THREE-PHASE

10 INDUCTION
MOTORS

10.1 INTRODUCTION
The whole concept of a polyphase ac, including the induction motor, was the idea
of the great Yugoslavian engineer, Nikola Tesla.

Because of its simplicity and ruggedness, relatively less expensive and little
maintenance, this motor is often the natural choice, as a drive in industry.

The squirrel cage motor is often preferred over when a substantially constant
speed of operation is desired, the wound rotor motor is a competitor of the dc
motor when adjustable speed is required.

The chief disadvantages of induction motors are:

(a) The starting current may be five to eight times full-load current if direct on
line start is allowed.
(b) The speed is not easily controlled.
(c) The power factor is low and also lagging when the machine is lightly
loaded.
For most applications, their advantages far outweigh their disadvantages.
 Three-Phase Induction Motors 661

10.2 CONSTRUCTION OF INDUCTION MACHINES

Similar to other rotating electrical machines, a three-phase induction motor also
consists of two main parts: the stator and the rotor (the stator is the stationary
part and the rotor is the rotating part). Apart from these two main parts, a three-
phase induction motor also requires bearings, bearing covers, end plates, etc. for
its assembly.
The stator of a three-phase induction motor has three main parts namely, stator
frame, stator core and stator windings. The stator frame can either be casted or
can be fabricated from rolled steel plates. The stator core is built up of high
silicon sheet steel laminations of thickness 0.4 to 0.5 mm. Each lamination is
separated from the other by means of either varnish, paper or oxide coating. Each
lamination is slotted on the inner periphery so as to house the winding. The
laminations for small machines are in the form of complete rings, but for large
machines these may be made in sections. The insulated stator conductors are
connected to form a three-phase winding, the stator phase windings may be either
star or delta-connected.
The rotor is also built up of their laminations of the same material as the
stator. The laminated cylindrical core is mounted directly on the shaft or a spider
carried by the shaft. These laminations are slotted on their outer periphery to
house the rotor conductors. There are two types of induction motor rotors:
(a) Squirrel cage or simply cage rotor
(b) Phase wound or wound rotor or slip ring rotors.
In either case, the rotor windings are contained in slots in a laminated iron
core which is mounted on the shaft. In small machines, the lamination stack is
pressed directly on the shaft. In larger machines, the core is mechanically con-
nected to the shaft through a set of spokes called a “spider”.
The motor having the first type of rotor is known as a squirrel cage induction
motor. This type of rotor is cheap and has a simple and rugged construction. It is
cylindrical in shape and is made of sheet steel laminations. Here the slots pro-
vided to accommodate the rotor conductors, are not made parallel to the shaft but
they are skewed. The purpose of skewing is (a) to reduce the magnetic hum and
(b) to reduce the magnetic locking. The rotor conductors are short-circuited at the
ends by brazing the copper rings, resembling the cage of a squirrel and hence the
name squirrel cage rotor.
In present days, ‘die-cast rotors’ have become very popular. The assembled
rotor laminations are placed in a mould. The molten aluminium is forced under
pressure to form the bars. Figure 10.1 (a-c) shows a typical stator and rotor (both
squirrel cage type and slip ring type) assembly. Figure 10.1(d) shows the sche-
matic of a cage rotor separately.
The motor having the second type rotor, i.e. wound type rotor, is named as a
slip-ring induction motor. In this motor, the rotor is wound for three-phase, simi-
lar to stator winding using open type slots in the rotor lamination. Rotor winding
is always star connected and thus only three remaining ends of the windings are
brought out and connected to the slip rings as shown in Fig. 10.2. With the help
of these slip rings and brushes, additional resistances can also be connected in
662 Basic Electrical Engineering

Fig. 10.1 Stator and rotor parts

Fig. 10.2 Addition of external resistances to the rotor of wound rotor induction
motor

series with each rotor phase (Fig. 10.2). This will increase the starting torque
provided by the motor and will also help in reducing, the starting current. When
running under normal condition, the external resistances are removed completely
from the rotor by short circuiting these additional resistances from the rotor
circuit and rotor behaves just like a squirrel cage rotor.
 Three-Phase Induction Motors 663

10.3 COMPARISON OF SQUIRREL CAGE AND

WOUND ROTORS
The advantages of cage rotor induction motor are as follows:
(a) A rotor is of robust construction and cheaper.
(b) The absence of brushes reduces the risk of sparking.
(c) Squirrel cage rotors require lesser maintenance.
(d) Squirrel cage induction motors have higher efficiency and better power
factor.
On the other hand, wound rotors have the following merits:
(a) High starting torque and low starting current.
(b) Additional resistance can be connected in the rotor circuit to control speed.

