heat capacity of the solid which is a measure of how fast we
can heat or cool a solid. This is used to design a thermally actuated device.
• Surface properties are related to pressure and the buoyant forces in fluid mechanics and heat
absorption or dissipation by a solid in convective heat transfer.
• To minimize a physical quantity, one must weigh the magnitudes of the possible consequences
of the reduction on both the volume and surface of the particular device.
• Equal reduction of volume and surface of an object is not normally achievable in a scale down
process.
• Consider the example of a solid of rectangular geometry having 3 sides a>b>c.

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• Volume V= abc and the Surface area S= length X breadth.

• If l represents the linear dimension of the solid, then Volume α l3 and the surface Sα l2.
• Thus S/V = l-1
• Consider an example in figure 6.2.

• Elephant has and S/V ratio of 10-4 /mm and dragonfly has10-1 /mm
• Hence dragon fly requires less energy and power and so low consumption of food and water,
while elephant needs more food to generate more energy.
• From the scaling formula, a reduction in size by 10 times(l=0.1) means 103 =1000 times
reduction in volume , but 102 =100 times reduction in surface area.
• A reduction of volume by 1000 means 1000 times reduction in weight.
• Micro mirrors are essential parts of micro switches used in fiber optic networks in
telecommunication.
• These mirrors rotate to a tightly controlled range at high rates.
• Angular momentum is an important factor in both rotation control and rate of rotation.

• Ex. Estimate the reduction of torque required in turning a micro mirror with a reduction of 50
percent in the dimensions.

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Solution: the torque required to turn the mirror about the y-y axis is related to mass moment of inertia
of the mirror Iyy, expressed as

Where M= mass of the mirror and C= width of the mirror

Since the mass of the mirror is M = ρV = ρ(bct),
Where ρ= mass density of the mirror material, the mass moment of inertial of the mirror is

The mass moment of inertial of the mirror with a 50 % reduction of the size becomes

A reduction of a factor of 32 is achieved in mass moment of inertia, giving 50% reduction of dimension.

4.3 Scaling in Rigid-Body Dynamics

• Forces are required to make parts move, and power is the source for the generation of forces.

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• Inertia decides the amount of force required to move a part and how fast movements can be
achieved and stopped.
• The inertia of a solid is related to its mass and the acceleration required to initiate or stop the
motion of a component.
• When minimized, the effect of reduction in the size on the power P, force F and pressure p and
the time t required to deliver the motion has to be seen

4.3.1 Scaling in Dynamic Forces

• If a solid moves from one position to another, the distance that the solid travels, S, is
S α l, where l stands for the linear scale.
The velocity v =s/t
• From particle kinematics, wkt

4.3.2 the Trimmer Force Scaling Vector

• Trimmer proposed a Force scaling vector F which is a unique matrix related to parameters
of acceleration a, time t and power density P/V0 required for scaling of systems in motion

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Accleration a:
• Consider F=Ma in which a = F/M
• Scaling is obtained as
•

Time t:
• Consider

•
• The transient time is expressed as
•

Power Density P/V0 :

• No solid or fluid can move without a power supply.
• Power is very important parameter in the design of microsystems.
• Insufficient power supply to a microsystem results in the inactivity of the system.
• System may suffer structural damage such as over heating with excessive power supply.
• Excessive power requirements increases the operational cost, reduce the lives of biomedical
devices implanted in human bodies.
• Wkt, Work done is equal to force times distance travelled W=F X s.
• Power is defined as work done per unit time P = W/t.
• Power density is expressed as

•
• Power density is related to force scaling vector as

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•
• Using this the scaling laws for rigid body dynamics is established

•
• This table is useful in scaling down devices in a design process
Ex.

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4.3 SCALING IN ELECTROSTATIC FORCES

• Consider the configuration of a parallel plate capacitor.

• The electric potential energy induced in the parallel plates is

•
•

• The above breakdown voltage V varies with the gap between the two plates as per paschen
effect.
• Fig 6.5 shows that the breakdown voltage V drops drastically with increase in d for d<5µm.
• It decreases after the gap widens from d>5µm.
• Voltage variation reverses at d ͌ 10µm.
• The breakdown voltage increases linearly as gap increases.
• We can say that applied voltage Vαd or in scaling Vαl1 for the working range of d˃ 10 µm
• The scaling of is neutral, so α
• The electrostatic potential is expressed

•
•

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•
• A factor of 10 decrease in linear dimensions(W,L,d) will decrease the potential energy by
a factor of 103 =1000
• Wkt, the electrostatic forces can be produced in 3 dimensions in parallel plate arrangements
as

• The three force components .

