Micro-electromechanical Systems (MEMS)

MEMS is a process technology used to create tiny integrated devices or systems that combine
mechanical and electrical components. They are fabricated using integrated circuit (IC) batch
processing techniques and can range in size from a few micrometers to millimetres. These
devices (or systems) have the ability to sense, control and actuate on the micro scale, and
generate effects on the macro scale.

The interdisciplinary nature of MEMS utilizes design, engineering and manufacturing expertise
from a wide and diverse range of technical areas including integrated circuit fabrication
technology, mechanical engineering, materials science, electrical engineering, chemistry and
chemical engineering, as well as fluid engineering, optics, instrumentation and packaging. The
complexity of MEMS is also shown in the extensive range of markets and applications that
incorporate MEMS devices. MEMS can be found in systems ranging across automotive,
medical, electronic, communication and defence applications. Current MEMS devices include
accelerometers for airbag sensors, inkjet printer heads, computer disk drive read/write heads,
projection display chips, blood pressure sensors, optical switches, microvalves, biosensors and
many other products that are all manufactured and shipped in high commercial volumes.

MEMS working Principle: In the most general form, MEMS consist of mechanical
microstructures, microsensors, micro-actuators and microelectronics, all integrated onto the same
silicon chip. This is shown schematically in Figure 1. Micro sensors detect changes in the
system’s environment by measuring mechanical, thermal, magnetic, chemical or electromagnetic
information or phenomena. Microelectronics process this information and signal the
microactuators to react and create some form of changes to the environment.

MEMS devices are very small; their components are usually microscopic. Levers, gears, pistons,
as well as motors and even steam engines have all been fabricated by MEMS.

Transducer
A transducer is a device that transforms one form of signal or energy into another form. The
term transducer can therefore be used to include both sensors and actuators and is the most
generic and widely used term in MEMS.

MEMS Transducers
Microsensors and microactuators are the very core of a MEMS device or system. A microsensor
detects changes in the system’s environment; an ‘intelligent’ part processes the information
detected by the sensor and makes a decision in the form of a signal; and a microactuator acts on
this signal to create some form of changes in the environment. Microelectronic components
make up most of the intelligent part of the device and, as an established technology, will not be
discussed here. Sensors and actuators are broadly termed transducers and are essentially devices
that convert one form of energy into another. Many of the MEMS sensors and actuators
described in this section have been developed within the microelectronics industry and do not all
involve any special micromachining techniques; they are based on conventional integrated
circuits that, through inherent mechanisms, sense light, temperature etc. However, many of these
can be enhanced by the use of MEMS. Basic MEMS mechanisms and structures consist of both
in-plane and out-of-plane mechanisms as well as structural members to couple energy between
the actuator and sensors as well as with the physical interface of a mechanical system.
Mechanisms such as joints, linkages, gears and hinges are very typical. This section concentrates
on the phenomena that can be sensed or acted upon with MEMS devices with a brief description
of the basic sensing and actuation mechanisms. It is important to note that although these devices
are mechanical and have been categorized in terms of their sensing domain (e.g. thermal,
chemical, radiation), there are many overlaps, and forms of mechanical transducer can be
commonly found as intermediate mechanisms in other devices.

Micro sensor
A microsensor is a device that measures information from a surrounding environment and
provides an electrical output signal in response to the parameter it measured.
Over the years, this information (or phenomenon) has been categorized in terms of the type of
energy domains but MEMS devices generally overlap several domains or do not even belong in
any one category.
These energy domains include:
• Mechanical - force, pressure, velocity, acceleration, position
• Thermal - temperature, entropy, heat, heat flow
• Chemical - concentration, composition, reaction rate
• Radiant - electromagnetic wave intensity, phase, wavelength, polarization
reflectance, refractive index, transmittance
• Magnetic - field intensity, flux density, magnetic moment, permeability
• Electrical - voltage, current, charge, resistance, capacitance, polarization

Typical MEMS Devices

Why MEMS for sensors?

