ckX{¥w

Ãm≥tU¿Uv X
`mKw˛1

tIc-f-k¿°m¿
hnZym-`ym-kh
- I
- p∏v

kwÿm\ hnZym-`ymk Kth-jW ]cn-io-e\ kanXn (SCERT), tIcfw

2016
 tZio-b-Km\w
P\-KW- a- \- -A
- [ - n-\m-bI Pbtl
`mc-X -`m-Ky-hn-[mXm,
]©m-_k - nÔp KpP-dm¯ admTm
{ZmhnU DXv¡e - - _w-Km,
hnÔy-ln-am-N-e -b-ap\mKwKm,
DÑe Pe-[nX-cwKm,
Xh-ip-`\ - mta PmtK,
Xh-ip` Bin-j -am-tK,
Kmtl Xh- P-b- KmYm
P\-KW - a- w-Ke - Z- m-bI Pbtl
`mc-X- `m-Ky-hn-[mXm,
Pb-tl, Pb-tl, Pb-tl,
Pb Pb Pb Pbtl!

{]XnÚ

C´y Fsâ cmPy-am-Wv. FÃm C´y-¡mcpw Fsâ

ktlm-Z-co- ktlmZc-·m-cm-Wv.
Rm³ Fsâ cmPys¯ kv t \ln- ¡ p¶p;
k¼qÀWhpw sshhn-[y-]qÀW-hp-amb AXnsâ
]mc-¼-cy-¯n Rm³ A`n-am\w sImÅp¶p.
Rm³ Fsâ amXm-]n-Xm-¡s- fbpw Kpcp-¡·
- m-scbpw
apXnÀ¶-hscbpw _lp-am-\n-¡pw.
Rm³ Fsâ cmPy-¯n-sâbpw Fsâ \m«p-Im-cp-
sSbpw t£a-¯n\pw sFiz-cy-¯n-\pw- th­n
{]bXv\n¡pw.
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695012, Kerala
Website : www.scertkerala.gov.in, e-mail : scertkerala@gmail.com
Phone : 0471 - 2341883, Fax : 0471 - 2341869
Typesetting and Layout : SCERT
Printed at : KBPS, Kakkanad, Kochi-30
© Department of Education, Government of Kerala
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{]-hÀ¯\ thKhpw kwXp-e-\m-h-Øbpw teml-§-fpsS cmk-{]-
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hnP-bm-iw-k-I-tfm-sS...

tUm.]n.F.^m¯na
Ub-d-IvSÀ

Fkv.-kn.-C.-BÀ.Sn.
 ]mT-]p-kvXIcN\
inev]-im-e-bn¬ ]s¶-Sp-Ø-h¿
A\n¬ Fw.-B¿. ]pjv] F≥.
F®v.Fkv.Fkv.Sn-, Pn.Pn.-F-®v.-F-kv.-Fkv, Pn.Pn.-F-®v.-F-kv.-Fkv, B‰n-߬,
Ic-a-\, Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw Xncp-h\- ¥- ]- pcw
A\n¬Ip-am¿ ]n.-sI. kt¥m-jvIp-am¿ hn.-Pn.
kn.F-®v.-Fw. F-®v.-F-kv.-Fkv, Imhpw-]m-Sn, _n.ssh.sI.-hn. F-®v.-F-kv.-Fkv,
Xn√t¶-cn, IÆq¿ thfm-h-∂q¿, ae-∏pdw
_m_p- ]øØv Atem-jy-kv C.
_n.]n.-H, _n.B¿.-kn. taeSn, sk‚ v tPmk^v F-®v.-F-kv.-Fkv,
tImgn-t°mSv Xncp-h\- ¥- ]- pcw
t{]a-N-{μ≥ sI.-hn. B\n h¿Kokv
Pn.-F-®v.-F-kv.-Fkv, Pn.-F-®v.-F-kv.-Fkv,
aWn-bq¿, tImgnt°mSv IpS-am-fq¿, tIm´bw

hnZ-Kv[¿
-Sn.-sP. sk_m-Ãy≥ eqt°mkv
ske-£≥ t{KUv eIvN-d¿ Hm^v sIankv{Sn (dn´.),
bqWn-th-gvkn‰n tImtf-Pv, Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw
tUm. Fw. Aem-hp-±o≥
{]n≥kn-∏¬ (dn´.), Kh. tImtf-Pv, FtfcnØ´v,
Imk-¿-tKmUv
tUm. kpss_¿
Atkm.-s{]m-^-k¿, sIankv{Sn hn`mKw
]n.F-kv.Fw.H. tImtf-Pv, Xncq-c-ßmSn, ae-∏pdw
tUm. F{_lmw tPm¿Pv
F®.vH.Un, sIankv{Sn (dn´.), am¿ Chm-\n-tbmkv tImtfPv
Xncp-h\
- ¥
- ]
- pcw
tUm. hnjvWp hn.-F-kv.
Akn-. s{]m^-k¿, sIankv{Sn hn`mKw
Kh¨sa‚ v B¿Svkv tImtf-Pv, Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw

Nn{X-Imc-∑m¿
A`n-emjv Xncp-thmØv aqk apkvX-Pn_v C.kn.
Pn.hn.-F-®v.-F-kv.-Fkv, ]tøm-fn, Fw.Fw.-C.-Sn.F-®v.-F-kv.-Fkv, ta¬ap-dn,
tImgn-t°mSv ae∏pdw
_na¬Ipam¿ Fkv. temln-Xm-£≥ sI.
Pn._n.-F-®v.-F-kv.-Fkv, tXh-≈n, Ako n -F-®v.-F-kv.-Fkv. t^m¿ sU^v,
sIm√w amem-]-dºv, ae∏pdw

A°m-Z-anIv tImUnt\‰¿
tUm. tim` tP°_v
dnk¿®v Hm^o-k¿, Fkv.-kn.C.-B¿.Sn.
1 ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nfpw CeIvt{Sm¨ hn\ym-khpw ............. 07

2 tamƒ k¶¬∏\w ................................................. 27

3 - hpw ................... 48
cmk-{]-h¿Ø\ thK-hpw cmk-kw-Xp-e\

4 {Inbm-io-e -t{i-Wnbpw sshZypX ck-X-{¥hpw ................. 71

Cu ]pkvXI¯n kuIcy¯n\mbn
Nne ap{ZIÄ D]tbmKn¨ncn¡p¶p.
A[nIhmb\bv¡v
(hnebncp¯en\v hnt[bamt¡­XnÃ)
BibhyàX hcp¯p¶Xn\v ICT km[yX
{][m\ ]T\t\«§fn s]Sp¶h

hnebncp¯mw

XpSÀ{]hÀ¯\§Ä
 s p

d
F´mWv Cu
s, p, d, f ?

Nn{X-¯nse Ip«n-bp-sS- kw-ibw \n§Ä¡p-antÃ? ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-

fp-ambn _Ô-s¸« IqSp-X Imcy-§Ä \ap¡v Is­-¯m³ {ian-¡mw.
aqe-I-§sf ka-{K-ambn hÀKo-I-cn¨v Xbm-dm-¡n-bn-«pÅ tamtU¬ ]ocn-
tbmUnIv tS_nÄ (B[p-\nI BhÀ¯\ ]«n-I) ap³ ¢mkn \n§Ä
]cn-N-b-s¸-«n-«p-­-tÃm. ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnsâ {]m[m\yw F´mWv?
CXnse aqe-I-hÀKo-I-c-W-¯nsâ ASn-Øm-\-sa-´mWv? aqe-I-§-fpsS
KpW-§Ä IrXyhpw hyà-hp-ambn hni-Ie- \w sN¿m\pw {]h-Nn-¡m-\pw Ign-
bp¶ Xc-¯n-età Cu tS_n-fn aqe-I-§sf hÀKo-I-cn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv?
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnse aqe-I-§-fpsS {Iao-I-c-W¯n\v Bäw LS-\-
bp-ambn Fs´-¦nepw _Ô-apt­m? \ap¡v ]cn-tim-[n-¡mw.
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

hnhn[ Bäw amXr-I-Isf Ipdn¨v \n§Ä a\-Ên-em-

¡n-bn-«p-­v. t_mÀ amXrI{]Imcw Bä-¯n-\p-ÅnÂ
k_vsj-Ãp-IÄ \yq¢nbÊn\p- Np-äp-apÅ hnhn[ sjÃp-I-fn-emWv Ce-
k_vsj-Ãp-IÄ¡v s, p, d, f F¶v t]cv Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ {Iao-I-cn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶-sX¶pw DuÀP-\ne
sImSp- ¯ n- c n- ¡ p- ¶ Xv aqe- I - § - f psS IqSn hcp¶ {Ia-¯n-emWv sjÃp-I-fn Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-
Atäm- a n- I - L - S - \ - b p- a mbn _Ô- s ¸« IÄ \nd-bp-¶-sX¶pw \n§Ä¡-dn-bm-atÃm.
Nne khn-tijXIÄ kqNn-¸n-¡p¶ \yq¢n-b-ÊnÂ\n¶v AIew IqSp-¶-X-\p-k-cn¨v
hm¡p- I - f n \n¶mWv. s→sharp, sjÃp-I-fnse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS DuÀPw IqSn-
p→principal, d→diffuse, f→fundamental.
Bäw LS-\sb kw_-Ôn¨ B[p-\nI
hcpIbpw \yq¢n-b-Êp-w Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpw X½n-
kn²m-´-{]-Imcw \yq¢n-b-Ên-\v Npäpw
epÅ BIÀj-W-_ew Ipd-bp-Ibpw sN¿p-¶p.
Ce- I v t {Sm- W p- I Ä {Xnam- \ - t aJ- e bn- enXn-b¯- nsâ ( Li) Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw 2, 1 F¶m-
3

emWv k©-cn-¡p-¶-Xv. {][m\ DuÀP- W-tÃm.

\n-e-I-fn¯s¶ D] DuÀP-\n-e-IÄ CXp-t]mse tkmUn-bw, BÀtKm¬ F¶n-hb - psS Ce-
(Subshells) D­v. Cu D] DuÀP-\n-eI - f Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xn- ]«nI 1.1 ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡q.
- nÂ
Ce- I v t {Sm- W p- I Ä ImW- s ¸- S p- h m³
km[yX IqSnb taJ-e-IÄ D­v. Ch aqeIw sjÃp-IÄ
HmÀ_n-äepIÄ (Orbitals) F¶mWv Adn- K L M
b-s¸-Sp-¶X - .v Hcp HmÀ_n-äe - n DÄs¡m- 11
Na ......... ......... .........
Åm-hp¶ ]c-am-h[n Ce-Itv {Sm-Wp-If - psS Ar ......... ......... .........
18
F®w 2 BWv. s k_vsj-Ãn C¯-c-
]«nI 1.1
¯n Hcp HmÀ_n-ä am{Xsa DÅp. $ BÀtKmWnsâ _mly-X-a-sj-Ãmb Mþ F{X
CXn\v tKmfm-Ir-Xn-bm-Wv.
Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fmWv DÅXv?
p k_vsjÃn 3 HmÀ_n-äepIÄ D­m-
bn-cn-¡pw. CXn\v Uws_-Ãnsâ BIr-
Xn-bm-Wv DÅ-Xv. d k_vsjÃpIfn 5 $ M sjÃn\v C\nbpw F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ IqSn
HmÀ_n- ä - e p- I - f pw, f k_v s jÃn 7 DÄs¡m-Åphm³ Ignbpw?
HmÀ_n-ä-ep-Ifpw D­v. Cu HmÀ_n-ä-ep-
I-fpsS BIrXn k¦oÀW-am-Wv.
BÀtKm-Wnsâ ASp¯ aqe-I-amb s]m«m-ky-¯nÂ
(19K) BÀtKm-Wn-s\-¡mÄ Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm-WmWv IqSp-
X-ep-Å-Xv. s]m«m-ky-¯nsâ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw
2, 8, 8, 1 BWv. aq¶m-as¯ sjÃn\v C\nbpw ]¯v
Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ IqSn DÄs¡m-Åm-\pÅ tijn Ds­-
¶n-cns¡, F´p-sIm-­m-bn-cn¡mw s]m«m-ky-¯nse
Ah-km-\s¯ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ aq¶m-as¯ sjÃn \nd-
bmsX, 4þmas¯ sjÃn t]mbXv?
Bäw LS-\-bp-ambn _Ô-s¸« XpSÀ]T-\-§-fnÂ
s k_vsj C¡m-cy-§Ä¡v hni-Zo-I-cWw \ÂIp¶ \nb-a-§fpw
\nK-a-\-§fpw imkv{X-ÚÀ cq]o-I-cn-¨n-«p-­v. CXp-
{]-Imcw K, L, M, N F¶o Hmtcmtcm sjÃp-I-sfbpw
p k_vsj {][m\ DuÀP\ne-I-fmbn (Principal energy level)
8
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

]cnK-Wn-¡p-Ibpw Ch-bn D] DuÀP-\n-e-IÄ AYhm k_vsj-Ãp-

IÄ (Subshells) D­v F¶ \nK-a-\-¯n F¯n-t¨-cp-Ibpw sNbvXn-cn-
¡p-¶p. K HgnsI-bpÅ FÃm {][m\ DuÀP-\n-e-I-fnepw H¶n-e-[nIw
k_v-sjÃp-IÄ D­v. K þ Â C¯-c-¯n-epÅ Hcp DuÀP-\ne am{Xsa
IT @ School Edubuntu
DÅp. k_v-sj-Ãp-Isf s, p, d, f F¶n§-s\-bmWv \ma-I-cWw sNbvXn- hnse KALZIUM
cn-¡p-¶-Xv. tkm^vävshbÀ D]-tbm-
Kn¨v ]«nI 1.1 se
Hmtcm DuÀP- \ n- e bnepw AXnsâ {Ia- \ - ¼ - d n\v Xpey- a mb F®w {]hÀ¯\w icntbm
k_vsjÃp-I-fm-hpw D­m-bn-cn-¡p-I. F¶v ]cn-tim-[n-¡p-I.
$ H¶m-as¯ sj Bb K sjÃn 1, ASp¯ sj Bb L
sjÃn 2, F¶n-§-s\. M, N sjÃp-I-fnse k_vsj-Ãp-I-fpsS
F®w F{X hoX-am-bn-cn¡pw?
M = ............, N = ............
Hmtcm sjÃnsebpw k_vsj- Ã p- I Ä GsXm- s ¡- b m- s W¶v
]«nI 1.2 Â \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv {i²n-¡q.
sj \-¼À 1 2 3 4
k_vsj-Ãp-IÄ s s, p s, p, d s, p, d, f
]«nI 1.2
FÃm sjÃp-I-fnepapÅ s]mXp-hmb k_vsj GXmWv?