• The electrostatic forces are of the order 2.
Ex.

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• Here the gap d is constant and

• Fd α l2 for the normal force component
• Fw α l2 for the force component along the width
• FL α l2 for the normal force component along the length
• So, a reduction by a factor of 10 reduces the electrostatic forces by 100

Basics of fluid mechanics

• Many of the MEMS devices involve moving fluids in both liquid and gaseous forms.
• Mechanical designs of these systems requires the application of principles of fluid dynamics
and heat transfer.
• Fluids in motion are called fluid dynamics and at rest is called fluid statics.
• There are two types of fluids namely non-compressible fluids ex. Liquids and compressible
fluids ex. Gases.
• Fluids are aggregation of molecules.
• These molecules are closely spaced in solids, widely spaced in liquids and in gases they are
loosely spaced.
• These molecules are feely moving in liquids unlike solids. So liquids have volume and no shape.
• Solids can resist any shear force or shear stress without moving.
• Fluids have viscosity that causes friction when they are set in motion.
• Viscosity is a measure of fluid’s resistance to shear when the fluid is in motion.
• Hence a driving force if needed to make a fluid flow in channels
• A continuum fluid is a fluid with its properties continuously varying in space
• Fluids can be put into motion even by a slight shear force.
• The induced shear strain is expresses as angle θ

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• This shear deformation is considered possible by a relative motion of a pair of plates placed at
the top and bottom of the bulk fluid

ER

• The relative motion of the plates represents a shear force which causes the fluid flow.
• The associate shear stress τ is considered proportional to the rate of change of induced shear
strain θ given by

• The proportional constant µ is called the dynamic viscosity of the fluid

• Fluids that exhibit such linear relationship are called Newtonian fluids.

6.5 SCALING IN FLUID MECHANICS

•
• Fluids flow under the influence of shear forces or shear stresses and the continuum fluid
mechanics equations breaks down at submicrometer and nanoscales
• The breakdown is due to the capillary effect
• Consider the figure 6.7

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• The volume of the fluid V can be expressed as the area(A) X height(h).

• The fluid in originally in rectangular shape between two imaginary parallel plates
• Moving the top plate in the x direction to the right induces the motion of the fluid.
• The fluid shape now changes to parallelogram
• The shear stress applied is τ results in a velocity profile which is maximum at the top wall and
zero at the bottom wall.
• The viscosity of the fluid, causes the variation of the velocities in the moving fluid..
• Expressing viscosity as

•
• Figure 6.8 shows a fluid flow through a small circular conduit of length L and radius a.

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• The pressure drop over the length L is computed using Hagen-Poiseuille law as

• The rate of volumetric flow of the fluid Q is expressed as

•

•
• The pressure drop for a section of a capillary tube of length L is computed as

•
• The scaling laws for fluid flows in capillary tubes are derived as for volumetric flow and
for pressure drop per unit length, whre a is the radius of the tube.
•

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Ex.

Soln: wkt volumetric flow where a is the radius of the tube.

So volumetric flow reduces by 104 = 10000 times

Also pressure drop per unit length is so this increases by 102 = 100 times.

• When the radius of the conduit s very small, capillary effect appears.
• This is due to surface tension of the fluids.
• The pressure required to overcome the surface tension is
• So, the pressure drop per unit length of a liquid is
•

•
Ex. What will happen to the pressure drop in the fluid in above ex. If the tube radius is microscale?

Soln: the pressure drop per unit length of the tube, from the scaling law in equation increases
1000 times with a 10 times reduction of the tube radius.
The situation is one order of magnitude more severe than the case in meso or macroscale.

• Due to adverse effect in scaling down, special pumping techniques such as piezoelectric,
electro-osmotic, electrohydrodynamic pumping are used
• These are based on surface pumping forces. Ex. Piezoelectric pump.
• Here the forces generated on tube wall is used to drive the fluid flow is used.
• The surface force F, proportional to the surface area of the inner wall of the tube scales
favorably.
• This surface area of the inner wall of the tube is S= 2πaL and the volume of the fluid is V= πa2L
• The surface area to volume ration S/V = 2/a.
• Scaling down the tube radius will result in the increase of the surface force available for
pumping the unit volume of the fluid

6.6 SCALING IN HEAT TRANSFER

• In microsystems, heat transfer is an essential part of the design.
• Heat transfer is done by conduction, convection and by radiation in laser treatments.