• Smaller in size
• Have lower power consumption
• More sensitive to input variations
• Cheaper due to mass production
• Less invasive than larger devices

Different types of Sensors

• Pressure sensors
• Optical sensors
• Surface Acoustic Wave sensors

Pressure Sensors
Among the various devices, pressure sensors using MEMS technology have received great
attention because the pressure sensors find applications in everyday life involving sensing,
monitoring and controlling pressure.
Pressure sensors are categorized as
a) Absolute Pressure Sensors
b) Relative or Gauge Pressure sensors
c) Differential Pressure Sensors

a) Absolute Pressure Sensors

Measure the pressure relative to a reference vacuum encapsulated within the sensor Such devices
are used for atmospheric pressure measurement and as manifold absolute pressure (MAP)
sensors for automobile ignition and airflow control systems. Pressure sensors used for cabin
pressure control, launch vehicles, and satellites also belong to this category.
b) Relative or Gauge Pressure sensors
Measures pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. One side of the diaphragm is vented to
atmospheric pressure. Blood pressure (BP), intra-cranial pressure (ICP), gas cylinder pressure
and most of ground-based pressure measurements are gauge pressure sensors.

c) Differential Pressure Sensors

Measure accurately the difference ΔP between two pressures P1 and P2 across the diaphragm
(with ΔP << P1 or P2), and hence need two pressure ports. They find applications in airplanes
used in warfare. They are also used in high pressure oxidation systems.

The sensing material in a piezoresistive pressure sensor is a diaphragm formed on a silicon

substrate, which bends with applied pressure. A deformation occurs in the crystal lattice of the
diaphragm because of that bending. This deformation occurs in the crystal lattice of the
diaphragm because of that bending. This deformation causes a change in the band structure of
the piezo resistors that are placed on the diaphragm, leading to a change in the resistivity of the
material. This change can be an increase or a decrease according to the orientation of the
resistors. As the deflections in diaphragm-based sensors are small they cannot be directly
measured. This mechanical deflection or the resulting strain in the diaphragm is converted
ultimately into electrical signals using suitable transduction mechanisms.

Optical sensors

These are the electronic detectors that convert light, or a change in light, into an electronic
signal. They are used in many industrial and consumer applications, for example:

• Lamps that turn on automatically in response to darkness

• Position sensors that activate when an object interrupts a light beam
• Photoelectric sensors that detect the distance, absence, or presence of an object

Function An optical sensor converts light rays into electronic signals. It measures the physical
quantity of light and then translates it into a form that is readable by an instrument. An optical
sensor is generally part of a larger system that integrates a source of light, a measuring device
and the optical sensor. This is often connected to an electrical trigger. The trigger reacts to a
change in the signal within the light sensor. An optical sensor can measure the changes from one
or several light beams. When a change occurs, the light sensor operates as a photoelectric trigger
and therefore either increases or decreases the electrical output.

There are many different kinds of optical sensors, the most common types are

• Photoconductive devices convert a change of incident light into a change of resistance.

• Photovoltaics, commonly known as solar cells, convert an amount of incident light into
an output voltage.
• Photodiodes convert an amount of incident light into an output current.
• Phototransistors are a type of bipolar transistor where the base-collector junction is
exposed to light. This results in the same behaviour of a photodiode, but with an internal
gain.

Surface Acoustic sensors

Surface acoustic wave (SAW) is an acoustic wave moving along the surface of an elastic
substrate. Frequency of such an wave is given by f= v/λ, where v-velocity and λ-wavelength of
the wave. SAW sensors are a class of micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS) which rely on
the modulation of surface acoustic waves to sense a physical phenomenon. The sensor transduces
an input electrical signal into a mechanical wave which, unlike an electrical signal, can be easily
influenced by physical phenomena. The device then transduces this wave back into an electrical
signal. Changes in amplitude, phase, frequency, or time-delay between the input and output
electrical signals can be used to measure the presence of the desired phenomenon.

• 2 sets of “Inter digital Transducers” (IDT) are created on a piezoelectric layer attached
to a tiny substrate as shown.
• Energize by an AC source to the “Input IDT” will close and open the gaps of the finger
electrodes, and thus surface deformation/ stresses transmitting through the piezoelectric
material.
• The surface deformation/stresses will cause the change of finger electrodes in the
“Output IDT”
• Any change of material properties (chemical attacks) or geometry due to torques will
alter the I/O between the “Input IDT” and “Output IDT.”
• The sensing of contact environment or pressure can thus be accomplished.
Primary application of these sensors is to act like “band filters” in mobile telephones and base
stations. Other applications include:

• Sensing of torques and tire pressures

• Sensing biological and chemical substances
• Sensing vapors, humidity and temperature
• Monitor fluid flow in microfluidics

Micro actuator:
Micro actuator is a device that converts an electrical signal into an action. It can create a
force to manipulate itself, other mechanical devices, or the surrounding environment to perform
some useful function.
On-chip actuation of microsystems has been a particularly challenging aspect of MEMS
development. Common macro-level actuation approaches, such as hydraulics, pneumatics,
electric motors, internal combustion engines and turbines, are either too difficult to fabricate at
the micro level or do not work well at that scale. Electrostatic attraction is one approach that has
been widely used for actuation of microsystems. While electrostatic actuation is suitable for
many applications, some systems require either lower voltages or higher output forces.