Hmtcm k_vsj-Ãpw GXv sjÃn-te-Xm-sW¶v F§s\ Xncn-¨-dn-bmw?

sjÃnsâ {Ia-\-¼À IqSn tNÀ¯mtem? DZm-l-c-W-¯n\v 1þmw sjÃnse
s k_vsjÃns\ kqNn-¸n-¡m-\mbn "1s', c­mw sjÃnse s k_vsj-
Ãns\ "2s' F¶n-§-s\.

]«nI 1.3 ]qÀ¯n-bm¡n t\m¡q.

sj \¼À 1 2 3 4

k_vsj-Â s s p s p d s p d f
k_vsj-Â

{]Xn-\n-[m\w 1s - - - 3p - - - 4d -
sN¿p-¶ -coXn

]«nI 1.3
k_vsj-Ãnse Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ ]qcWw
Hmtcm sjÃn-ep-apÅ k_vsj-Ãp-IÄ GsXm-s¡-bm-sW¶v ]«n-I-bnÂ

\n¶v \n§Ä Is­-¯n-btÃm?

Hmtcm sjÃnepw DÄs¡m-Åm-hp¶ ]c-am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS

F®w F{X-bm-sW¶pw \n§Ä¡-dn-bmw. F¦n Hmtcm k_vsj-Ãnepw

DÄs¡m-Åm-hp¶ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®w F{X hoX-am-bn-cn-¡pw?

9
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

Bä-¯nse H¶m-as¯ sjÃn s k_vsjÃpw c­m-as¯ sjÃnÂ

s, p F¶o k_vsjÃpIfpw aq¶m-as¯ sjÃn s, p, d F¶o
k_vsjÃp-Ifpw \mem-as¯ sjÃn s, p, d, f F¶o k_vsj-Ãp-
Ifpw D­m-bn-cn-¡pw. Hmtcm k_vsj-Ãnepw DÄs¡m-Åm-hp¶ ]c-
am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®w s-Â 2, p-Â 6, d-Â 10, f-Â 14
F¶n-§-s\-bm-Wv.
BZys¯ 4 sjÃp-I-fnse ]c-am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®w X¶n-
cn-¡p-¶p. Hmtcm-¶n-ep-apÄs¸-Sp¶ k_vsj-Ãp-If
- nse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-If
- psS
F®w Is­¯n Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ ]«nI 1.4 ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡q.
sj \¼À 1 2 3 4
k_vsj-Â 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f
Hmtcm k_v s jÃnepw
DÄs¡mÅmhp¶ CeIvt{Sm- 2 2
WpI-fpsS F®w.
sjÃp- I - f n DÄs¡mÅm-
hp¶ ]camh[n CeIvt{Sm- 2 8 18 32
Wp-I-fpsS F®w. -
]«nI 1.4
Bä-¯nse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ k_vsj-ÃpIfn hn\y-
kn-¡-s¸-Sp-t¼mÄ DuÀPw Ipdª k_vsj-Ãn \n¶v
IqSn-b-Xn-te¡v {Ia-ambn \nd-bp-¶p. CXns\ k_vsjÂ
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw
F¶mWv ]d-bp-¶-Xv.
(Subshell electronic configuration)

hnhn[ k_vsj-Ãp-If- psS DuÀPw IqSnh- c- p¶ {Iaw I­p-

]n- S n- ¡ p- h m³ Nn{Xw \n§sf klm- b n¡pw.
A¼-S-bm-f-¯nsâ Zni {i²n-¡p-atÃm?
1.1

DuÀPw IqSn-h-cp¶ {Ia¯n k_vsj-Ãp-IÄ Fgp-Xq.

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < ....... < ....... < ....... < .......
C\n k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xp¶ coXn
]cn-N-b-s¸-Smw.
enXn-b-¯nsâ sâ k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬
hn\ymkw FgpXp¶-sX-§-s\-sb¶v t\m¡q.
( 3Li)

$ enXn-b-¯nsâ Atäm-anI \¼À F{X-bm-Wv?

Nn{Xw 1.1
10
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

Hcm-ä-¯nse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®hpw Atäm-anI \¼dpw H¶p-X-

s¶-bm-bn-cn-¡p-atÃm. DuÀPw IqSn hcp¶ {Ia-a-\p-k-cn¨v 1s epw
2s epamWv Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ ]qcWw \S-¡p-¶-Xv. CXns\ 1s2 2s1 F¶v
tcJ- s ¸- S p- ¯ mw. CXmWv enXn-b-¯nsâ k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬
hn\ymkw.
k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-k-sa-gp-Xpt¼mÄ k_vsj-Ãp-I-fpsS CS-
Xp-h-i¯p tNÀ¡p¶ kwJy sj \¼-dn-s\bpw he-Xp-h-i¯v apI-
fnse kwJy Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®-s¯bpw kqNn-¸n-¡p-¶p.
enXn- b - ¯ nsâ Ce- I v t {Sm¬ hn\ym- k s¯ "h¬ Fkv Sp'
"Sq Fkv h¬' (1s2 2s1)F¶mWv hmbn-t¡-­-Xv.
\ÂInbn-«pÅ aqe-I-§-fpsS k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw FgpXn
]«nI 1.5 ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡q.
aqeIw Ce-Itv {Sm-Wp-If
- psS k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw
F®w
7
N 7 1s2 2s2 2p3 IT @ School Edubuntu
hnse KALZIUM
9
F 9 1s......... 2s......... 2p......... tkm^vävshbÀ D]-tbm-
Kn¨v ]«nI 1.5 se
11
Na - - {]hÀ¯\w icntbm
Cl - -
F¶v ]cn-tim-[n-¡p-I.
17

18
Ar - -

]«nI 1.5
$ s]m«m-ky¯nsâ (19K) k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw FgpXn
t\m¡q.

$ sj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-ktam?

4p
k_vsj-Ãp-Ifpw Ah-bpsS DuÀPhpw X½n _Ô-s¸-Sp-
3d
DuÀPw →

¯nb {Km^v (Nn{Xw 1.2) {i²n-¡q. 4s

3p
$ 1s, 2s F¶o k_vsj-Ãp-If
- psS DuÀPw Xmc-Xayw sN¿q.
3s
GXn-\mWv DuÀPw Ipdhv?
2p

2s
1s
$ 3s, 3p F¶o k_vsj-Ãp-I-fn DuÀPw IqSp-X GXn-
\m-Wv? 3d bpw 4s Dw X½ntem?
K L M N
Nn{Xw 1.2
k_vsj-Ãp-I-fpsS DuÀP-¯nsâ ASn-Øm-\-¯n ]cn-tim-[n-¨mÂ
s]m«m-ky-¯n M sjÃn 8 Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ \nd-ª-Xn-\p-ti-j-apÅ
Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ N sjÃnte¡v t]mbXv F´p-sIm-­m-sW¶v a\-Ên-
em-Ip-¶ntÃ? 3d sb¡mÄ DuÀPw Ipdhv 4s \v Bb-XpsIm-­tÃ?
11
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

$ kvIm³Un-b-¯nsâ (21Sc) Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw 2, 8, 9, 2 F¶m-WtÃm.

CXnsâ k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw F§s\ Fgp-Xmw?

ChnsS Sc sâ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ ]qcWw \S-¡p-¶Xv 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1
F¶ {Ia-¯n-emWv. F¶m CXv tcJ-s¸-Sp-t¯-­Xv 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2
F¶mbncn-¡-Ww; AXm-bXv sj {Ia-¯nÂ.
DuÀP{Ia-a-\p-k-cn¨v 4s Ign-ªm ASp¯ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ \nd-bp-¶Xv 3d bnÂ
BWv. AXp-sIm-­m-WtÃm Sc sâ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw 2, 8, 9, 2 BIp-
¶Xv.
$ XpSÀ¶p-h-cp¶ 22
Ti, 23V F¶o aqe-I-§-fpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw
Fgp-Xn-t\m-¡q.

k_v s j Ce- I v t {Sm¬ hn\ymkw tcJ- s ¸- S p- ¯ p¶ asämcp coXn- I qSn

]cn-N-b-s¸-Smw.
Atäm-anI \¼À IqSnb aqe-I-§-fpsS k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw
Fgp-Xp-t¼mÄ, B aqe-I¯
- n\v sXm«p-ap-¼pÅ DÂIrjvS aqe-I¯
- nsâ {]XoIw
{_mbv¡-än ImWn-¨v, XpSÀ¶pÅ k_vsj hn\ymkw am{Xw Fgp-XnbmÂ
aXn-bm-Ipw.
DZmlc-W-¯n\v s]m«m-ky-¯nsâ (19K) Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
3p6 4s1 F¶m-Wv. CXnsâ sXm«p-ap-¼pÅ DÂIrjvS aqe-I-amb BÀtKmWnsâ
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 BWtÃm? AXp-sIm­v BÀtKm-
Wnsâ {]XoIw tNÀ¯v [Ar] 4s1 F¶v Fgp-Xmw. AXp-t]mse tkmUn-b¯ - n\v
[Ne] 3s F¶pw.
1

C{]-Imcw aqe-I§
- f
- psS k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xn- ]«nI 1.6
]qÀ¯nbm¡q.
aqeIw k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw
21
Sc [Ar] 3d1 4s2

20
Ca ................

12
Mg ................

27
Co ................
IT @ School
Edubuntu hnse ]«nI 1.6
KALZIUM t{Imanb¯nsâbpw (Cr) tIm¸dnsâbpw (Cu) Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-
tkm^vävshbÀ k-¯nse {]tXyIX
D]-tbm-Kn¨v
hyàX
hcp¯q. $ Cr sâ k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xq.
24

12
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

$ Cr sâ Ønc- X - b pÅ k_v s j Ce- I v t {Sm¬ hn\ymkw

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 F¶m-Wv.
CXn\v ImcWw NphsS t_mIvkn \ÂIn-bn-«pÅ hnh-c-§Ä hni-I-
e\w sNbvXv Is­¯q.

d k_vsj-Ãn\v ]c-am-h[n 10 Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ DÄs¡m-Åp-hm³

Ign-bpw. Cu k_vsj ]qÀW-ambn \nd-ªn-cn-¡p-¶tXm (d10)
]IpXn am{Xw \nd-ªn-cn-¡p-¶tXm (d5) Bb {Iao-I-c-W-§Ä aäp-
Å-h-sb-¡mÄ ØncX IqSn-b-h-bm-Wv. CXnsâ ASn-Øm-\-¯nÂ
d4 s2, d9 s2 Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ {Iao-Ic
- W
- w- htc­ Bä-§f
- n Ce-Ivt{Sm¬
]qc-W-¯n Nne amä-§Ä D­m-bn-cn-¡pw. CXp-t]mse f k_vsj-
Ãn f7, f14 {IaoI-c-W-§fpw IqSp-X Ønc-X-bp-Å-XmWv.

CtX coXn-bn Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ 29

Cu sâ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬
hn\ymk§fn icnbmbXv Is­-¯q.
• 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 4s2
• 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

t{Iman-bw, tIm¸À F¶o Bä-§-fpsS k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬

hn\ym-k-§-fn d k_vsj-Ãn\v ]IpXn \nd-ªtXm ]qÀW-ambn
\nd-ªn-cn-¡p-¶tXm Bb Ah-Ø-bmWv ØncX IqSp-XÂ {]I-S-
am-¡p-¶-Xv.

o Hcmä-¯nsâ k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

F¶mWv. F¦n Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶h
- bv¡v D¯cw Is­¯q.
$ Cu Bä-¯n F{X sjÃp-IÄ D­v?
$ Hmtcm sjÃn-sebpw k_v-sj-Ãp-IÄ GsXÃmw?
$ Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ ]qcWw \S-¶Xv GXv k_vsj-Ãn-emWv?
$ Bä-¯nse BsI Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®-sa{X?
$ Atäm-anI \¼À F{X-bmWv?
$ k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw F§s\ Npcp¡n FgpXmw?
k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-khpw t»m¡pw IT @ School Edubuntu
hnse KALZIUM
aqe-I-§-fpsS k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-k-¯nsâ ASn-Øm-\- tkm^vävshbÀ D]-tbm-
¯n tamtU¬ ]ocn-tbm-UnIvtS_n-fn Ahsb s, p, d, f F¶n- Kn¨v IqSp-X hyàX
§s\ hnhn[ t»m¡p-I-fn-embn {Iao-I-cn-¨n-«p-­v. hcp¯q.

13
 ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X
C¯-c-¯n tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯nb ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fmWv Nn{Xw 1.3 Â
\ÂInbn-cn-¡p-¶-Xv. CXv hni-I-e\w sNbvXv ]«n-I- 1.7 ]qÀ¯n-bm¡q.
s-t»m¡v p-t»m¡v
1

2 13 14 15 16 17
d-t»m¡v

f-t»m¡v

em³Y-t\m-bn-Up-IÄ

BIvän-t\m-bn-Up-IÄ

Nn{Xw 1.3
aqeIw Atäm-anI k_vsj Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ t»m¡v
\¼À Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw ]qcWw\S¶
k_vsjÂ
3
Li ........ ........ ........ ........
12
Mg ........ ........ ........ ........
7
N ........ ........ ........ ........
21
Sc ........ ........ ........ ........

]«nI 1.7
$ enXn-b¯
- n Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬]qcWw \S-¶Xv GXv k_vsj-
Ãn-em-Wv?

IT @ School $ ss\{S-P-\n Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬]qcWw \S-¶tXm?