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• Scaling laws are done in two scales, one being the meso and microscale and the other in sub
micrometer scale(<1µm).
• With this sub micrometer designs thermos physical properties vary with the size of MEMS.
6.6.1 Scaling in Heat Conduction
Basics
Heat conduction in a solid slab:

• In the figure, a solid slab with the temperature at the left side wall maintained a Ta and
the right side wall maintained at Tb with Ta > Tb
• The temperature difference causes the heat to flow from left side to right side of the slab.
• The total amount of heat flow through the slab, Q, is proportional to the cross-sectional
area A, the temp difference between the two faces, the time t allowed for the heat to
flow.
• The heat flow is inversely proportional to the distance that the heat has to travel, i.e.,
thickness d of the slab

K is the proportionality constant which is the thermal conductivity of the solid

6.6.1.1 Scaling in Heat Flux
• Heat flux q is defined as the heat flow per unit area and time.
• It is a vector quantity and is expressed as

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• This heat conduction in solids is governed by the Fourier Law

• For one dimensional heat conduction along the x co-ordinate, we have

•
• Where qx is the heat flux along x coordinate, k is the thermal conductivity of the solid
and T(x,y,z,t)is the temperature field in the solid in a Cartesian coordinate system at
time t.
• The heat conduction in a solid is

•
• From the above equation, the scaling law for heat conduction for solids in meso and
microscales is Qα l1 (A is replaced by α)
• So the reduction in size leads to the decrease of total heat flow in a solid
6.6.1.2 Scaling in Termal Conductivity in Submicrometer Regime
• Thermal conductivity k in solids is estimated by

• Here λ α 1/ρ, where ρ is the mass density of the solid with an order similar to volume
i.e., l3
• The scaling of heat flow in a solid in the sub micrometer regime is obtained by
combining the above two equations.

•
• So, a reduction in size of 10 would lead to a reduction of total heat flow by 100
6.6.1.3 Scaling in Effect of Heat Conduction in Solids of Meso and Micro scales
• F0 is the Fourier number with has no dimension
• It is used to determine the time increments in a transient heat conduction analysis

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•
• Here α is the thermal diffusivity of the material
• t is the time for heat to flow across the characteristic length L
• Fourier number is the ratio of the rate of heat transfer by conduction to the rate of energy
storage in the system.
• From the above equation, the scaling in time for heat conduction in a solid is

•
• Where both F0 and α are constants

Ex. Estimate the variation of the heat flow and the time required to transmit heat in a solid with a
reduction of size by a factor of 10
Soln: from the equations

and
the total heat flow and the time required for heat transmission are both reduced by 102 =100 times with
a reduction of size by a factor of 10

6.6.2 Scaling in Heat Convection

• There exists the boundary layers at the interfaces of solids and fluids.
• Heat transfer in fluids is in the mode of convection governed by Newton’s cooling law
expressed as

•
• Heat transfer h depends on the velocity of the fluid
• This does not play a significant role in scaling the heat flow.
• The total heat therefore depends on the cross-sectional area A, of the order of l2
• Therefore the scaling of heat transfer in convection is for fluids in meso and micro
regimes.
• Consider only the convective heat transfer of gases in the regime

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• When the gases pass in narrow channels at sub micrometer scale, the heat transfer break down.
• The convective heat transfer has become conduction of heat among the gas molecules due to
boundary layer effect
• Consider the figure given

• The passage is represented by a gap H <7λ, where λ is the mean free path of the gas
• The transfer of heat between the two plates is predominantly by conduction through the gas
between the plates rather than convection.
• The mean free path is proportional to the reciprocal of mass density of gas as

• The thermal conductivity of the gas is given by

• C is the specific heat of the gas at constant volume and the mean velocity V is obtained from

•
• Here T is the mean temperature of the gas and m is the molecular weight of the gas

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Module 5
OVERVIEW OF MICRO
MANUFACTURING
Syllabus

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Bulk Micromanufacturing

5.2.1 Overview of Etchants
5.2.2 Isotropic and Anisotropic Etching
5.2.3 Wet Etchants
5.2.4 Etch Stop
5.2.5 Dry Etching
5.2.6 Comparision of Wet versus Dry Etching