10.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF A

THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Advantages
(a) It is very simple, robust, rugged and capable of withstanding rough use.
(b) It is quite cheap in cost and reliable in operation.
(c) Its maintenance cost is low.
(d) The losses are reasonably small and hence it has sufficiently high effi-
ciency.
(e) It is mostly a trouble-free motor.
(f) Its power factor is reasonably good at full load operation.
(g) It is simple to start (since it has a self starting torque).
An induction motor is equivalent to a static transformer whose secondary is
capable of rotating with respect to the primary.
Usually the stator is treated as the primary, while the rotor is treated as the
secondary. The induction motor operation is electrically equal even if the rotor is
primary and the stator operation is treated as secondary.
Disadvantages
(a) Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing efficiency.
(b) Its speed decreases with an increase in load.
(c) Its starting torque is inferior to that of a dc shunt motor.
(d) For direct on line starting, the starting current is usually 5 to 8 times of the
full-load rated current.
(e) It runs at a low lagging power factor when it is lightly loaded.

10.5 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

A three-phase induction motor has a stator winding which is supplied by three-
phase alternating balanced voltage and has balanced three-phase currents in the
winding. The rotor is not excited from any source and has only magnetic coupling
with the stator. Under normal running conditions, the rotor winding (cage or slip-
ring) is always short circuited to allow induced currents to flow in the rotor
664 Basic Electrical Engineering

winding. The flow of three-phase currents in the stator winding produces a rotat-
ing magnetic field of constant amplitude and rotates at a synchronous speed. Let
us assume that the rotor is at standstill initially; the rotating stator field induces
an emf in the rotor conductor by transformer action. Since the rotor circuit is a
closed set of conductors, a current flows in the rotor circuit. This rotor current
then produces a rotor field. The interaction of stator and rotor field produces a
torque which causes the rotation of the rotor in the direction of the stator rotating
field.
As per Lenz’s law, the rotor field will try to oppose the very cause of its
production. Thus it speeds up in the direction of the stator field so that relative
speed difference between these two fields is zero. In this way, the three-phase
induction motor catches up the speed.
When the rotor is at standstill, the relative motion between the stator field and
rotor is maximum. Therefore, the emf induced in the rotor and rotor current are
reduced. However, the rotor cannot attain the speed of the stator field which is
equal to the synchronous speed. This is evidently due to the reason that if the
rotor is moving at synchronous speed, there is no relative motion between the
stator field and the rotor. Hence the rotor induced emf and current become zero
and the torque becomes zero. This would cause the rotor speed to decrease. As
the rotor speed falls below the synchronous speed, the rotor emf and current
continue to increase. Therefore, the electromagnetic torque continues to increase.
Finally, the rotor speed becomes constant at a value at speed slightly less than
that of the stator field, the torque developed equals the sum of load torque and
the mechanical losses.

10.6 CONCEPT OF PRODUCTION OF ROTATING

FIELD
When a three-phase winding, displaced in space by 120°, are supplied by a three-
phase currents displaced in time by 120°, a magnetic flux is produced which
rotates in space. This causes the rotor to rotate. The method of analysis is as
follows:

10.6.1 Analytical Method

Let us consider three identical coils placed 120° apart with respect to each other,
as shown in Fig. 10.3(a).
The coils are supplied with currents having frequency of supply and varying
sinusoidally in time. Each coil will produce an alternating flux along its own axis.
Let the instantaneous flux be given by
f1 = fm sin w t 10.1(a)
f2 = fm sin (w t – 120°) 10.1(b)
f3 = fm sin (w t – 240°) 10.1(c)
The resultant flux produced by this system may be determined by resolving the
components with respect to the physical axis, as shown in Fig. 10.3(b).
 Three-Phase Induction Motors 665

Fig. 10.3 Production of Rotating Field in a three-phase induction motor

Therefore the resultant horizontal component of flux is given by

fh = f1 – f2 cos 60° – f3 cos 60°
= f1 – (f2 + f3) cos 60°
1
= f 1 – (f2 + f3) ¥
2
1
= fm sin w t – [fm sin (w t – 120°) + f m sin (w t – 240°)]
2
fm
¥ (2 sin w t ) Ê - ˆ
1
= f m sin w t –
2 Ë 2¯
3
= f m sin wt. (10.2)
2
Similarly, the vertical component of flux is given by
3
f v = 0 – f 2 cos 30° + f3 cos 30° = [f3 – f 2]
2
3
= [f m sin (w t – 240°) – fm sin (w t – 120°)]
2
3 3
= ¥ fm ◊ 2 cos w t ¥
2 2
3
= fm cos w t (10.3)
2
666 Basic Electrical Engineering

\ The resultant flux is (Fig. 10.3(d)),

3
fr = (f h ) 2 + (f v ) 2 = f m sin 2 wt + cos 2 w t
2
3
= fm [Q sin2 w t + cos2 w t = 1] (10.4)
2
fv
and tan q = = cot w t = tan (90° – w t).
fh
It implies q = (90° – w t). (10.5)
The above equation shows that the resultant flux (fr) is free from time factor.
It is a constant flux of magnitude equal to Ê ˆ times the maximum flux per
3
Ë 2¯
phase. However, q is dependent on time and we can calculate q at different
values of (w t); when (w t) = 0, q = p/2 corresponding to position P in Fig. 10.3(c).
Similarly, for w t = p/2, q = 0°, corresponding to position Q,
when w t = p, q = –p/2, corresponding to position R,
3p
when w t = , q = –p, corresponding to position S.
2
It is thus observed that the resultant flux fr rotates in space in the clockwise
direction with angular velocity of w radians per second.
PN s
Since w = 2pf and f = , the resultant flux fr rotates with synchronous
120
speed (Ns).