Different types of Actuators

• Actuation by Electrostatic forces
• Actuation by Thermal forces
• Actuation by Shape memory alloys

Actuation by Thermal forces

Solids deform when they are subjected to a temperature change (ΔT). A solid rod with a length L
will extend its length by ΔL = α ΔT, in which α = coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and is
a material property. When two materials with distinct CTE bond together and is subjected to a
temperature change, the compound material will change its geometry as illustrated below with a
compound beam.

These compound beams are commonly used as micro switches and relays in MEMS products.

Actuation by Shape memory alloys

SMA are the materials that have a “memory” of their original geometry (shape) at a typically
elevated temperature of production. These alloys are deformed into different geometry at
typically room temperature. The deformed SMA structures will return to their original shapes
when they are heated to the elevated temperature at their productions. Ti-Ni is a common SMA.
A micro switch actuated with SMA:

Actuation using electrostatic forces

• Based on attraction of two oppositely charged plates

• Typically low power
• Simple to fabricate

According to Coulomb's law, the electrostatic force acting between two charges is
inversely proportional to the distance between the charges. For macro-scale objects, this force is
normally negligible. However, micro-scale devices may have very small gaps, making
electrostatic attraction an important source of mechanical motion. This actuation technology is
especially attractive because it uses very little power. On the other hand, large voltages (typically
tens to hundreds of volts) are required.
The simplest type of electrostatic actuator consists of a movable plate or beam which is
pulled toward a parallel electrode under the application of a voltage difference. This type of
actuator is illustrated schematically in the Figure below. The movable electrode is suspended by
a mechanical spring, which is often simply a micromachined beam. The motion of the movable
electrode is restrained by one or more such springs. When the voltage across the electrodes is
zero, the electrostatic force between the electrodes is also zero, resulting in a rest electrode
separation distance, xo, also called the rest gap distance. When voltage is placed across the
electrodes, opposite charges on each one attracts each other. However, unless they touch, the
electrodes only draw sufficient current to charge the actuator's effective capacitance, resulting in
low power requirements. The attractive force is larger, when the movable electrode is closer to
the fixed electrode, with the force proportional to the reciprocal of the square of the gap. The
resulting electrostatic force between the two electrodes pulls the movable electrode toward the
fixed electrode until the electrostatic force equals the spring force.

Application of MEMS

Micro Grippers
The electrostatic forces generated in parallel charged plates can be used as the driving forces for
gripping objects, as illustrated in figure below. When the electric field is switched on then the
required gripping forces in a gripper can be provided by normal electrostatic forces between
parallel plates.
Micro accelerometers
Accelerometers in modern cars for a large number of purposes including Air bag crash sensors,
Antilock brake systems, Ride control systems etc. are used.
For example, MEMS accelerometers have displaced conventional accelerometers for crash
air-bag deployment systems in automobiles. The previous technology approach used several
bulky accelerometers made of discrete components mounted in the front of the car with separate
electronics near the air-bag and are expensive. MEMS technology has made it possible to
integrate the accelerometer and electronics onto a single silicon chip at a cost of only a few
dollars. These MEMS accelerometers are much smaller, more functional, lighter, more reliable,
and are produced for a fraction of the cost of the conventional macroscale accelerometer
elements.

• MEMS pressure sensors are used in kidney dialysis to monitor the inlet and outlet
pressures of blood and the dialysis solution and to regulate the flow rates during the
procedure.
• MEMS pressure sensors are used in drug infusion pumps of many types to monitor the
flow rate and detect for obstructions and blockages that indicate that the drug is not
being properly delivered to the patient.
• Inkjet printers, which use piezo-electrics or thermal bubble ejection to deposit ink on
paper.
• Improved performance from inductors and capacitors due the advent of the RF-MEMS
technology.
• MEMS system for Earthquake Detection and Gas Shutoff.