5.3 Surface Micromachining

5.3.1 General Description
5.3.2 Process in General
5.3.3 Mechanical Problems Associated with Surface Micromachining

5.4 The LIGA process

5.4.1 General Description of the LIGA Process
5.4.2 Materials for substrates and Photoresists
5.4.3 Electroplating
5.4.4 The SLIGA Process

5.5 Summary of Micromanufacturing

5.5.1 Bulk Micromanufacturing
5.5.2 Surface Micromachining
5.5.3 The LIGA Process

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5.1 Introduction

• Traditional fabrication techniques used in the manufacturing are

o Machining
o Drilling
o Milling
o Forging
o Welding
o Casting
o Molding
o Stamping
o Peening
• These traditional fabrication techniques are not used in manufacturing of MEMS and
microsystems due to the extreme small size.
• Some of these techniques are used in packaging of MEMS and microsystems products
• The techniques used to produce products like microsensors, accelerometers and actuators
are micromachining or micromanufacturing
• There are three micromachining techniques used namely
o Bulk manufacturing
o Surface micromachining
o LIGA process
• LIGA is a German acronym for lithography, electroforming and plastic molding
• New techniques like Laser drilling and machining are also getting popular

5.2 BULK MICROMANUFACTURING

• Bulk micromanufacturing or micromachining involves the removal of materials from the bulk
substrates (silicon wafers) to form 3D geometry of the microstructures
• Physical or chemical techniques either by dry or wet etching are the solutions.
• Orientation-independent isotropic etching or orientation –dependent anisotropic etching is used in
bulk micromanufacturing

5.2.1 Overview of Etching

• Etching is the exposure of a substrate covered by an etchant protection mask to chemical etchants
as in fig

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• The part of the substrate that is not covered by the protective mask is dissolved in the etchants and
removed.
• The etching can undercut the part under the protective mask also.
• It may also damage the protective mask itself.
Basics
Why Silicon is chosen as an ideal substrate for MEMS?
• It is mechanically stable and it can be integrated into electronics substrate
• Si is an ideal structural material. It has Young’s modulus as steel, but is light as aluminum.
• Materials with high young’s modulus gives linear relationship between applied load and the
induced deformations
• It has a melting point at 1400 degree centigrade, hence it is stable.
• Its thermal coefficient of expansion is 8 times smaller than steel and 10 times smaller than
aluminum.
• It has no mechanical hysteresis and has greater flexibility
Crystal structure of silicon
• Silicon has a face centered cubic(FCC) unit cell as in figure
• The unit cell has atoms situated in fixed locations defined by lattice(imaginary lines) of dimension
b called lattice constant.
• In FCC, atoms are situated at 8 corners of cubic structure and at the center of each of six faces

• In an FCC lattice, each atom is bonded to 12 nearest neighbor atoms.

• The crystal structure of silicon is more complex than that of regular FCC structure.
• This structure is a result of two interpenetrating face-centered cubic crystals FCCA and FCCB.
• The crystal contains an additional 4 atoms as shown

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• The 4 additional atoms form a sub cubic cell of the diamond lattice.
• A Si unit cell has 18 atoms with 8 atoms at the corners and 6 atoms on the faces and another 4
interior atoms.
5.2.2 Isotropic and Anisotropic Etching
• For substrates made of homogeneous and isotropic materials, the chemical etchants will attack the
material uniformly in all directions- called isotropic etching
• This is hardly desirable in micro manufacturing due to lack of control of the finished geometry of
the work piece.
• Most substrate materials are not isotropic in their crystalline structures.
• Ex. Silicon has a diamond cubic crystal structure.
• Hence some parts of crystal are stronger and more resistant to etching than others.
• Three planes of silicon crystals are of interest in micro machining.
• They are (100), (110) and (111) planes as shown

• Two most common orientations used in the IC industry are (100) and (111) orientations. And in
micromachining (110) is the favored orientation.
• In this orientation, the wafer breaks or cleaves more cleanly.
• The (111) plane is the toughest plane to treat, hard to etch and is least used in micro machining.
• The plane(111) intersects the plane(100) at an angle of 54.740.
• In this case we can expect different etching rates in different orientations.