Edubuntu hnse
KALZIUM
tkm^vävshbÀ D]-tbm- $ Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬]qcWw \S¶ k_vsjÃpw B aqeIw
Kn¨v ]«nI 1.7 se DÄs¸« t»m¡pw X½n-epÅ _Ô-sa-´mWv?
{]hÀ¯\w icntbm
F¶v ]cn-tim-[n-¡p-I.
$ Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ aqe-I-§-fpsS k_vsj {Ia-¯n-epÅ
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-k-sa-gpXn t»m¡v Is­-¯q.
a. 4
Be
b. 26
Fe
c. 18
Ar
14
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬]qcWw \S-¡p-¶Xv GXv k_vsj-Ãne- mtWm

AXm-bnc- n¡pw B aqeIw DÄs¸-Sp¶ t»m¡v. ]ocnt- bm-UnIv tS_n-
fn 1, 2 {Kq¸p-If- n DÄs¸« aqe-I§ - sf s t»m¡nepw, 13 apXÂ
18 hsc {Kq¸p-I-fnepÅhsb p t»m¡nepw 3 apXÂ 12 hsc
{Kq¸p-IfnepÅhsb d t»m¡nepw DÄs¸-Sp-¯n-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. f
t»m¡paqe-I§ - sf ]ocnt- bm-UnIv tS_nf- n NphsS c­v {]tXyI
\nc-If- n-em-bmWv {Iao-Ic- n-¨n-cn-¡p-¶X- v.
k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-k¯ - nsâ ASn-Øm-\¯ - n ]ocnbUv, {Kq¸v
F¶nh Is­-¯mw
aqe-I§
- f
- psS sj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-k¯
- nsâ ASn-Øm-\¯
- n ]ocnbUv
\¼À Is­-¯p-hm³ \n§Ä¡-dn-bm-a-tÃm? k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-
k-¯n \n¶v F§s\ ]ocnbUv Is­-¯msa¶v t\m¡mw. ]«nI 1.8
]qÀ¯n-bm-¡q.
aqeIw k_vsj k_vsj hn\ymk¯nse ]ocnbUv
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ Gähpw IqSnb sj \¼À
hn\ymkw \¼À
4
Be 1s2 2s2 2 2

6
C 1s 2s 2p
2 2 2
2 2

11
Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 3 -

19
K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 - -
]«nI 1.8
k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-k-¯nse Gähpw IqSnb sj -\¼À
Xs¶-bmWv ]ocnbUv \¼À.

s t»m¡paqe-I-§-fpsS {Kq¸p\¼À

k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-k-¯nsâ ASn-Øm-\-¯n aqe-I-§-fpsS

{Kq¸p\¼À Is­-¯p-hm³ Ign-bpw. Nne aqe-I-§Ä ]«n-I- 1.9  \ÂIn-bn-
cn-¡p-¶p.
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnsâ (Nn{Xw 1.4) klm-b-t¯m-Sp-IqSn ]«nI ]qÀ¯n-
bm-¡q.

aqeIw k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ t»m¡v {Kq¸p

hn\ymkw \¼À
Li 1s2 2s1 - -
Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 s 1
Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 - 2
Ca 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s
2 2 6 2 6 2 - -

]«nI 1.9 15
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

Nn{Xw 1.4

16
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

$ ]«nI 1.9 Â GXv k_vsj-Ãn-emWv FÃm aqeI-§-fp-sSbpw Ah-km\

Ce-Ivt{Sm¬]qcWw \S-¡p-¶Xv?

$ Cu aqe-I-§Ä GXv t»m¡n DÄs¸-Sp¶p?

IT @ School
Edubuntu hnse
KALZIUM
$ Ch-sbÃmw Htc{Kq¸n hcp¶ aqe-I-§Ä BtWm?
tkm^vävshbÀ
D]-tbm-Kn¨v ]ocn-
tbm-UnIv tS_n-
$ s t»m¡v aqe-I§fpsS _mly k_vsj-Ãnse Ce-Ivt{Sm-WpI-fpsS F®w fnse IqSp-XÂ
Ah-bpsS {Kq¸p\¼dpambn F§s\ _Ôn-¸n-¡mw? Imcy-§Ä ]cn-
tim-[n-¡p-I.
s t»m¡paqe-I-§-fpsS _mly s k_vsj-Ãnse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS
F®-am-bn-cn¡pw {Kq¸p\¼À.

1 Dw 2 Dw {Kq¸paqe-I§
- Ä BWv s t»m¡n DÄs¸-Sp-¶s
- X¶v hyà-am-Wt
- Ãm.
Cu {Kq¸paqe-I-§-fpsS Nne khn-ti-j-X-IÄ \n§Ä ]cn-N-b-s¸-«n-«p-­v.

$ 1þmw {Kq¸paqe-I-§Ä s]mXpsh GXv t]cn Adn-b-s¸-Sp¶p?

$ 2þmw {Kq¸paqe-I§tfm?

$ s t»m¡paqe-I-§Ä cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n GÀs¸-Sp-t¼mÄ Ce-Ivt{Sm-

Wp-Isf hn«p-sIm-Sp-¡p-IbmtWm kzoI-cn-¡p-IbmtWm sN¿p-¶Xv?

$ Cu aqe-I-§Ä "+' HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hØ t\Sp-hm³ Imc-W-sa-´m-bn-cn¡pw?

B¡en teml-§Ä cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n GÀs¸-Sp-t¼mÄ +1 HmIvko-

I-c-Wm-hØbpw B¡-sse³ FÀ¯v teml-§Ä +2 HmIvko-I-c-Wm-
hØbpw t\Sp-¶p. Ch \nÝnX HmIvko-I-c-Wm-h-Ø am{Xta ImWn-¡p-
¶p-Åq.

Ch-bpsS HmIvssk-Up-IÄ¡pw sslt{Um-Ivssk-Up-IÄ¡pw BknUv kz`m-

h-am-tWm, t_knIv kz`m-h-amtWm DÅ-Xv? \ap¡v ]cn-tim-[n¨v t\m¡mw.

$ Mg dn_¬ I¯p-t¼mÄ MgO e`n-¡p-atÃm? s t»m¡p- aq-e-I-§-fpsS

GsXms¡ HmIv s sk- U p- I fpw sslt{Um- I v s sk- U p- I fpw \n§- f psS
kb³kv em_n e`y-am-Wv?

17
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

$ NaOH, KOH F¶n-h-bpsS kz`mhw enävakv sSÌv \S¯n \nKa\w

tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯q.

s t»m¡paqe-I§
- fpsS Nne {]tXy-IX
- I
- Ä \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv {i²n¡q.
$ Xmgv¶ Atbm-Wo-I-cW DuÀPw.
$ Xmgv¶ Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-K-än-hnän.
$ temlkz`m-h-ap-Åh.
$ cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w \S-¡p-t¼mÄ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf \jvSs
- ¸-Sp-¯p¶p.
$ kwbp-à-§Ä an¡Xpw Atbm-WnI kwbp-à-§fmWv.
$ s t»m¡n Hmtcm ]ocn-b-Unepw 1þmw {Kq¸paqe-I-§Ä¡mWv {Inbm-
ioew (Reactivity) IqSp-XÂ.
$ HmIv s sk- U p- I Ä¡pw sslt{Um- I v s sk- U p- I Ä¡pw t_knIv
kz`mhw BWp-Å-Xv.
$ ]ocn-b-Un Gähpw IqSnb Atäm-anI Bcw.
$ {Inbm-ioew {Kq¸n Xmtg¡v hÀ[n-¨p- h-cp-¶p.
p t»m¡nse aqe-I§fpsS {Kq¸p\¼À

$ GsXÃmw {Kq¸p-I-fmWv p t»m¡n DÄs¸-«n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv?

p t»m¡nse Nne aqe-I-§Ä DÄs¸« ]«nI 1.10 ]cn-tim-[n-¡q.

aqeIw k_vsj {Kq¸p

Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw \¼À
6
C 1s2 2s2 2p2 14

13
Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 13

17
Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 17
]«nI 1.10
$ _mly-X-a-sj-Ãnse s, p k_vsjÃp-I-fnse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS
F®w ]«n-Ib- n \n¶v Is­-¯m-atÃm? Cu F®hpw {Kq¸p\¼dpw
X½n-epÅ _Ô-sa-´mWv?

13 apX 18 hsc {Kq¸n DÄs¸-Sp¶ aqe-I-§-fmWv p t»m¡nÂ

DÅXv. p t»m¡nse aqe-I-§fpsS _mly s, p k_vsjÃp-I-fnse
BsI Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®-t¯m-sSm¸w 10 Iq«p-¶-Xn\v Xpey-
am-bn-cn-¡pw {Kq¸p\¼À.

18
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

p t»m¡v aqe-I-§-fpsS {]tXy-I-X-IÄ

p t»m¡v aqe-I-§fpsS _mly-X-a-sj Bb p bn 1 apX 6 hsc

Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ AS-§n-bn-cn-¡pw.

km[m-cW Xm]-\n-e-bn p t»m¡paqe-I-§fn Jcw, {Zmh-Iw, hmXIw

F¶o Ah-Ø-I-fn-epÅ aqe-I-§Ä DÄs¸-Sp-¶p. ICT bpsS klm-b-
t¯msS Chsb `uXnImh-Ø-bpsS ASn-Øm-\-¯n ]«n-I-s¸-Sp-¯q.
AhØ aqe-I-§Ä
Jcw
{ZmhIw
hmXIw
]«nI 1.11
teml-§fpw Atem-l-§fpw Ch-bn DÄs¸-Sp-¶n-tÃ?
$ 10
Ne, 18Ar F¶n-h-bpsS k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw FgpXn
t\m¡q.

18þmw {Kq¸paqe-I-§Ä aäp p t»m¡paqe-I-§-fn \n¶v F§-s\-bmWv

hyXy-kvX-am-bncn¡p-¶sX¶v Ah-bpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-k-¯n-sâ-
bpw, {Inbm-io-e-X-bp-sSbpw ASn-Øm-\-¯n hni-I-e\w sNbvXv Ipdn¸v
Xbm-dm-¡q.

$ p t»m¡paqe-I-§-fn Hmtcm ]ocn-b-Unepw {Inbm-io-eX Gähpw

IqSn-bh 17þmw {Kq¸nse aqe-I-§-fmWv. Bä-¯nsâ hep¸w, Ce-
Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw F¶n-hb
- psS ASn-Øm-\¯
- n CXnsâ ImcWw
Is­-¯n Fgp-Xq.

17-þmw {Kq¸n Gähpw {Inbm-io-e-X-bpÅ aqeIw ^vfqdn³ (F) BWv.

p t»m¡paqe- I - § - f nÂ, t]mkn- ä ohv (+) HmIv k o- I - c - W m- h - Ø bpw
s\K-äohv ( − ) HmIvko-I-c-Wm-h-Øbpw ImWn-¡p-¶- aqe-I-§fp-­v. Al3+,
Sn2+, Pb2+, Cl–, F–, O2– F¶nh DZm-l-c-W-§-fm-Wv.

p t»m¡paqe-I§
- fpsS AtbmWoI-cW DuÀPw, Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-Kä
- n-hn-än,
temlob kz`m-hw, HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hØ F¶n-h- Hmtcm-{Kq-¸nepw,
]ocnbUnepw F§-s\-bm-bn-cn-¡p-sa¶v Hcp Ipdn¸v Xbm-dm-¡p.
$ Hcp aqe-I¯
- nsâ Atäm-anI \¼À 16 BWv. Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn¡p¶h
Is­¯q.
o k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw :
o {Kq¸v :

19
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

]ocnbUv
o :
o t»m¡v :
$ Hcp aqe-I-¯nsâ _mly-Xa Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw 3s 3p BWv. 2 5

CXn \n¶v aqe-Is¯ kw_-Ôn¨ Fs´Ãmw hnh-c-§Ä e`n-¡pw?

o ]qÀW k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw :
o Atäm-anI \¼À :
o ]ocnbUv \¼À :
o teml-amtWm/Atem-l-amtWm? :
o hme³kn :
d t»m¡paqe-I§fpsS {Kq¸p\¼À

$ ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn d t»m¡v aqe-I-§-fpsS Øm\w Fhn-sS-

bmWv?

$ GXv ]ocnbUv apX-emWv d t»m¡v XpS-§p-¶-Xv?

dt»m¡nse Nne aqe-I-§-fpsS k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw
\ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶ ]«nI 1.12 {i²n-¡q.
aqeIw k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw {Kq¸p\¼À

21
Sc 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2 3

26
Fe 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2 8

24
Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 6
]«nI 1.12
d t»m¡v aqe-I-§-fpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-k-¯nsâ ASn-Øm-\-¯nÂ
Ah-bpsS {Kq¸p\¼-dp-IÄ Is­-¯p-hm³ km[n-¡p-¶n-tÃ?

d t»m¡paqe-I-§-fpsS _mly s k_vsj-Ãnse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS

F®hpw sXm«p-- ap-¼pÅ d k_vsj-Ãnse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-If
- psS F®hpw
Iq«p-¶-Xn\v Xpey-am-bn-cn¡pw {Kq¸p\¼À.

d t»m¡v aqe-I-§fpsS {]tXy-I-X-IÄ

Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-k-¯n Ah-km\ CeIvt{Sm¬]qcWw d k_vsj-

Ãn \S-¡p-¶-h-bmWv d t»m¡paqe-I-§-sf¶v \n§Ä Xncn-¨-dn-ªn-
«p­v. Ch kw{I-aW aqe-I-§Ä (Transition elements) F¶pw Adn-b-
s¸-Sp-¶p­tÃm.

20
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶- {]kvXm-h-\-I-fn d t»m¡paqe-I-§Ä¡v tbmPn-

¡p-¶hbv¡v "ü' AS-bmfw \ÂIq.

Ch teml-§-fm-Wv.

Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm-¬ ]qcWw \S-¡p-¶Xv _mly-XasjÃn\v sXm«p-

ap-¼pÅ sjÃn-em-Wv.

4þmw ]ocnbUnse C¯cw aqe-I-§-fpsS Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬

]qcWw \S-¡p-¶Xv 4s  BWv.

Ch ]ocntbm-UnIv tS_n-fnse 3 apX 12 hsc {Kq¸p-I-fn ImW-s¸-

Sp-¶p.

{]mXn-\n-[y-aq-e-I-§Ä {Kq¸n kmZriyw ImWn-¡p-¶p-sh¶v \n§Ä a\-

Ên-em-¡n-bn-«p-­-tÃm. Ch s, p t»m¡n DÄs¸Sp-¶-h-btÃ? Ch-bnÂ
Htc {Kq¸n DÄs¸« aqe-I-§-fpsS _mly-X-a-sj-Ãnse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-
fpsS F®w Hcp-t]mse Bb-Xp-sIm-­m-WtÃm C§s\ kw`-hn-¨-Xv.

4þmw ]ocn-bUnse d t»m¡paqe-I-§-fpsS 3d, 4s k_vsjÃpIfnse Ce-

Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fmWv ]«n-I- 1.13 Â \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶-Xv.

CXv hni-Ie
- \w sNbvXv kw{I-aW aqe-I§
- Ä ]ocnbUn kmZriyw ImWn-
¡p-tam-sb¶v ]cn-tim-[n-¡q.