10.7 THE CONCEPT OF SLIP

The magnitude and frequency of the rotor voltages depend on the speed of the
relative motion between the rotor and the flux crossing the air gap. The differ-
ence between the synchronous speed and the rotor speed expressed as a fraction
(or percent) of synchronous speed is knows as slip, i.e.
Slip speed = (ns – n) rev/sec
ns - n
and slip (s) = p.u. 10.6(a)
ns
or n = ns (1 – s) rps 10.6(b)
where ns = synchronous speed (rev/sec)
n = rotor speed (rev/sec)
s = slip.
When the speed is expressed in rpm, we can write
Ns - N Ns - N
s= p.u. = ¥ 100 (in %)
Ns Ns
and N = Ns(1 – s) rpm.
This slip s is a very useful quantity in studying induction motors.
The value of slip at full load is about 4 to 5% for small motors and about 2 to
2.5% for large motors. The slip at no load is about 1%. Thus the speed of an
 Three-Phase Induction Motors 667

induction motor is almost constant from no load to full load. If the machine has P
number of poles, the frequency of induced emf in the rotor, i.e. f2 is given by
Ns - N È PN s P ( Ns - N )
f2 = ¥ f1 ÍQ f1 = ; f2 =
Ns Î 120 120
Ê Ns - N ˆ ˘
and hence ( f 2 / f1 ) = Á ˙
Ë N s ˜¯ ˙˚
i.e. f 2 = sf1
At standstill of the rotor, s = 1, i.e. the frequency of rotor currents is f1 (the
same as the supply frequency).

10.8 FREQUENCY OF ROTOR VOLTAGES AND

CURRENTS
Let us consider a typical pair of rotor bars. As the rotor “slips” backward through
the flux field, the flux linking these bars will vary cyclically. The voltage induced
in the rotor circuit is composed of the voltages in these two bars and the end
rings. It is at its peak at the instant when the rate of change of flux linkages is a
maximum. Thus one cycle of rotor voltage is generated as a given conductor slips
past two poles of the air-gap flux field. In other words, one cycle of rotor voltage
corresponds to 360 electrical degrees of “slips”. Then the frequency of the rotor
voltages and currents is given by
f2 = pole-pairs slipped per second
( ns - n ) P È PN s PN s Pns ˘
◊ ns ◊ = s ◊ f 1 ÍQ f1 = = = ˙. (10.7)
ns 2 Î 120 2 ¥ 60 2 ˚
i.e., Rotor current frequency = Per unit slip ¥ Supply frequency.
At standstill, rotor speed is zero.
( ns - n ) ns - 0
\ s= = =1
ns ns
and f2 = f 1. (10.8)

10.1 A three-phase, 4-pole 50 Hz. induction motor runs at 1450 rpm. Find out the
percentage slip of the induction motor.
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
Ns = = = 1500 rpm
P 4
N s - N 1500 - 1450
\ Slip = = = 0.033 = 3.33%.
Ns 1500

10.2 A three-phase, 50 Hz., 6-pole induction motor runs at 950 rpm. Calculate
(i) the synchronous speed
(ii) the slip and
(iii) frequency of the rotor emf.
668 Basic Electrical Engineering

Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
(i) We know, Ns = = = 1000 rpm.
P 6
Ns - N 1000 - 950
(ii) Slip (s) = = = 0.05.
Ns 1000
\ percentage of slip = 0.05 ¥ 100 = 5.
(iii) The frequency of rotor emf = s.f1 = 0.05 ¥ 50 = 2.5 Hz.

10.3 The frequency of the emf in the stator of a 4-pole induction motor is 50 Hz., and
that in the rotor is 2 Hz. What is the slip and at what speed is the motor running?
Solution
We know f2 = s ◊ f1
f2 2
\ s= = = 0.04 = 4%.
f1 50
P ◊ Ns
Again f1 =
120
120 ◊ f1 120 ¥ 50
\ Ns = = = 1500 rpm.
P 4
Speed of the motor
N = (1 – s) ◊ Ns = (1 – 0.04) ¥ 1500 = 1440 rpm.

10.4 A 10-pole induction motor is supplied by a 6-pole alternator, which is driven at

1400 rpm. If the motor runs with a slip of 2%, what is its speed?
Solution
For induction motor: Synchronous speed is given by
120 f 120 ¥ 70 È PN A 6 ¥ 1400 ˘
Ns = = = 840 rpm ÍQ f = = = 70 Hz .˙
P 10 Î 120 120 ˚
Ns - N 840 - N
Now slip, s= =
Ns 840
840 - N
\ 0.02 =
840
\ N = 823.2 rpm.