•
• Disadvantages of anisotropic etching is
o It is slower than isotropic etching
o The etching rate is temperature sensitive
o It usually requires an elevated temperature around 1000c in the process

5.2.3 Wet etchants

• Different types of etchants can be used to etch different substrate materials.
• The common isotropic etchant for silicon is called HNA(Hydroflouric, nitric, acetic)

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• Alkaline chemicals with pH > 12, are used for anisotropic etching.
• Popular anisotropic etchants for silicon include potassium hydroxide (KOH), ethylene—diamine
and pyrocatecol (EDP), tetra-methyl ammonium hydroxide (TMAH), and hydrazine.
• Most etchants based on the above chemicals are diluted with water, normally 1:1 by weight

• The selectivity ratio of a material is defined as the ratio of the etching rate of silicon to the etching
rate of another material using the same etchant.
• For example, silicon dioxide has a selectivity ratio of 103 , meaning this material has an etching
rate that is 103 times slower than the etching rate for silicon.
• The higher the selectivity ratio of the material, the better the masking material it is.
• The timing of etching and the flow patterns of etchants over the substrate surfaces need to be
carefully controlled in order to avoid serious under-etching and undercutting

• Use an SiO2 layer as mask for the silicon substrate in KOH etchants for trenches of modest depth.
• It is inexpensive and etching is a slow process, the SiO2 mask itself can be attacked by the etchants
if the system is left in the etchant for a long period of time, as in deep etching
• In such cases, silicon nitride should be used as the mask instead

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5.2.4 Etch Stop

• There are two popular techniques used in etch stop.
• dopant-controlled etch stop and
• electrochemical etch stop.
• Dopant-Controlled Etch Stop uses a phenomenon to control the etching of silicon is that doped
silicon substrates either p-type silicon or n-type show a different etching rate than pure silicon.
• When the isotropic HNA etchants are used, the p- or n-doped areas are dissolved significantly faster
than the undoped regions.
• Excessive doping of boron in silicon for faster etching introduces lattice distortion in the silicon
crystal and produces undesirable internal (residual) stresses

Electrochemical Etch Stop

• This technique is used for controlling anisotropic etching.
• As in Figure, a lightly doped p—n junction is first produced in the silicon wafer by a diffusion
process.

• The n-type is phosphorus doped and the p-type is boron doped.

• The doped silicon substrate is then mounted on an inert substrate container made of a material such
as sapphire.
• The n-type silicon layer is used as one of the electrodes in an electrolyte system with a constant
voltage source.
• The unmasked part of the p-type substrate face is in contact with the etchant.
• Etching thus takes place as usual until it reaches the interface of the p—n junction
• At this point etching stops because of the rate difference in p- and n-doped silicon.
• One can effectively control the depth of etching by establishing the p—n silicon boundaries at the
desired locations in a doped silicon substrate

5.2.5 Dry Etching

• Dry etching involves the removal of substrate materials by gaseous etchants without wet chemicals
or rinsing.
• There are three dry etching techniques
o Plasma
o Ion milling
o Reactive Ion Etch (RIE) . deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) in a new technique used

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Plasma Etching
• Plasma is a neutral ionized gas carrying a large number of free electrons and positively charged ions.
• A common source of energy for generating plasma is a radio-frequency (RF) source.
• The process involves adding a chemically reactive gas such as CCl2F2 (DichloroDifluoromethane)
to the plasma
• It contains ions and has its own carrier gas (inert gas such as argon gas).
• In the Figure, the reactive gas produces reactive neutrals when ionized in the plasma.
• The reactive neutrals bombard the target on both the sidewalls as well as the normal surface, whereas
the charged ions bombard only the normal surface of the substrate.
• Etching of the substrate materials is accomplished by the high-energy ions in the plasma bombarding
the substrate surface
• Chemical reactions occur between the reactive neutral ions and the substrate material.
• This reaction causes local evaporation, and results in the removal of the substrate material.
• The etching front moves more rapidly in the depth direction than in the direction of the sidewalls.
• This is due to the larger number of high-energy particles(both the neutral ions and the charged ions)
bombarding the normal surface, while the sidewalls are bombarded by neutral ions only.

• Conventional dry etching is a very slow process.

• Plasma etching can increase the etching rates
• Plasma etching is normally performed in high vacuum.
• Like wet etching, dry etching also is limited to producing shallow trenches.
• Both wet and dry etching processes are limited to producing MEMS with low aspect 'ratios
• The aspect ratio (A/P) of a MEMS component is defined as the ratio of its dimension in the depth to
those in the surface. For dry etching, the A/P is less than 15.

Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)

• With the use of plasma, increase in the etching rate and depth of etched trench is achieved, but the
etched walls in the trenches remain at a wide angle (θ) to its depth, as in Figure.
• The cavity angle θ is critical in many MEMS structures, such as the comb electrodes in the micro
grippers.
• These structures require the faces of the electrodes, or "fingers," to be parallel to each other.
• Etching processes produce most of these comb electrodes.