{Kq¸p\¼À 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw 3d14s2 3d24s2 3d34s2 3d54s1 3d54s2 3d64s2 3d74s2 3d84s2 3d104s1 3d104s2
]«nI 1.13
kw{I-aWaqe-I-§-fpsS _mly Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Htc {Kq¸nepw
]ocn-bUnepw km[m-cW Hcp-t]m-se-bm-Wv. AXp-sIm­v Ch {Kq¸nÂ
am{Xaà ]ocnbUnepw KpW-§-fn kmZriyw ImWn-¡p-¶p.
d t»m¡v aqe-I-§-fpsS HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hØ

cmk-_-Ô-\-¯n GÀs¸-Sp¶ Bä-§Ä hn«p-sIm-Sp-¡p-Itbm kzoI-cn-¡p-

Itbm ]¦p-hb- v¡p-Itbm sN¿p¶ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-If- psS F®-amWv hme³kn
F¶v \n§Ä¡-dn-bm-at- Ãm. HmIvko-Ic- W
- m-hØ
- sb¡pdn¨pw \n§Ä¡v [mc-
W-bp-­v.
Ab-Wnsâ (Fe) c­v t¢mssdUpI-fpsS t]cpw cmk-kq-{Xhpw Fgp-Xn-bncn-
¡p-¶Xv {i²n-¡q.

o s^dkv t¢mssdUv þ FeCl2

o s^dnIv t¢mssdUv þ FeCl3
t¢mdn\v (–1) HmIvko-I-c-Wm-h-Ø-bm-W-tÃm.

Cu kwbp-à-§fnse Fe bpsS HmIvko-I-c-Wm-h-Ø-IÄ Is­-¯n ]«nI

1.14 ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡q.

21
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

kwbpàw Fe bpsS Fe bpsS AtbmWp-I-fpsS

HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hØ k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw
FeCl2

FeCl3
]«nI 1.14
d t»m¡paqe-I-§-Ä cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n ]s¦-Sp-¡p-t¼mÄ _mlyXa-
sj- Ã nse Ce- I v t {Sm- W p- I - t fm- s Sm¸w _mly- X - a - s j- Ã n\v sXm«p- a p- ¼ pÅ
sjÃnse d Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Ifpw ]s¦-Sp-¡p-¶p. Ce-Ivt{Sm¬]qcWw \S-¡p¶
{Ia-¯n-eà d t»m¡paqe-I§ - fpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ \jvSs
- ¸-Sp-¶Xv. AXm-
bXv _mly-Xa sjÃnse s k_vsj-Ãn \n¶mWv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ BZyw
\jvS-s¸-Sp-¶-Xv.

26
Fe sâ k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw {i²n-¡q.

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2

$ Fe F§-s\-bmWv Fe2+ Bbn amdn-bXv?

$ Fe2+ sâ k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xn-t\m-¡q.

FeCl3 bn Ab-Wn\v aq¶v Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ \jvS-s¸-«v Fe3+ Atbm¬ D­m-

Ip-¶p. kw{I-aW aqe-I-§-fpsS _mly s k_vsjÃn-sâbpw sXm«v DÅnse
d k_vsjÃn-sâbpw DuÀP-¯n t\cnb hyXymkw am{X-ta-bp-Åq.

$ F¦n Ab-Wn\v \jvSs

- ¸-Sp¶ aq¶m-as¯ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ GXv k_vsj-
Ãn \n¶m-bn-cn-¡pw?

$ CXnsâ ASn-Øm-\¯n Fe3+ sâ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xq.

Atäm-anI \¼À 25 Bb aqe-I-amWv amwK-\okv (Mn). CXnsâ hnhn[

kwbp-à-§-fmWv MnCl2, MnO2, Mn2O3, Mn2O7. Chbn Hmtcm-¶n-epw
amwK-\o-knsâ HmIvko-I-c-Wm-h-Øbpw AXnsâ k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬
hn\ym-khpw FgpXn ]«n-I 1.15 ]qÀ¯n-bm¡q.

kwbpàw Mn sâ k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬

HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hØ hn\ymkw
MnCl 2 - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5
MnO 2 +4 -
Mn 2 O 3 - -
Mn 2 O 7 - -

22 ]«nI 1.15
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

s, p t»m¡p-I-fnse aqe-I-§Ä cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-

¯n GÀs¸Sp-t¼mÄ _mly-X-a-sj-Ãnse Ce-
kw{I-aW - a- q-eI- § - fpsS
Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fmWv ]s¦-Sp-¡p-¶-Xv. F¶m kw{I-
aW aqe-I-§-fpsS _mly-sj-Ãnse s k_v sjÃn- DÂt{]-cI- kz`mhw
sâbpw sXm«v B´-cnIsjÃnse d k_vsjÃn- kzbw cmk-am-ä¯ - n\v hnt[-ba- m-ImsX
sâbpw DuÀP§Ä X½n henb hyXymkw CÃm- cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-Xsb kzm[o-\n-
¯-Xn-\m A\p-tbm-Py-amb kml-N-cy-¯n d ¡m³ Ign- b p¶ ]ZmÀY- § - f mWv
k_vsjÃnse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ IqSn cmk-{]-hÀ¯- DÂt{]-cI- §Ä (Catalysts). km[m-cW - -
\-¯n ]s¦-Sp-¡pw. AXp-sIm-­mWv kw{I-a-W-aq- ambn kw{I-aW - a- q-eI- §- fpw Ah-bpsS
e-I-§Ä hyXykvX HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hØ ImWn-¡p- kwbp-à-§fpw DÂt{]-c-I-§-fmbn
¶-Xv. [mcmfw D]- t bm- K n- ¡ s¸Sp- ¶ p- ­ v .
\nd-apÅ kwbp-à-§Ä k¼À¡- { ]- { In- b - b n ht\- U nbw
kw{I-aWaqe-I-§-fpsS Nne kwbp-à-§sf enÌp s]tâm- I v s skUv (V O ), tl_À
{]{In-bb- n kvt]m©o Ab¬, kky-
2 5

sNbvXncn-¡p-¶Xv {i²n-¡q. F-®-I-fpsS sslt{Um-P-t\-j³ hgn

$ tIm¸À kÄt^äv h\-kv]X- n-bpsS \nÀam-W¯ - n \n¡Â
$ tIm_mÄ«v ss\t{Säv (Ni) F¶nh Nne DZm-l-c-W-§-fm-Wv.
$ s]m«mkyw s]Àam-wK-t\äv hyXykvX HmIvko-Ic- W - m-hØ ImWn-
$ s^dkv kÄt^äv ¡p¶ d t»m¡v aqeI§Ä¡v HmIvko-
$ Im-cn-bmbpw \ntcm-Ivko-Im-cn-bmbpw
kb³kv em_n- e`y-amb Cu kwbp-à-§Ä ]cn- Htc kabw {]hÀ¯n-¡p-hm³ Ign-bp-
- Ä Is­-¯q. \nda- pÅ IqSp-XÂ ¶-Xm-Wn-Xn\v Hcp Imc-Ww.
tim-[n¨v Ch-bpsS \nd§
kwbp-à-§Ä I­p-]n-Sn¨v enÌv hn]p-eo-I-cn-¡q.
\nd-apÅ ehW-§-fn an¡-hbpw kw{I-aWaqe-I-§-fpsS kwbp-à-§-
fm-Wv. Ah-bnse kw{I-aW
- a- q-eI- §
- f- psS Atbm-Wp-If- psS km¶n-[y-amWv
\nd-¯n\v Imc-Ww.
\ndw \ÂIp- h m- \ mbn kw{I- a - W - a q- e - I - § - f psS kwbp- à - § Ä D]-
tbmKs¸Sp¯p¶ kµÀ`-§Ä enÌv sN¿q.
$
$
f t»m¡paqe-I-§-fpsS {]tXy-I-X-IÄ
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn Xmsg c­v \nc-I-fnembn {Iao-I-cn-¨n-cn-¡p¶ aqe-
I-§-fmWv f t»m¡paqe-I-§Ä.
Ch-bn Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ ]qcWw \S-¡p-¶Xv _mly-Xa sjÃn\v DÅn-epÅ
sjÃn-sâbpw DÅn-ep-Å-Xn-em-Wv (Antepenultimate shell). H¶m-as¯ \nc-bn-
ep-Åh em³Y-t\m-bnUp-IÄ F¶pw c­m-as¯ \nc-bn {Iao-Ic- n-¨h BIvän-
t\m-bnUpIÄ F¶p-amWv Adn-b-s¸-Sp-¶-Xv. Ch 6, 7 ]ocn-b-Up-I-fn-embn
{Iao-I-cn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶p.
23
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X
Hmtcm \ncbnsebpw Hcp aqe-I-¯nsâ hoXw Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw
]«n-I-bn (1.16) \ÂIn-bncn-¡p¶Xv ]cn-tim-[n-¡q.
aqeIw k_vsj ]ocnbUv Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬
CeIvt{Sm¬ \¼À h¶p tNcp¶ \nd-bp¶ k_v
hn\ymkw sj sjÃnsâ t]cv

58
Ce [Xe]4f1 5d1 6s2 6 4 f

90
Th [Rn]5f1 6d1 7s2 7 5
]«nI 1.16
tIc-f¯
- nsâ [mXp-k¼
- ¯v
temI- s ¯- Ã m- b n- S ¯pw [mXp- ¡ - f psS
hn\ymkw Hcp-t]m-se-b-Ã. \½psS tIcfw
Nne {]tXyI [mXp-¡-fpsS k¼¶ tiJ-c-
¯m A\p-{K-lo-X-am-Wv. tamW-ssk-äv,
CÂa-ss\-äv, knÀt¡m¬, dqssSÂ, knÃn-a-
ss\äv XpS-§nb hnhn-[§ - f- mb [mXp-¡f- psS
Ie-h-d-bmWv tIc-f-¯nse Xoc-{]-tZ-is¯
aW tiJ-cw. \nXy-Po-hn-X-¯n hf-sc-
b-[nIw D]-tbm-K-apÅ ssSäm-\nbw Utbm-
IvsskUv (TiO2) D¸m-Z-\-¯nse Akw-
kvIrX hkvXp-hmWv CÂa-ss\-äv. {_oUÀ
\yq¢n-bÀ dnbm-Ivä-dp-I-fn D]-tbm-Kn-¡m-hp-
¶-sX¶v Icp-X-s¸-Sp¶ tXmdn-b-¯nsâ (Th)
Dd-hnSw tamW-sskäv F¶ [mXphm-Wv.
\ntbm-Un-anbw (Nd) temlw D¸m-Zn-¸n-¡p-
hm-\pÅ Akw-kvIrX hkvXphpw tamW-
sskäv Xs¶. iàn-tb-dn-bXpw `mc-an-Ãm-¯-
Xp-amb Im´-§Ä \nÀan-¡m³ C¶v hym]-
I-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-¡-s¸-Sp¶ teml-amWv
\ntbm-Un-an-bw. Dc-I-Ãp-IÄ (Flint stones)
\nÀan- ¡ m- \ m- h - i y- a mb kodnbw (Ce)
teml¯nsâ [mXphpw tamW-sskäv BWv.
Aaq-ey-amb Cu [mXp-ti-Jcw \mw th­-
hn[w {]tbm-P-\-s¸Sp-t¯-­-Xp-­v.
f
Ah- k m\ Ce- I v t {Sm¬ h¶p tNcp¶
k_vsj GXmWv?
em³Y-t\m-bnUpIÄ : . . . k_vsjÂ
BIvän-t\mbnUpIÄ : . . . k_vsjÂ
6þmw ]ocnbUn-epÄs¸« f t»m¡v aqe-I-§-fnÂ
4f epw 7þmw ]ocnbUn-epÄs¸« f t»m¡v aqe-I-
§-fn 5f epw BWtÃm Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ ]qcWw
\S-¶-Xv.
f t»m¡paqe-I§ - f- psS Nne {]tXy-IX- I- fpw D]-
tbm-K-§-fpw Np-hsS \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv {i²n-
¡q.
$ d t»m¡paqe-I-§sf t]mse ChbnÂ
an¡-hbpw hyXykvX HmIvko-I-c-Wm-h-Ø-
IÄ {]I-Sn-¸n-¡p-¶p.
$ BIvän-t\mbnUp-IÄ `qcn-`m-Khpw tdUntbm
BIvSohv aqe-I-§-fmWv. Ch ]eXpw
Ir{Xna aqe-I-§-fm-Wv.
$ bqtd-\nbw (U), tXmdnbw (Th), ¹qt«m-Wnbw
(Pu) XpS-§n-bh \yq¢n-bÀ dnbm-IvS-dp-I-fnÂ
CÔ-\-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶p.
$ Ch- b n ]eXpw DÂt{]- c - I - § - f mbn
s]t{Sm-fnbw hyh-km-b-¯n D]-tbm-Kn-
¡p-¶p.

24
 ck-X{¥w $ Ãmt‚¿Uv - X

{][m\ ]T-\-t\-´-ß-fn¬ s]Sp-∂h

$ B‰-Øn-\p-≈n¬ \yq¢n-b  - n\p Np‰p-ap≈ hnhn[ sj√p-If - n¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm-
Wp- I ƒ {Iao- I - c n- ® n- c n- ° p- ∂ p- s h∂pw Ch- b n¬ k_v s j- √ p- I ƒ
Ds≠∂pap≈ [mcW ssIh-cn®v ]´n-I-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂p.
$ sj√p-I-fn¬ k_vsj-√p-Iƒ Ds≠∂pw Ah-bpsS Du¿P-\n-e-bn¬
hyXym-k-ap-s≠∂pw a\- n-em°n aqe-I-ß-fpsS k_vsj¬ Ce-
Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xp-hm≥ Ign-bp-∂p.
$ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ ]qc-WØ - ns‚ ASn-ÿm-\Ø
- n¬ aqe-Iß
- f
- psS
]ocnbUv, {Kq∏v, tªm°v F∂nh Is≠-Øn FgpXp-∂p.
$ s, p, d, f tªm°p-I-fnse aqe-I-ß-fpsS khn-ti-j-X-Iƒ a\- n-em°n
Ch-bpsS {]tXy-I-X-Iƒ enÃv sNøp-∂p.

hne-bn-cpØmw
1. aq∂mw ]ocn-bUn-ep≈ s tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fn¬ GsX√mw k_vsj-√p-
Ifn¬ CeIvt{Sm¨ ]qcWw \S°pw? Cu ]ocnbUnse Ahkm\
aqeIØns‚ k_vsj¬ CeIvt{Sm¨ hn\ymksagpXpI.
2. Hcm- ‰ - Ø ns‚ Ah- k m\ Ce- I v t {Sm¨ ]qcWw 3d k_v s j√n¬
\S∂t∏mƒ B k_vsj√nse CeIvt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw 3d8 F∂v
tcJs∏SpØn. Cu B‰sØ kw_-‘n-°p∂ tNmZy-߃°v DØcw
Is≠-Øq.
$ ]q¿W k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw
$ At‰m-anI\º¿
$ tªm°v
$ ]ocnbUv\º¿
$ {Kq∏p\º¿
3. Xmsg- sIm-Sp-Øn-cn-°p∂ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-Øn¬ icn-
b-√mØh GsX√mw.
a) 1s2 2s2 2p7 b) 1s2 2s2 2p2
c) 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s1 d) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s1
e) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
4. {Kq∏p\º¿ 17 Bb X F∂ aqe-I-Øn\v 3 sj√p-Iƒ D≠v. F¶n¬
a) Cu aqe-I-Øns‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-IvtSm¨ hn\ymkw Fgp-XpI.
b) ]ocnbUv \º¿ F{X-bmWv?
c) p k_v sj√n¬ Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp≈ aq∂mw ]ocnbUnse Y

25
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

F¶ aqe-I-¯nsâ Bä-hp-ambn X {]hÀ¯n-¨m D­m-Ip¶ kwbp-

à-¯nsâ cmk-kq{Xw F´m-bn-cn-¡pw?
5. Atäm-anI \¼À 29 Bb Cu F¶ aqeIw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\¯
- n GÀs¸-
Sp-t¼mÄ +-2 HmIvko-c-Wm-hØbpÅ Atbm¬ Bbn amdp-¶p.
a) Cu Atbm-Wnsâ k_vsj Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Fgp-XpI.
b) Cu aqeIw hyXykvX HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hØ ImWn-¡p-hm³ km[y-
X-bpt­m? F´p-sIm­v?
c) t¢mdn\pambn (17Cl) Cu aqeIw {]hÀ¯n-¨m D­m-Ip¶ Hcp
kwbp-à-¯nsâ cmk-kq{Xw Fgp-Xq.
6. Bä-¯nse Nne k_vsj-Ãp-IÄ Xmsg-sIm-Sp-¡p-¶p.
2s, 2d, 3f, 3d, 5s, 3p
a) CXn km[y-X-bn-Ãm¯ k_vsj-Ãp-IÄ GsXms¡?
b) km[yXbn-Ãm¯Xnsâ ImcWw F´mWv?