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• It is highly desirable that the angle θ be kept at a minimum in deep-etched trenches that separate the
plate electrodes.
• Obtaining deep trenches with vertical walls have been a major impediment of bulk manufacturing
for a long while.
• The bulk manufacturing technique is regarded as suitable only for MEMS with low aspect ratios,
with tapered cavity walls."

•
• Deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) is a process that can overcome this problem.
• The DRIE process has extended the use of the bulk manufacturing technique to the production of MEMS
of high aspect ratio with virtually vertical walls., i.e., θ ͌ 0.
• The DRIE process differs from dry plasma etching in that it produces thin protective films of a few
micrometers on the sidewalls during the etching processes.
• It uses a high-density plasma source.
• It allows plasma (ion) etching of the substrate material and the deposition of etching-protective material
on the sidewalls as in Figure 9.7b.
• Etching-protective materials (shown in black in the figure) are materials of high selectivity ratio, ex. silicon
dioxide, polymers.
• Polymeric materials such as photoresists are produced by polymerization during the plasma etching
process.
• Reactant gases could be used in DRIE. Ex. fluoropolymers (nCF2) in the plasma of Argon gas ions.
• This reactant can produce a polymer protective layer on the sidewalls while etching takes place.
•
5.2.6 Comparison of Wet versus Dry Etching

• Etching is such an important process in bulk micromanufacturing.

• To make intelligent choices on which of the two types of etching to use for shaping
the micromachine components is important.
• Table 9.4 will be a useful reference for this purpose.

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5.3 SURFACE MICROMACHINING

5.3.1 General Description

• In bulk micromanufacturing substrate material is removed by physical or chemical means.
• The surface micromachining technique builds microstructure by adding materials layer by layer on
top of the substrate.
• Deposition techniques, ex. the low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) technique, are used.
• The polycrystalline silicon (polysilicon) is a common material for the layer material.
• Sacrificial layers, usually made of Si02, are used in constructing the MEMS components.
• They are later removed to create necessary void space in the depth, i.e., in the thickness direction.
Wet etching is the common method used for that purpose.
• The overall height of the structure therefore is no longer limited by the available wafer thickness.
• Figure 9.8 illustrates the difference between bulk micromanufacturing and surface
micromachining.
• In Figure 9.8a, a microcantilever beam that can be used either as a microaccelerometer or as an
actuator.
• The cantilever beam is made of single-crystal silicon with a significant amount of material etched
away as illustrated in Figure 9.9.
• The same cantilever beam structure can be produced by polysilicon with a surface
micromachining technique as illustrated in fig 9.8b

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•
• Surface micromachining saves material and also eliminates the need for a die attach.

5.3.2 Process in General

• Surface-micromachined devices are made up of three types of components: (1) a sacrificial
component (also called a spacer layer), (2) a microstructural component, and (3) an insulator
component.
• The sacrificial components are usually made of phosphosilicate glass (PSG) or SiO2 deposited on
substrates by LPCVD techniques.
• PSG can be etched more rapidly than Si02 in HF etchants.
• Both microstructural and insulator components can be deposited in thin films.
• The etching rates for the sacrificial components must be much higher than those for the two other
components.

• In Figure a microcantilever beam is produced by the surface micromachining technique.

• In step 1 a silicon substrate base has a PSG deposited on its surface.

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• A mask (mask 1) is made in step 2 to cover the surface of the PSG layer for the subsequent etching.
• Another mask (mask 2) is made for the deposition of polysilicon microstructural material in step 4.
• The PSG that remains in step 5 is subsequently etched away to produce the desired cantilever beam
as shown in step 6.
• The etchant used in the last step for the sacrificial PSG layer is 1:1 HF.
• After etching, the structure is rinsed in deionized water thoroughly followed by drying under infrared
lamps.
•
5.3.3 Mechanical Problems Associated with Surface micromachining
• There are three major problems that result from surface micro-machining.
• These are (1) adhesion of layers, (2) interfacial stresses, and (3) stiction.
Adhesion of Layers
• Whenever two layers of materials, whether similar or dis-similar, are bonded together, a possibility
of delamination exists.
• A bilayer structure can delaminate at the interface either by
o peeling of one layer from the other or
o by shear that causes the severing of the interfaces locally along the interface.
o Figure 9.11 illustrates both these failures.

• Excessive thermal and mechanical stress is the main cause.

• Other causes including the surface conditions, e.g., cleanliness, roughness, and adsorption energy,
could also contribute.
Interfacial Stresses
• There are three types of stresses that exist in the bilayer structures.
• One is the thermal stresses resulting from the mismatch of the coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE)
of the component-materials.
• Severe thermal stress can cause the delamination of the Si02 layer from the silicon substrate when the
bilayer structure is subjected to high enough operating temperature.
• The same can happen in other combinations of materials in multilayer structures produced by -surface
micromachining.
• The second type of interfacial stresses is the residual stresses that are inherent in the microfabrication
processes.
• Example, a Si02 layer grown on the top surface of a silicon substrate beam at 1000°C by a thermal
oxidation process as in Figure 9.12.
• The resultant shape of the bilayer beam at room temperature is shown in Figure 9.12b.
• This is due to the significant difference in the CTE for both materials.

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•
• Excessive tensile residual stress in Si02 layer can cause multiple cracks in the layer.
• The third type of stress that could be introduced in thin-film structures is the intrinsic stress
• This is due to the local change of atomic structure during microfabrication processes.
• Excessive doping, for ex. could introduce substantial residual stresses.
Stiction
• In surface micromachining, the phenomenon of two separated pieces sticking together is called
stiction.
• For ex. difficulty in separating two transparencies after the thin dividing paper is pulled out.
• Stiction is the most serious problem to deal with in surface micro-machining.
• It occurs when the sacrificial layer is removed from the layers of the material that it once separated.
• The thin structure that was once supported by the sacrificial layer may collapse on the other material.
• for ex, the production of a thin beam in Figure 9.13
• Stiction could happen with the thin polysilicon beam dropping onto the top surface of the silicon substrate
after the removal of the sacrificial PSG layer (Fig. 9.13b).
• The two materials would then stick together after the joint.
• Considerable mechanical forces are required to separate the two stuck layers again
• These excessive forces can break the delicate microstructure.
• Stiction is the main cause for the large amount of scraps in surface micromachining.
•

•
• Stiction occurs due to hydrogen bonding of surfaces during rinsing of the interface after the etching of the
PSG sacrificial layer, or by forces such as the van der Waals forces
• Remedial actions are temporary spacers using polysilicon and sacrificial polymer columns that can be
removed by etching with oxygen plasma afterward.
•

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5.4 The LIGA process

• Both micromanufacturing techniques—bulk manufacturing and surface micromachining involve
microfabrication processes evolved from microelectronics technology
• But there are two major drawbacks:
• (1) the low geometric aspect ratio, and (2) the use of silicon-based materials.
• Geometric aspect ratio of a microstructure is the ratio of the dimension in the depth to that of the
surface.
• Silicon-based MEMS and microsystems use wafers of standard sizes and thicknesses as substrates
• On this, etching or thin-film deposition takes.
• The other limitation is on the materials.
• Silicon-based MEMS use polymers and plastics, metals for the structures and thin films.
• The LIGA process does not have the two shortcomings.
• It offers great potential for non-silicon-based microstructures.
• It can produce "thick" microstructures that have extremely flat and parallel surfaces such as microgear
trains, motors and generators, and microturbines made of metals and plastics.
• The term LIGA is an acronym for the German terms Lithography (Lithographie), electroforming
(Galvanoformung), and molding (Abformung).
•

5.4.1 General Description of the LIGA Process

• The LIGA process begins with deep x-ray lithography that sets the desired patterns on a thick
film of photoresist.
• X-rays are used as the light source in photolithography because of their short wavelength
• It provides higher penetration power into the photoresist materials which gives high resolution
in lithography and for a high aspect ratio in the depth.
• The short wavelength of x-ray allows a line width of 0.2 µm and an aspect ratio of more than
100:1 to be achieved.
• The x-rays used in this process are provided by a synchrotron radiation source
• This allows a high throughput because the high flux of collimated rays shortens the exposure time.
• Figure 9.15 shows an example of a LIGA process.
• The desired product is a micro thin wall metal tube of square cross-section.
• First the process of depositing a thick film of photoresist material on the surface of a substrate(fig a)
• A photoresist material that is sensitive to x-ray is polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA).

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• Masks used in the x-ray lithography are transparent to x-rays, so a thin film of gold is applied to the
area that will block x-ray transmission.