XpSÀ{]- h À¯\§Ä

1. ]ocn-tbm-UnIvtS_n-fnsâ Hcp `mK-amWv Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶Xv.

tImf-§-fn kqNn-¸n¨ aqe-I-§-fpsS {]Xo-I-§Ä bYmÀY-a-Ã.
$ 4s k_v s jÃn Hcp Ce- I v t {Sm- ¬ am{X- a pÅ aqe- I - § Ä
GsXms¡?
$ s t»m¡n Atäm-anI Bcw Ipd-hpÅ aqe-I-taXv?
$ \nd-apÅ kwbp-à-§Ä D­m-¡p-hm³ km[y-X- IqSp-XepÅ aqeI-
§Ä Gh?
$ {]hÀ¯-\-tijn IqSnb temlw GXv?
$ {Inbm-io-eX Gähpw Ipd-hpÅ aqe-I-taXv?
$ 4p k_vsj-Ãn Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ ]qcWw \S-¡p¶ aqe-I-ta-Xm-bn-
cn¡pw? CXnsâ Atäm-anI\¼À Is­-¯q.
$ ]«n-Ib
- nse Hmtcm aqe-Ihpw D¯-ca
- mbn hcp¶ coXn-bn ]camh[n
tNmZy-§Ä Xbm-dm-¡q.
1 18
2 13 14 15 16 17
E G
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 F
A B D C H

26
 Cu k©n-IfnseÃmw
602200000000000000000000
F®w X·m-{X-IÄ D­v. At¼m...
kwibw Ds­-¦n CsX-s´mcp kwJy!
F®n-t\m-¡n-t¡m-fq. X·m-{X-Isf C§s\
F®n-¯n-«-s¸-Sp-¯m³
]äptam?
\n§Ä¡p-antà Cu kwi-bw? Nne {]hÀ¯-\-§Ä hni-I-e\w sNbvXv
D¯cw Is­-¯m³ {ian-¡mw. \of-apÅ Hcp aKv\ojyw dn_¬ FSp¡pI.
Hcp I¯n D]-tbm-Kn¨v \¶mbn Dc¨v hr¯n-bm-¡p-I. aKv\ojyw dn_-¬
GI-tZiw Ac-skân-ao-ä-dnepw Xmsg \of-apÅ sNdp-I-j-W-§-fm-¡p-I. Hcp
sSÌvSyq_n FSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ 5 mL t\À¸n¨ sslt{Um-t¢m-dnIv Bkn-
Un-te¡v CXn \n¶v Hcp IjWw aKv\ojyw {i²-tbmsS \nt£-]n¡pI.
{]hÀ¯\w \nco-£n-¡q.
\nco-£Ww :

BknUv teml-hp-ambn {]hÀ¯n¨p­mb ssl{U-P³ hmXIw Ipan-f-I-

fmbn ]pd-¯p-h-¶Xpw Aev]-k-abw Ign-ª-t¸mÄ Ipan-f-IÄ \ne-¨Xpw
I­tÃm? sSÌvSyq_n aKv\ojyw _m¡n-bpt­m?
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

emb-\n-bn BknUv Ah-ti-jn-¡p-¶pt­m F¶v \oe enävakv D]-

tbm-Kn¨v ]cn-tim-[n-¡q.
$ enäva-kn\v F´v \ndw amä-amWv D­m-Ip-¶Xv?

$ BknUv _m¡n-bp-­m-bn-cp-¶n«pw {]hÀ¯\w \ne-bv¡m³ Imc-

W-sa-´mWv?

CtX ]co-£Ww asämcp coXn-bn sNbvXp-t\m-¡q. sSÌvSyq_nÂ

1 mL am{Xw BknUv FSp-¡p-I. CXn-te¡v t\ct¯ apdn-¨p-h-¨n-cn-¡p¶
aKv\ojyw Ij-W-§Ä Hmtcm-¶mbn C«p-t\m-¡q.
$ Hcp L«-sa-¯p-t¼mÄ aKv\ojyw _m¡n-bp-­m-bn«pw {]hÀ¯\w
\ne-¨n-tÃ? F´m-bn-cn¡mw CXn\v Imc-Ww?

cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n GsX-¦nepw Hcp A`n-Im-cIw XoÀ¶p-t]m-bmÂ

{]hÀ¯\w \ne-bv¡p-¶p-­-tÃm? A`n-Im-c-I-§-fn aäp-Åh _m¡n-h-
cn-Ibpw sN¿pw.
A`n-Im-c-I-§Ä IrXy-amb Af-hp-ho-X-sa-Sp-¯m Ahsb ]qÀW-ambpw
D¸-¶-ambn amäm\mhn-tÃ?
ssl{U-P\pw t¢mdn\pw X½n cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n-teÀs¸-«mÂ
FÃm-bvt¸mgpw ssl{U-P³ t¢mssdUv BWv D­m-Ip-¶-Xv. {]hÀ¯-\-
¯nsâ kao-IrX cmk-k-a-hm-Iyhpw {]Xo-Im-ßI Nn{Xo-I-c-Whpw
{i²n¡p-.
H2 + Cl2 ® 2HCl

ssl{U-P-sâbpw (H ) t¢mdn-sâbpw (Cl ) Hmtcm X·m-{X- hoXw IqSn-

2 2
t¨À¶v c­v ssl{U-P³ t¢mssdUv (HCl) X·m-{X-IÄ D­m-Ip-¶psh¶v
I­tÃm?
ssl{U-P³ X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®w 2 BsW-¦ntem?

{]hÀ¯-\-tijw Hcp ssl{U-P³ X·m{X _m¡n-h-cp-a-tÃm.

C¯cw Nne kµÀ`-§Ä hni-I-e\w sNbvXv ]«nI 2.1 ]qÀ¯n-bm-

¡m³ {ian-¡q.

28
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

ssl{U-P³ (H2) t¢mdn³ (Cl2) D­m-Ip¶ HCl {]hÀ¯-\-tijw Ah-ti-jn

X·m-{X-IÄ X·m-{X-IÄ X·m-{X-IfpsS F®w -¡p¶ X·m-{X-IÄ
H2 2 Cl2 2 HCl 1 Cl2

2 H2 2 Cl2 4 HCl H¶pw Ah-ti-jn-¡p-¶nÃ

3 H2 2 Cl2 ........ ........

10 H2 8 Cl2 ........ 2 H2

20 H2 ........ 40 HCl H¶pw Ah-ti-jn-¡p-¶nÃ

]«nI 2.1
HCl D­m-Ip¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n ssl{U-P\pw t¢mdn\pw Xpey F®w
X·m-{X-IÄ hoX-sa-Sp-¯m A`n-Im-c-I-§-fn H¶pw Ah-ti-jn-¸n-¡msX
{]hÀ¯\w ]qÀW-am-Ip¶p F¶ÀYw. AXm-bXv ChnsS ]qÀW-amb cmk-{]-
hÀ¯-\-¯n\v ssl{U-P³ X·m-{X-Ifpw t¢mdn³ X·m-{X-Ifpw 1:1 F¶ Awi
-_-Ô-¯n-emWv FSp-t¡-­Xv.
FÃm cmk{]hÀ¯-\-§-fnepw A`n-Im-cI X·m-{X-IÄ X½n-epÅ Awi-_Ôw
CXp-X-s¶bmbn-cn-¡ptam?
Atam-Wnb \nÀamW¯nsâ cmk-k-a-hmIyw ]cn-tim-[n-¡q.
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
$ ChnsS ssl{U-P³ X·m-{X-Ifpw ss\{S-P³ X·m-{X-Ifpw X½n F®¯n-
epÅ Awi-_-Ô-sa-´mWv?

$ ssl{UP\pw HmIvkn-P\pw IqSn-t¨À¶v Pew D­m-Ip¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-

¯ntem?
kao-IrX cmk-k-a-hmIyw :
X·m-{X-IÄ X½n-epÅ Awi-_Ôw, ssl{UP³ : HmIvkn-P³
C\n ]«nI 2.2 ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡m³ {ian-¡q.
kaoIrX cmk-k-a-hmIyw A`n-Im-cI X·m-{X-IÄ X½nse Awi-_Ôw
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl ..........................................................
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 ..........................................................
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O ..........................................................
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO ..........................................................
]«nI 2.2
GsXmcp cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯nepw Hcp \nÝnX F®w hoXw X·m-{X-IÄ
{]hÀ¯n¨v D¸-¶-§Ä D­m-Ip-¶p-sh¶pw F®-§-fpsS Cu Awi-_Ôw
29
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

hnhn[ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fn hyXy-kvX-am-bncn-¡p-sa¶pw t_m[y-am-

b-tÃm.
\n§Ä kvIqÄ et_m-d-«-dn-bn sNbvXp-t\m-¡nb eLp-]-co-£-W-§Ä
apX {][m-\-s¸« ]e D¸¶-§fpw \nÀan-¡p¶ h³ cmk-hy-h-km-b-
im-e-I-fn hsc CXv _m[-I-am-hnt�
bYmÀY-¯n cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä \S-¡p-t¼mÄ \mw D]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶
hfsc sNdnb Afhv A`n-Im-c-I-§-fn t]mepw tImSn-¡-W-¡n\v AXn-
kq£va IWn-I-I-fp-­m-hpa-tÃm? X·m-{X-Ifpw Bä-§-fp-sams¡ DÄs¸«
C¯cw kq£va-I-Wn-I-IÄ IrXy-ambn F®n-¯n-«-s¸-Sp-¯m³ ]äptam?
F´mWv ImcWw?

5.50 kg
F®-¯n\v ]Icw amkv
_m¦p-I-fnepw aäpw Htc-bn\w \mW-b-¯p-«p-IÄ F®n-¯n-«-s¸-Sp-t¯-
­n-h-cp-t¼mÄ Ah IrXy-ambn F®n-sb-Sp-¡m³ F{X ka-b-sa-Sp-
¡p-sa¶v Nn´n-¨n-«pt­m? DZm-l-c-W-¯n\v Hcp e£w cq]-bpsS
Häcq]m \mW-b-§Ä Htc-bn-\-¯n-ep-Åh F®n-sb-Sp-¡-W-sa-¶n-cn-
¡s«. CXn\v GI-tZiw F{X kabw th­n-h-cp-sa¶v Nn´n-¨p-
Nn{Xw 2.1 t\m-¡q.
$ Hcp \mW-b-¯nsâ Xq¡w Adn-bm-sa-¦ntem?

Bä-¯nsâ hep¸w
Hcp XpÅn Pe-¯n (0.05 mL)
GI-tZiw 1.67 × 1021 AXm-bXv
1670000000000000000000 X·m-
{X-IÄ D­m-Ipw. Hmtcm Pe-
X·m-{Xbpw c­v ssl{U-P³
Bä- § fpw Hcp HmIv k n- P ³
Bähpw DÄs¸sS aq¶p hoXw
Bä-§Ä tNÀ¶-Xm-sW-¶d- n-bm-
a-tÃm. F¦n BsI Bä-§-
fpsS F®w CXnsâ aq¶n-c«n
hcpw.
C{Xbpw Bä- § Ä DÄs¡m-
Åp¶ Øe-am-Is« Hcp Pe¯p-
Ån-bpsS hen-¸-¯n\v Xpeyw
am{Xw. At¸mÄ F{X- a m{Xw
sNdp- X m- b n- c n¡pw Bä- § Ä
F¶v Nn´n¨p t\m¡q.
30
Htc-bn\w \mW-b¯
- p-«p-IÄ¡v ]Icw hyXykvX amkpÅ
]e-bn\w Hcp cq]m \mW-b-§Ä Bbn-cp-s¶-¦n CXv
km[y-amtWm?
XnI¨pw Hcp-t]m-se-bpÅ hkvXp-¡Ä BsW-¦n Ah
Hcp-]m-Sp-s­-¦nepw amkv IW-¡m¡n Ah-bpsS F®w
Is­-¯m-sa¶v a\-Ên-em-b-tÃm.
kq£va-I-W-§-fpsS F®w IW-¡m-¡Â
Hcp aqe- I - ¯ nsâ Bä- § - s fÃmw Htc amkv DÅh-
bmWtÃm. AXp-t]mse Xs¶-btà Hcp ip² ]ZmÀY-
¯nse (aqe-I-am-bmepw kwbp-à-am-bm-epw) X·m-{X-
IfpsS amkpw. AXp-sIm-­p-Xs¶ Bä-§Ä, X·m-{X-
IÄ XpS-§nb kq£va-I-Wn-I-I-fpsS F®w IW-¡m-¡p-
¶-Xn\v Ah-bpsS amkv D]-tbm-Kn-¡m-a-tÃm.
kq£va-I-Wn-I-I-fpsS amkv IrXy-ambn Is­-¯p-¶-Xn\v
B[p-\nI kwhn-[m-\-§-fn-eqsS Ign-ªn-«p-­v. F¶mÂ
CXv {]kvXm-hn-¡p-¶-Xn\v Bt]-£nI amkv coXnbmWv
D]-tbm-Kn-¨p- hcp¶Xv. Hcp Bä-¯nsâ amkv asämcp Bä-
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