•
• The thin mask used for this purpose is silicon nitride.
• The deep x-ray lithography will cause the exposed area to be dissolved in the subsequent
development of the resist material(Fig. 9.15b).
• The PMMA photoresist after the development will have the outline of the product.
• Next is electroplating of the PMMA photoresist with a desired metal, usually nickel, to produce the
tubular product of the required wall thickness (Fig. 9.15c)
• The desired tubular product is produced after the removal of the photoresist materials by oxygen
plasma or chemical solvents.

5.4.2 Materials for Substrates and Photoresists

• Substrate Materials for the LIGA Process
• The substrate used in the LIGA process is called the base plate.
• It must be an electrical conductor, or an insulator coated with electrically conductive materials.
• Electrical conduction of the substrate facilitates electroplating.
• Suitable materials for the substrates include: austenite steel; silicon wafers with a thin titanium
or Ag/Cr top layer; and copper plated with gold, titanium, and nickel. Glass plates with thin
metal plating could also be used as the substrate.

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Photoresist Materials
Basic requirements for photoresist materials for the LIGA process include the following: -
➢ It must be sensitive to x-ray radiation.
➢ It must have high resolution as well as high resistance to dry and wet etching.
➢ It must have thermal stability up to 140°C.
➢ The unexposed resist must be absolutely insoluble during development.
➢ It must exhibit very good adhesion to the substrate during electroplating.
• PMMA is an optimal choice of photoresist material for the LIGA
• But, its low lithographic sensitivity makes the lithographic process extremely slow.
• Another shortcoming of PMMA is its vulnerability to crack due to stress.

5.4.3 Electroplating
• Electroplating is an important step in the LIGA process.
• Electroforming of metal films onto the surface of the cavities in the photoresist after x-ray
lithography has been performed as illustrated in Figure 9.15c.
• Nickel is the common metal to be electroplated on the photoresist walls.
• Other metals that could be used for electroplating include Cu, Au, NiFe and NiW.
• The conductive substrate and the carrying photoresist structure form the cathode in an electroplating
process is illustrated in Figure 9.16.
•

• Electroplating works on the principle that the nickel ions Ni 2+ from the nickel chloride (NiC12)
solution react with the electrons at the cathode to yield nickel as shown in the process below:
Ni 2+ + 2e - → Ni
• The H2 gas is the product of the H2+ ions produced by the electrolysis of the solution.
• This is present on the surface of the cathode and may cause non-uniform Ni plating.
• The chemical reaction of H2+ ions to H2 gas at the cathode is presented below:
2H + + 2e - → H2
• To avoid damage of the plated surfaces by hydrogen bubbles, we need to control the pH of the
solution, the temperature, and the current density in the electrolysis.

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5.4.4 The SLIGA Process

• Figures 9.14 and 9.15, shows the finished product, whether it is a micro structure or a metal mold, is
attached to the substrate, or base plate.
• The attachment to the electrically conductive substrate is necessary for the electroplating process.
• The hollow square tube is not separated after electroplating of metal film on the inner walls.
• A modified process called sacrificial LIGA(SLIGA) introduces a sacrificial layer between the
PMMA resist and the substrate.
• This allows the separation of the finished mold from the substrate after electroplating.

5.5 Summary of MicroManufacturing

Bulk Micromanufacturing
• Straightforward, involving well-documented fabrication processes.
• Less expensive in the process, but material loss is high.
• Suitable for simple geometry, e.g., micropressure sensors dies and some actuating elements.
• Limited to low-aspect ratio in geometry; i.e., the surface dimensions are much greater than that
of the depth. This is because the overall height of the microstructure is limited by the thickness of
commercially available silicon wafers.

Surface Micromachining
• Requires the building of layers of materials on the substrate.
• Complex masking design and productions.
• Etching of sacrificial layers is necessary.
• The process is tedious and more expensive.
• There are serious engineering problems such as interfacial stresses and stiction.
• Major advantages: (1) not constrained by the thickness of silicon wafers; (2) wide choices of
thin film materials to be used; (3) suitable for complex geometries such as micro valves and
actuators.

The LIGA Process

• The most expensive process of all.
• Requires a special synchrotron radiation facility for deep x-ray lithography.
• Requires the development of microinjection molding technology and a facility for mass
production purposes.
• Major advantages are: (1) virtually unlimited aspect ratio of the microstructure geometry; (2) flexible
microstructure configurations and geometry; (3) the only one of the three techniques that allows
the production of metallic microstructures; (4) the best of the three manufacturing processes for
mass production, with the provision for injection molding.

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