¯nsâ amkp-ambn Xmc-Xayw sNbvXv AXnsâ F{X aS-

§mWv F¶v {]kvXm-hn-¡p-¶- coXn-bm-Wn-Xv.
ImÀ_¬ þ 12 F¶ sFtkm-tSm-¸nsâ amknsâ 12þÂ
Hcp `mKs¯ Hcp bqWn-ämbn ]cn-K-Wn-¨mWv aqe-I-§-
fpsS Atäm-an-I -amkv {]kvXm-hn-¡p-¶Xv. Cu amkns\
bqWn-ss^Uv amkv AYhm 'u' F¶v hnfn-¡p-¶p.
1u=
1
× ImÀ_¬þ12 Bä¯nsâ amkv
12
Hcp 'u' F¶Xv Intem-{Km-an IW-¡m-¡p-I-bm-sW-¦nÂ
1.6606 × 10-27 kg BWv.
aqe-I-§fpsS sFtkm-tSm-¸p-I-fpsS km¶n[yw IqSn ]cn-
K-Wn¨v icm-icn Atäm-an-I- amkv IW-¡m-¡p-t¼mÄ ]e
aqe-I-§-fp-sSbpw Atäm-anI amkv `n¶-kw-Jy-Ifmbn hcm-
dp-­v. CXv F§-s\-sb¶v NphsS \ÂInb t_mIvknse
hnh-c-§Ä hni-I-e\w sNbvXv a\-Ên-em¡q. F¦nepw
{]mtbm-KnI Bh-iy-§Ä¡pw IW-¡p-Iq-«e - p-IÄ¡pw ]cn-
K-Wn-¡p-t¼mÄ Chbn an¡-hbpw ]qÀW-kw-Jy-I-fmbn
IW-¡m-¡p-¶p.
Nne aqe-I-§-fpsS Atäm-anI amkv X¶n-cn-¡p-¶p.
sFtkm-tSm-¸p-IÄ
an¡ aqe-I§ - f- nepw \yqt{Sm-Wp-If- psS
F®w hyXy-kvXa- mb Bä-§Ä D­m-
Im-dp-­v. C§s\ Htc aqe-I¯ - nsâ
Xs¶, hyXykvX amkv \¼-dp-IÄ DÅ
Bä-§-sf-bmWv sFtkm-tSm-¸p-IÄ
F¶v hnfn-¡p-¶X- v. kzm`m-hn-Ia- mbpw
Ch-bpsS Atäm-an-Ia- mkpw hyXym-k-
s¸-«n-cn-¡p-a-tÃm.
aqe-I§ - f- psS Atäm-an-Ia- mkv {]kvXm-
hn-¡p-t¼mÄ Ah-bpsS sFtkm-tSm-
¸p-I-fpsS amkp-IqSn, {]Ir-Xn-bnse
km¶n[y-¯nsâ ASn-Øm-\-¯nÂ
]cn-KW - n¨v icm-icn amkv IW-¡m-¡p-
I-bmWv sN¿p-¶X- v. DZm-lc- W - ¯ - n\v,
\ntbm-Wnsâ (Ne) {]Ir-Xn-bn ImW-
s¸-Sp¶ aq¶v sFtkm-tSm-¸p-I-fmWv
20
Ne, Ne, Ne F¶nh. Ch- b psS
21 22

{]Ir-Xn-bnse km¶n[yw bYm-{Iaw

90.48%, 0.27%, 9.25% F¶n- § - s \
aqeIw Atäm-anI amkv (u) bmWv. icm-icn Atäm-anI amkv
H 1 = (20 × 90.48) + (21100
× 0.27) + (22 × 9.25)
= 20.18 u
He 4
C 12
C¯-c¯ - n icm-icn Atäm-an-Ia- m-kv
N 14
FSp-¡p-¶-Xp-sIm-­mWv an¡ aqe-I-
O 16
§-fp-sSbpw Atäm-an-I-am-kv `n¶-kw-
Jy-bmbn hcp-¶X- v.
P 31
Cl 35.5 Ah-Kmt{Um kwJy
Nne hkvXp-¡f- psS Hcp Iq«-¯nsâ
icm- i cn {]mtbm-KnI Bh-iy- F®w {]kvXm-hn-¡p-t¼mÄ, tPmUn
aqeIw AtämanI §Ä¡v ]cn-K-Wn- ( 2 F®w), Uk³ ( 12 F®w),
amkv (u) ¡p¶ amkv t{Kmkv (144 F®w) XpS-§n-bh D]-
ssl{U-P³ 1.0079 1 tbm-Kn-¡m-dp-­v. CXp-t]mse kq£va-
loenbw 4.0026 4 I-Wn-II- f- psS F®w {]kvXm-hn-¡p-
ImÀ_¬ 12.0111 12 ¶-Xn\v ck-X-{´-¯n D]-tbm-Kn-
ss\{S-P³ 14.0067 14 ¡p¶ H¶mWv Ah-Kmt{Um kwJy
HmIvkn-P³ 15.9994 16 (Avogadro Number). 6.022 × 10 BWv 23

t^mkv^-dkv 30.9738 31 AXnsâ aqeyw. N , N F¶n-§s- \-

bpÅ Npcp-s¡-gp-¯p-I-fpsS cq]-
A O

t¢mdn³ 35.453 35.5

¯n CXv kqNn-¸n-¡m-dp-­v.
31
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

{Kmw Atäm-an-I -amkpw Ah-Kmt{Um F®hpw

Hcp aqe-I-¯nsâ Atäm-an-I amkn\v Xpeyw {Kmw AfhnepÅ amkv B

aqe-I-¯nsâ Hcp {Kmw Atäm-an-I -amkv (Gram Atomic Mass - GAM) BWv.
ImÀ_-Wnsâ Hcp {Kmw Atäm-anI -amkv F¶Xv 12 g BWv.
ssl{U-Psâ Hcp {Kmw Atäm-anI amkv 1 g Dw HmIvkn-Psâ Hcp {Kmw
Atäm-an-I- amkv 16 g Dw BWv.
12 g ImÀ_-¬þ12 epÅ Bä-§-fpsS F®w 6.022 × 1023 BWv. CXv NA
F¶v kqNn-¸n-¡p-¶p.
Hcp {Kmw Atäm-an-I -amkv ImÀ_-¬ 12þÂ DÅ (1 GAM of C = 12 g)
AtX F®w Bä-§-fmWv, Hcp {Kmw Atäm-an-I -amkv GsXmcp aqe-I-
¯nepw D­m-hpI.
NABä-§-fpsS amkv = 1 GAM
{Kmw Atäm-an-I- am-kns\ {Kmw Bäw (Gram Atom) F¶pw hnfn-¡m-dp-­v.
ssl{U-Psâ GAM 1 g BWv.
1 g ssl{U-P-\n 'NA' F®w Bä-§Ä D­v.
1 g loen-b-¯n C{Xbpw F®w loenbw Bä-§Ä D­m-Iptam?
$ F{X {Kmw loenbw FSp-¯m-emWv 'NA' F®w loenbw Bä-
§Ä e`n-¡pI?

$ 'NA' F®w ImÀ_¬ Bä-§Ä e`n-¡m³ FSp-t¡­ amkv F{X?

$ 'NA' F®w t¢mdn³ Bä-§Ä BsW-¦ntem?

\n§-fpsS Is­-¯-ep-IÄ C§s\ t{ImUo-I-cn-¨mtem?

1 g ssl{U-P-\nepw 4 g loen-b-¯nepw 12 g ImÀ_-Wnepw 35.5 g
t¢mdn-\nepw Htc F®w Bä-§Ä D­m-bn-cn-¡pw.
ChnsS Hmtcm aqe-Ihpw FSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶Xv AXm-Xnsâ Atäm-an-I-am-
kn\v Xpeyw {Kmw hoX-a-tÃ?
hyXykvX aqe-I-§Ä, Ah-bpsS Atäm-anI amkv F{X-bmtWm
A{Xbpw {Kmw hoX-sa-Sp-¯m Ah-bnse Bä-§-fpsS F®w Xpey-
am-bn-cn-¡pw.
Hcp aqeI Bä-¯nsâ Atäm-anI amkv F{X-bm-tWm, A{Xbpw
{Kmans\ AXnsâ Hcp {Kmw Atäm-anI amkv (Gram Atomic Mass -
GAM) F¶v ]d-bp-¶p.
Hcp {Kmw Atäm-anI amkv hoXw GXv aqe-I-sa-Sp-¯mepw Ah-bnse
Bä-§-fpsS F®w Ah-Kmt{Um F®w Bbn-cn-¡pw.
32
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X
1 GAM = 6.022 × 1023 Bä-§Ä = Atäm-an-I a
- m-kn\v Xpeyw {Kmw

1 GAM ssl{U-P³ = 6.022 × 10 F®w H Bä-§Ä = 1 g

23

1 GAM loenbw = 6.022 × 10 F®w He Bä-§Ä = 4 g

23

1 GAM HmIvkn-P³ = 6.022 × 10 F®w O Bä-§Ä = 16 g

23

1 GAM t¢mdn³ = 6.022 × 10 F®w Cl Bä-§Ä = 35.5 g

23

2 GAM BsW-¦ntem? CXnsâ c­v aS-§m-bn-cn-¡ntÃ?

2 GAM ssl{U-P³ = 2 × N F®w H Bä-§Ä = 2 g × 1 g = 2 g
2 GAM t¢mdn³ = 2 × N F®w Cl Bä-§Ä = 2 × 35.5 g = 71 g
A

3 GAM t¢mdn³ = 3 × N F®w Cl Bä-§Ä = 3 × 35.5 g = 106.5 g

A

F¦n Hcp \nÝnX amkv aqeIw F¶Xv F{X

{Kmw Atäm-an-I -amkv BsW¶pw AXn F{X
Bä-§-fp-s­¶pw I­p-]n-Sn-¡m-a-tÃm.
{Kmw Atäm-anI amkp-IfpsS ({Kmw Bä-§-fp-sS) tamfn-¡pemÀ amkv AYhm
X·m{Xm amkv
F®w = \,NBOFQ
BNLW

BRF*kOTž
GAM aqe-I¯

- nsâtbm kwbp-௠- n-sâtbm Hcp
$ NphsS X¶n-cn-¡p¶ Hmtcm aqe-I-km¼nfpw IypemÀ amkv F¶p ]d-bp-¶Xv. CXv
X·m-{X-bpsS amkn-s\-bmWv AXnsâ tamfn-
F{X GAM BsW¶pw Hmtcm-¶nepw F{X {]kvXm-hn-¡p-¶Xpw 'u' Ahew-_a- m-¡n-bm-
Bä-§Ä Ds­¶pw I­p-]n-Sn-¡p-I. Wv.
(Atäm-an-I- amkv H = 1, He = 4, O = 16, C =12) Hcp ]ZmÀY-¯nsâ tamfn-IypemÀ amkv
1. 40 g ssl{U-P³
IW¡p Iq«p-¶X - n\v AXnsâ Hcp X·m-{X-
bn AS- § nb Hmtcm C\w Bä- § -
2. 40 g loenbw fpsSbpw F®w F{X-bp-t­m Ah-bpsS
3. 40 g HmIvkn-P³ BsI Atäm-anI amkp-IÄ Iq«n-b XpI
4. 120 g ImÀ_¬
I­m aXn.
DZm-l-c-W-¯n-\v, (Atäm-an-I -amkv H = 1,
{Kmw tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv O = 16, S =32 C = 12 Bb-Xn-\mÂ-)
1 GAM ssl{U-P-\n 6.022 × 10 Bä-§Ä D­m-
23 HmIvkn-P³ (O2) sâ
Ipw. ssl{U-P³ hmXIw kzX-{´-ambn ØnXn- tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv = O sâ
Atäm-anI
sN-¿p-¶Xv Zzbm-täm-anI (H ) X·m-{XIfm-bm-sW¶v amkv x 2
\ap-¡-dn-bmw.
2

= 16 x 2 = 32 u
F¦n 1 g ssl{U-P-\nse 6.022 × 10 Bä-§Ä 23 CusX-bv\nsâ (C H )
\ne-\n¡p-¶Xv F{X X·m-{X-IÄ BbmWv? tamfn-IypemÀ amkv = (C sâ Atäm-an-I-
2 6

amkv x 2) +
6.022 × 10 ssl{U-P³ X·m-{X-IÄ e`n-¡-W-sa-
23
(H sâ Atäm-an-I-
¦n F{X {Kmw ssl{U-P³ FSp-t¡-­n-h-cpw? amkv x 6)
ssl{U-P³ Zzbm-täm-an-I-am-b-Xn-\m AXnsâ (12 x 2) + (1 x 6)
GAM sâ Cc-«n-bmb 2 g FSp-¯m-età Ah-Kmt{Um
= 30 u
H SO sâ
F®w X·m-{X-IÄ e`n-¡q. tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv = (1 x 2) + (32 x 1) +
2 4

(16 x 4)
= 98 u 33
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

CXp-t]mse HmIvkn-P³, ss\{S-P³, t¢mdn³ XpS-§n-b-hbpw Zzbm-täm-

an-I-amWv. ImÀ_¬, loen-bw, tkmUnbw XpS-§n-bh GIm-täm-an-I-am-
bmWv ]cn-K-Wn-¡p-¶-Xv.
16 g HmIvkn-P³ FSp-¯m Ah-Kmt{Um F®w Bä-§Ä D­m-Ipw.
Ah-Kmt{Um F®w X·m-{X-IÄ e`n-¡-W-sa-¦n 32 g HmIvkn-P³ FSp-
t¡-­n-h-cpw.
$ t¢mdnsâ GAM = 35.5 g BW-tÃm. F{X {Kmw t¢mdn³ FSp-¯m-
emWv Ah-Kmt{Um kwJybv¡v Xpeyw t¢mdn³ X·m-{X-IÄ (Cl2)
e`n-¡pI?

AXmXv aqe-I-§Ä Ah-tbm-tcm-¶n-sâbpw tamfn-IypemÀ amkn\v Xpey-

am-b-{Xbpw {Kmw FSp-¯m-emWv AXnsâ Ah-Kmt{Um F®w X·m-{X-
IÄ e`n-¡pI F¶v t_m[y-am-btÃm?
Hcp aqe-I-¯n-sâtbm kwbp-à-¯n-sâtbm tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkn\v
Xpey-am-b-{Xbpw {Kmw Afhns\ B ]ZmÀY¯nsâ Hcp {Kmw tamfn-
Iyp-emÀ amk (Gram Molecular Mass - GMM) F¶v hnfn-¡p-¶p.
v

1 GMM ]ZmÀYs¯ 1 {Kmw tamfn-IyqÄ ]ZmÀYw F¶pw ]d-bm-dp-­v.

Hcp {Kmw tamfn-IypemÀ amkv GsXmcp ]ZmÀY-sa-Sp-¯mepw AXnÂ
Ah-Kmt{Um F®w X·m-{X-IÄ D­m-Ipw.
6.022 × 1023 ssl{U-P³ Bäw (H) =1g
6.022 × 1023 ssl{U-P³ X·m{X (H2) =2g
6.022 × 10 23
HmIvkn-P³ Bäw (O) = 16 g
6.022 × 10 23
HmIvkn-P³ X·m{X (O2) = ...........
6.022 × 1023 ImÀ_¬ ssUHmIvsskUv (CO2) = ...........
6.022 × 10 23
PeX·m{X (H2O) = ...........
Hcp \nÝnX amkv ]ZmÀY-¯n F{X GMM Ds­¶p IW-¡p-Iq-«m\pw
AXp- h gn AXn AS- § nb X·m- { X- I - f psS F®w Is­- ¯ m\pw
IgnbpatÃm?
{Kmw tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkp-I-fpsS ({Kmw tamfn-Iyq-fp-I-fpsS) F®w
\,NBOFQ
BNLW
= >;N|:kOTž
GMM
Pe-¯nsâ GMM 18 g BWv.
$ 90 g Pe-¯n AS-§nb {Kmw tamfn-Iyq-fp-I-fpsS F®-sa{X?
$ CXn F{X Pe X·m-{X-IÄ D­mIpw?
\,NBOFQ
BNLW
o {Kmw tamfn-Iyq-fp-I-fpsS F®w =
GMM
90 g
= =5
18 g
o X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®w = 5 × 6.022 × 1023
34
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

$ Nne kwbp-à-§-fpsS km¼n-fp-IÄ X¶n-cn-¡p-¶p.

85 g 90 g 88 g 50 g
NH 3 C6H12O6 (¥qt¡m-kv) CO 2 H2
P Q R S
o X¶n-cn-¡p¶ Hmtcm kwbp-à-¯n-sâbpw {Kmw
tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv IW-¡p-Iq-«p-I.
o Hmtcm- km¼nfnepw F{X GMM hoXw ]ZmÀY- {Kmw t^mÀape amkv (GFM)
ap­v?
Atbm- W nI kwbp- à - § - f nÂ
o km¼n-fp-Isf Ah-bnse X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®w
Hmtcm t]mkn-äohv AtbmWpw
IqSn-h-cp¶ {Ia-¯n Fgp-Xp-I.
Npäp-apÅ FÃm s\K-äohv Atbm-
(kqN\ : {Kmw Atäm-an-I- am-kp-IÄ Wp-I-fp-ambpw Hmtcm s\K-äohv
H = 1 g, C = 12 g, N = 14 g, O = 16 g) AtbmWpw Npäp- a pÅ FÃm
tamÄ k¦-¸\w t]mkn-äohv Atbm-Wp-I-fp-ambpw
BIÀj-W¯ - n-em-bX- n-\mÂ/_Ô-
Hcp {Kmw Atäm-anI amkv (1 GAM) GsXmcp aqe-Iw -FSp-
\-¯n-em-bX- n-\m Ah km[m-cW - -
¯mepw AXn 6.022 × 1023 Bä-§Ä D­m-Ipw. Hcp {Kmw
ambn {]tXyI X·m-{X-If- mbn \ne-
tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv aqe-Itam kwbp-àtam FSp-¯mÂ
\n¡m-dn-Ã. ]Icw Atbm-Wp-I-
6.022 × 1023 X·m-{X-Ifpw.
fpsS kwtbm-P-I-X-bv¡-\p-k-cn¨v
kq£v a - I - W n- I - I - f psS F®w {]kv X m- h n- ¡ p- t ¼mÄ t]mknäohv Atbm-Wp-I-fp-sSbpw
6.022 × 1023 F¶ kwJy (Ah-Kmt{Um kwJy) ck-X{´- s\K-äohv Atbm-Wp-I-fp-sSbpw
¯n hfsc {][m-\s - ¸-«X
- mWv. F®-¯n-epÅ Awi-_Ôw ASn-
Øm- \ - a m- ¡ n- b pÅ t^mÀape
6.022 × 1023 IWn-I-IÄ DÄs¡m-Åp¶ ]ZmÀY-¯nsâ
bqWnäpI-fm-bmWv ]cn-K-Wn-¡p-
Af-hns\ ck-X-{´-¯n -Hcp tamÄ (1 mole or 1 mol)
¶Xv. DZm-lc- W - ¯ - n-\v, tkmUnbw
F¶v hnfn-¡p-¶p.
t¢mssd-Un t]mkn-äohv Atbm-
Ah- K mt{Um F®w kq£v a - I - W - § - f psS Af- h ns\
Wp-If- p-sSbpw s\K-äohv Atbm-Wp-
{Kman {]kvXm-hn-¡p-I-bm-sW-¦nÂ, Bä-§-fm-sW-¦nÂ
I-fp-sSbpw Awi-_Ôw 1:1 BWv.
1 GAM \pw X·m-{X-I-fm-sW-¦n 1 GMM \pw Xpey-am-W-
AXp-sIm­v t^mÀape NaCl.
tÃm. AXp- s Im- ­ p- X s¶ tamÄ Afhv ]d- b p- t ¼mÄ
ImÂkyw t¢mssd-Un Cu Awi-
GXn\w IWn-I-bm-sW¶v hyà-am-t¡-­Xv (Bä-amtWm
_Ôw 1:2 BWv. t^mÀape CaCl .
X·m-{X-bmtWm F¶-Xv) hfsc {][m-\-s¸-«-Xm-Wv.
ChbpsS amkv {]kvXm-hn-¡p-
2

1 tamÄ ssl{U-P³ Bä-§Ä (H) = 1 g = 6.022 × 1023

t¼mÄ C¯cw t^mÀape bqWn-
Bä-§Ä
äp-I-fpsS Bt]-£n-I-amkv BWv
1 tamÄ ssl{U-P³ X·m-{X-IÄ (H2) = 2 g = 6.022 × 1023 {]kvXm-hn-¡p-¶-Xv. Cu amkn\v
X·m-{X-IÄ = 2 × 6.022 × 1023 Bä-§Ä Xpey {Kmw Atbm-WnI kwbp-
1 tamÄ HmIvkn-P³ Bä-§Ä (O) = 16 g = 6.022 × 1023 às¯ Hcp {Kmw t^mÀape amkv
Bä-§Ä (GFM) F¶v hnfn-¡p-¶p.
1 tamÄ HmIvkn-P³ X·m-{X-IÄ (O2) = 32 g = 6.022 × 1023 Hcp GFM se t^mÀape bqWn-äp-I-
X·m-{X-IÄ = 2 × 6.022 × 1023 Bä-§Ä fpsS F®w Ah-Kmt{Um F®w
1 tamÄ Hmtkm¬ X·m-{X-IÄ (O3) = 48 g = 6.022 × 1023 (6.022 × 10 ) Bbn-cn-¡pw.
23

X·m-{X-IÄ = 3 × 6.022 × 1023 Bä-§Ä

35
 ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

1 tamÄ loenbw Bä-§Ä (He) = 4 g = 6.022 × 1023 Bä-§Ä

1 tamÄ loenbw X·m-{X-IÄ (He) = 4 g = 6.022 × 1023 X·m-{X-IÄ
F´p-sIm-­mWv loen-b-¯nsâ Imcy-¯n Hcp tamÄ Bä-§-fp-sSbpw
Hcp tamÄ X·m-{X-I-fp-sSbpw amkv Xpey-amb-sX¶v Duln-¡mtam? loen-
b-¯nsâ Atäm-an-I-X-bp-ambn _Ô-s¸-Sp¯n Nn´n¡q.
Hcp tamÄ hoXw hyXykvX kwbp-à-§Ä Bbmtem?
1 tamÄ H2O = 18 g = 6.022 × 1023 PeX·m-{X-IÄ
1 tamÄ CO2 = 44 g = 6.022 × 1023 CO2 X·m-{X-IÄ
1 tamÄ NH3 = ............................ = ............................
1 tamÄ C6H12O6 = ............................ = ............................
Hcp tamÄ F¶Xv F®-ambn {]kvXm-hn-¡p-I-bm-sW-¦n AXv Bä-am-
bmepw X·m-{X-bm-bmepw (GXn\w kq£vaIWn-I-IÄ Bbm-epw) Xpey
F®w (Ah-Kmt{Um F®w) BWv. F¶m Hcp tamÄ F¶-Xns\
amkv Bbn {]kvXm-hn-¡p-t¼mtgm?
1 tamÄ Bäw = 1 GAM
1 tamÄ X·m{X = 1 GMM
Hcp tamÄ F¶-Xn\v F®-¯n-sâbpw amkn-sâbpw ASn-Øm-\-¯n-epÅ
AÀYw t\m¡q.

F®w
1 tamÄ (1 mol)

6.022 × 1023
Bä-§Ä
A´m-cmjv{S tamÄ Zn\w
1 GAM
amkv
ck-X{- ´-¯nse {][m-\s- ¸« Hcp X·m-{X-IÄ
Af-hmWv tamÄ. "tamÄ' F¶- 1 GMM
Xnsâ {]m[m\yw DÄs¡m­v
6.022 × 1023 IWn-I-IÄ Hcp tamÄ BWv.
ckX-{´-ÚÀ FÃm hÀjhpw
HIv t Sm- _ À 23 þmw XobXn 12.044 × 1023 IWn-I-IÄ F{X tamÄ BWv?
A´mcmjv{S tamÄ Zn\-ambn BN-
cn-¡p-¶p.
Hmtcm hÀj-¯n-sebpw HIvtSm- IWn-I-I-fpsS F®w Adn-bm-sa-¦n Ah-bn F{X -tamÄ
_À 23þse 6.02 am apXÂ 6.02 Ds­¶v I­p-]n-Sn-¡p-¶-sX-§-s\-sb¶v t\m¡q.
pm hsc- b mWv tamÄ Zn\w.
6.02x1023-se 6.02 F¶Xv kab
*8O**GQT4
'jX
s¯bpw, 10F¶Xv amks¯bpw,
tamÄ F®w = "I,NU\6N
'jX
23 F¶Xv XobXnsbbpw Ipdn $ 10000 Pe X·m-{X-IÄ F{X tamÄ Ds­¶v I­p-]n-Sn-¡p-
¡p¶p. 10þmw amkw 23 \v Cu Zn\w ¶-sX-§-s\-sb¶v t\m¡q.
ck- { ´- Ú À ]co- £ - W - i m- e -
bnse _p¬k¬ _ÀW-dnsâ 10000
\mfw DbÀ¯n "tamfn't\mSpÅ Pe-X-·m-{X-I-fpsS tamÄ F®w -= 6 022 × 1023 

BZcw {]I-Sn-¸n-¡p-¶p.
36
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

$ NphsS X¶n-cn-¡p-¶-h-bnse tamÄ F®w IW-¡m-¡q.

a. 100000 CO2 X·m-{X-IÄ
b. 100000 H2 X·m-{X-IÄ
c. 6.022 × 1023 ¥qt¡mkv X·m-{X-IÄ
Hcp \nÝn-X -amkv aqe-I-¯n F{X- tamÄ Bä-§Ä Ds­¶v I­p-
]n-Sn-¡matÃm?
16 g HmIvkn-P-\nse Bä-§-fpsS tamÄ F®w = 1
32 g HmIvkn-P-\nse Bä-§-fpsS tamÄ F®w = 2
160 g HmIvkn-P-\nse Bä-§-fpsS tamÄ F®w = .....
\,NBOFQ
BNLW
Bä-§-fpsS tamÄ F®w = \,NX
"U NBO*
BNLW

Bä-§Ä¡v ]Icw aqe-I-§-fp-sStbm kwbp-à-§-fp-sStbm X·m-{X-

IÄ Bbn-cp-s¶-¦ntem?
\,NBOFQ
BNLW
X·m-{X-I-fpsS tamÄ F®w = \,NX
UBNGO*ZQFN|
BNLW

Xmsg X¶n-cn-¡p-¶-h-bpsS tamÄ F®w I­p-]n-Sn¨ coXn {i²n-¡q.

a. 160 g HmIvkn-P-\nse Bä-§-fpsS tamÄ F®w,
\,NBOFQ
BNLW
Bä-§-fpsS tamÄ F®w =
GAM
160 g
= 16 g = 10
b. 160 g HmIvkn-P-\nse X·m-{X-I-fpsS tamÄ F®w,
\,NBOFQ
BNLW
X·m-{XI-fpsS tamÄ F®w =
GMM
160 g
= 32 g = 5
c. 160 HmIvkn-P-³ X·m-{X-I-fpsS tamÄ F®w,
9rODO]Qr
'jX
tamÄ F®w = "I,NU\6N
LX+Z
160
= 6 022 × 1023


(F®-amWv X¶ncn¡p-¶-sX-¦n IWn-I-I-fpsS C\w {]k-à-

aà F¶Xv HmÀ¡p-I).
$ NphsS X¶n-cn-¡p¶ tNmZy-§Ä¡v D¯cw Is­-¯q.
a. 220 g CO2 hnse X·m-{X-I-fpsS tamÄ F®w
b. 700 g ss\{S-P-\nse (N2) Bä-§-fpsS tamÄ F®hpw X·m-
{X-I-fpsS tamÄ F®-hpw.

37
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

c. ]©-kmc (C H O ) bnse X·m-{X-I-fpsS tamÄ F®hpw

1 kg 12 22 11
ImÀ_¬ Bä-§-fpsS tamÄ F®hpw.
d. 3.011 × 10 ImÀ_¬ Bä-§-fpsS tamÄ F®w
23

IWn-I-I-fpsS F®tam ]ZmÀY-¯nsâ amtkm Adn-bm-sa-¦n AXns\

tamÄ F®-am-¡p-¶Xv ]cn-N-b-s¸-«-tÃm. CXp-t]mse tamÄ Af-hns\
IWn-I-I-fpsS F®tam amtkm B¡n-am-äm³ Ign-bp-atÃm?
AXn-\pÅ kq{X-hm-Iy-§Ä t\m¡q.
IWn-I-I-fpsS F®w = tamÄ F®w × N A

]ZmÀY-¯nsâ amkv = tamÄ F®w × GAM (Bä-§Ä BsW-¦nÂ)

]ZmÀY-¯nsâ amkv = tamÄ F®w × GMM (X·m-{X-IfmsW-¦nÂ)
$ NphsS X¶n-cn-¡p-¶h sNbvXp-t\m-¡q.
o 4 tamÄ Pe-¯nse IWn-I-I-fpsS F®w
IWn-I-I-fpsS F®w = tamÄ F®w × ................
= ................ × ................
= ................
o 20 tamÄ HmIvkn-P³ Bä-§-fpsS amkv
amkv = ................ × GAM
= ................ × ................
= ................
o 20 tamÄ HmIvkn-P³ X·m-{X-I-fpsS amkv
amkv = tamÄ F®w × ................
= ................ × ................
= ................
]ZmÀY-¯nsâ amtkm IWn-I-I-fpsS F®tam Adn-bm-sa-¦n AXns\
tamÄ F®-ambpw tamÄ F®s¯ IWn-II - f- psS F®-amtbm amkmtbm
amäp-¶Xpw a\-Ên-em-¡n-btÃm? F¦n Hcp aqe-I-¯n-sâtbm kwbp-
à-¯n-sâtbm Hcp \nÝnX amkv X¶m AXn-\-I¯v AS-§n-bn-cn-
¡p¶ Bä-§f- p-sStbm X·m-{X-If- p-sStbm F®w I­p-]n-Sn-¡m\pw AXp-
t]mse IWn-I-I-fpsS F®w Adn-bm-sa-¦n A{Xbpw IWn-I-IÄ¡v
F{X amkp­mIp-sa¶v IW-¡m-¡m\pw Ign-bp-a-tÃm.
$ Pe-¯nsâ (H O) {Kmw tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv 18 g BWv.
2

180 g Pe-¯nse X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®hpw BsI Bä-§-fpsS

F®hpw I­p-]n-Sn-¡p¶ coXn t\m¡q.
180 g
180 g Pe-¯nse tamÄ F®w = 18 g = 10

38
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

10 tamÄ Pe-¯nse X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®w = 10 × 6.022 × 10 23

Hcp Pe-X·m-{X-bn 2 ssl{U-P³ Bä-§fpw Hcp HmIvkn-P³

Bä-hp-apÄs¸sS BsI 3 Bä-§Ä BWv DÅ-Xv. AXn-\mÂ,
BsI Bä-§-fpsS F®w = X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®w × 3
= 10 × 6.022 × 1023 × 3
$ Bä-§-fp-sSbpw tamfn-Iyqfp-Ifp-sSbpw {Kman-epÅ amkv F§s\
I­p]nSn¡mw?
N Bä§fpsS amkv = GAM
A

GAM
Hcp Bä-¯nsâ amkv =
NA

GMM
Hcp X·m-{X-bpsS amkv =
NA

$ NphsS \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶ tNmZy-§Ä¡v D¯cw I­p-]n-Sn-¡q.

1. 1000000 Pe-X·m-{X-IÄ¡v F{X {Kmw `mc-ap-­mIpw?
2. 710 g t¢mdn³ hmX-I¯ - n (Cl ) F{X X·m-{X-IÄ D­mIpw?
2
CXn BsI F{X Bä-§Ä D­mIpw?
3. 90 g ¥qt¡m-knse (C H O ) X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®hpw BsI
6 12 6
Bä-§-fpsS F®hpw IW-¡m-¡p-I.
4. Hcp ss\{S-P³ Bäw, Hcp ss\{S-P³ X·m-{X, Hcp kÄ^yq-
cnIv BknUv X·m{X F¶n-h- Hmtcm-¶nsâbpw amkv F{X
{Kmw F¶v IW-¡m-¡p-I.
(kqN\ ; {Kmw Atäm-anI amkp-IÄ H = 1 g, C = 12 g,
S = 32 g, O = 16 g, Cl = 35.5 g, N = 14 g)
hmX-I-§-fpsS hym]vXhpw tamÄ F®hpw
Jc-þ-{Zm-hI Ah-Ø-I-fn \n¶v hn`n-¶-ambn hmX-I-§-fpsS {]tXy-I-
X-IÄ \mw a\-Ên-em-¡n-bn-«p-­v. hmX-I-¯n X·m-{X-IÄ hfsc AI-
e-¯n-em-Wp-Å-Xv. X·m-{X-bpsS hep-¸-hp-ambn Xmc-Xayw sN¿p-t¼mÄ
Cu AIew Ht«sd aS§v IqSp-X-em-Wv.
Jc-þ-{Zm-hI Ah-Ø-I-fn X·m-{X-IÄ¡v ØnXn sN¿m³ Bh-iy-
amb Øe-amWv Ah-bpsS hym]vXw. F¶m hmX-I-§-fnÂ, Hcp
\nÝnX Xm]-\n-e-bnepw aÀZ-¯nepw X·m-{X-IÄ Ah-bpsS \nc-´-c-
N-e-\-¯n-\p-]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶ Øe-amWv hmX-I-¯nsâ hym]vXw. km[m-
c-W-K-Xn-bn DÄs¡m-Åp¶ ]m{X-¯nsâ AIw apgp-h³ C¯-c-¯nÂ
D]-tbm-K-s¸-Sp-¯p-¶-Xn-\m ]m{X-¯nsâ hym]vXw Xs¶ hmX-I-
¯nsâ hym]vX-ambn ]cn-K-Wn-¡p-¶p.
39
 ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

X·m-{Xm-´cw hfsc IqSp-X-em-b-Xn-\m hmX-I-¯nsâ

hym]vXw AXnsâ X·m-{X-bpsS hep¸s¯ B{i-bn-¡p-
¶n-Ã. adn¨v F®s¯bpw Ne-\-s¯bpw BWv B{i-bn-
hmX-I¯
- nsâ hym]vXhpw

kzX{- ´-ambn kt¦m-Nn-¡mt\m hnI-kn- ¡p-¶-Xv. aÀZhpw Xm]-\n-ebpw Hcp-t]m-se-bm-sW-¦n amkv

hmXI-\n-ba
- §
- fpw

¡mt\m km[n-¡p¶ Hcp ]m{X-¯n- Ipdª X·m-{X-IÄ IqSnb thK-¯n Nen-¡p-Ibpw amkv
emWv (DZm: kzX-{´-ambn \o§m-hp¶ IqSnb X·m-{X-IÄ Ipdª thK-¯n Nen-¡p-Ibpw sN¿p-
]n̬ LSn-¸n¨ knen-­À, d_À ¶p. AXn-\m Hmtcm X·m-{Xbv¡pw Ne-\-¯n\v Bh-iy-
_eq¬...) hmXIw FSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶- amb Øew Xpey-am-Wv.
sX- ¦ n ]m{X- ¯ n\v ]pd- ¯ pÅ AXm-b-Xv Hcp hmX-I-¯nsâ hym]vXw AXnse X·m-{X-I-
aÀZhpw Xm]-\n-ebpw hmX-I-¯nsâ
hym]vXs¯ kzm[o-\n-¡p-¶p. (DZm: fpsS F®-s¯-bmWv B{i-bn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv, X·m-{X-I-fpsS
Xm]-\ne IqSn-bm _eq¬ hep-Xm- C\- s ¯tbm hep- ¸ - s ¯tbm AÃ. AXn- \ m Xs¶
hp-¶p, aÀZw {]tbm-Kn-¡p-t¼mÄ hmXIw GXp-X-s¶-bm-bmepw Htc aÀZ-¯nepw Xm]-¯nepw
_eq¬ Npcp-§p-¶p.) X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®w Xpey-am-sW-¦n hym]vXhpw Xpey-
hmX-I¯ - nsâ hym]vXs¯ aÀZw, Xm]- am-bn-cn-¡p-atÃm? aÀZhpw Xm]-\n-ebpw amdp-t¼mÄ hym]vXw
\ne, X·m{X-If- psS F®w F¶n-hb- p- hyXym-k-s¸-Sp-¶Xv t_mIvknse hnh-c-§-fn \n¶v hyà-
ambn _Ô-s¸-Sp-¯p¶ Nne hmX-I- atÃ?
\n-ba- §
- f- mWv NphsS sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p-
¶-Xv. hmX-I-§-fpsS Imcy-¯n aÀZhpw Xm]-\n-ebpw amdn-bn-
sÃ-¦nÂ, Xpey F®w X·m-{X-IÄ¡v Xpey-hym]vXw Bbn-
Ønc Xm]-\n-e-bn \nÝnX Afhv
t_mbn \nbaw
cn-¡pw. Hcp tamÄ GsXmcp hmX-I-sa-Sp-¯mepw AXnse
hmX-I-¯nsâ hym]vXw _mly-aÀZ- X·m- { X- I - f psS F®w Xpey- a mb- Xn-\m Ah-bpsS
¯n\v hn]-coX A\p-]m-X¯ - n Bbn-hym]vXhpw Xpey-am-bncn-¡pw. CXns\ tamfm-À hym]vXw
cn¡pw F¶mWv t_mbn \nbaw (Molar volume) F¶p ]d-bp-¶p.
{]kvXm-hn-¡p-¶-Xv.
]t£ Xm]-\n-ebpw aÀZhpw hyXy-kvXa- m-bmtem? t_mIvkp-
Ønc-aÀZ-¯n-epÅ hmX-I-¯nsâ I-fnse hnh-c-§Ä hni-I-e\w sNbvX-Xn \n¶v aÀZ-tam
NmÄkv \nbaw

hym]vXs- ¯-¡p-dn-¨mWv NmÄkv \nbaw Xm]-\n-etbm amdn-bm hmX-I-¯nsâ hym]vXw amdp-sa¶v

{]Xn-]m-Zn-¡p-¶X- v. Ønc aÀZ-¯n-epÅ t_m[y-am-btÃm?
\nÝnX Afhv hmX-I¯ - nsâ hym]vXw
sIÂhn³ kvsIbn-ense Xm]-\n-ebv¡v aÀZhpw Xm]-\n-ebpw Ønc-am-bn-cp-¶m Xpey hym]vXw
t\À A\p-]m-X-¯n-emWv F¶-XmWv hmX-I-§-fn X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®w Xpey-am-bn-cn¡pw.
CXnsâ {]kvXm-h\- m-cq-]w.
hmX-I-¯nsâ hym]vXw aÀZ-¯n\pw (1Xm]- \ne 273 sIÂhn\pw aÀZw 1 A´-co-£-aÀZhpw
Xm]-\n-ebv¡pw A\p-kc- n¨v hyXym-k- atm) Bbn \nP-s¸-Sp-¯n-bmÂ- G-sXmcp hmX-I¯ - n-sâbpw
s¸-Sp-¶-Xn-\m Hcp hmX-I-¯nsâ 6.022 × 10 X·m-{X-IÄ (1 tamÄ X·m-{X-IÄ)¡v 22.4 L
23

hym]vXw {]kvXm-hn-¡p-¶Xv AÀY- hym]vX-ap-­m-hp-sa¶v imkv{X-ÚÀ ]co-£-W-§-fn-eqsS

h¯m-I-W-sa-¦n GXv Xm]-\n-e- sXfn-bn-¨n-«p-­v.
bnepw aÀZ-¯nepw F¶Xv IqSn hyà- 273 K Xm]-\n-e, 1 atm aÀZw F¶n-hsb Ìm³tUÀUv sSw]-
am-¡n-bn-cn-¡-Ww. td-¨À & {]jÀ (Standard Temperature & Pressure - STP)
Xm]-\n-e, aÀZw F¶nh Ønc-am-bn-cn- F¶mWv hnfn-¡p-¶-Xv.
Ah-Kmt{Um \nbaw

¡p-t¼mÄ hmX-I-§-fpsS hym]vXw AXm-b-Xv, STP bn ØnXn sN¿p¶ GsXmcp hmX-I-
X·m-{X-If- psS F®-¯n\v t\À A\p- ¯n-sâbpw Hcp tamfn\v 22.4 L hym]vX-ap-­m-Ipw. CXv STP
]m-X-¯n-em-bn-cn-¡pw. bnse tamfmÀ hym]vXw F¶-dn-b-s¸-Sp-¶p.
40
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

F¦n STP bn FSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ hmX-I-§-fpsS Imcy-

¯n Hcp tamÄ F¶Xn\v Hcp AÀYw IqSn \ÂIm-
atÃm? aÀZw, Xm]-\n-e, hym]vXw þ

STP bn Hcp tamÄ hmXIw = 22.4 L bqWn-äp-IÄ

aÀZw (Pressure)
tamÄ F¶-Xn\v \mw a\-Ên-em-¡nb AÀY-§Ä FgpXn
SI bqWnäv þ ]mkvIÂ (Pascal)
t\m¡n-bmtem? km[m-cW D]-tbm-K-¯n-epÅ aäv
STP bn 22.4 L hmXIw = 1 tamÄ bqWn-äp-IÄ :
F®w
Aävtamkv^nbÀ (atm),
Bä§Ä
6.022 × 1023
_mÀ (bar),
1 tamÄ (1 mol)

................. 1 atm = 101325 Pa

amkv 1 bar = 105 Pa
X·m-{XIÄ- 1 atm = 1.01325 bar
.................
STP bnse hmXIhym]vXw Xm]-\ne (Temperature)
.................
SI bqWnäv þ sIÂhn³ (Kelvin)

km[m-cW D]-tbm-K-¯n-epÅ aäv

hmXIw hym]vXw bqWn-äp-IÄ : Un{Kn skÂjykv
$ STP bn Hcp tamÄ ssl{U-P³ (H2) 22.4 L (°C), Un{Kn ^mc³loäv (°F)
$ STP bn Hcp tamÄ ss\{S-P³ (N2) °C Xm]-\ne = sIÂhn³ Xm]\ne
22.4 L
þ273
$ STP bn Hcp tamÄ CO2
°F Xm]-\ne = ° Xm]\ne)
22.4 L 9
32 + ( x C
$ 5
hym]vXw (Volume)
$ SI bqWnäv þ Iy_nIv aoäÀ (m3)

km[m-cW D]-tbm-K-¯n-epÅ aäv

STP bn 44.8 L hmXIw = 2 tamÄ bqWn-äp-IÄ : enäÀ (L), anÃn enäÀ
(mL), Iyp_nIv skân-ao-äÀ (cm or 3

STP bn 224 L hmXIw = ........... cc),

1
STP bn ØnXn sN¿p¶ hmX-I-§Ä¡v, 1L = m3
1000
STP
COTF
IZN>W9X
FO EO~
1
tamÄ F®w = STP
COTF
UBNGN|
IZN>W9X 1mL= 1 cm3 = L
1000

STP
COTF
IZN>W9X
FO EO~

= 1L = 1000 cm3 = 1000 mL

224
L
tamÄ F®w I­p- ] n- S n- ¡ p- ¶ - X n- \ pÅ coXn- I Ä
C§s\ t{ImUo-I-cn-¨p t\m¡q.

41
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

IWn-I-I-fpsS F®w X¶mÂ,

$ tamÄ F®w = 



amkv X¶mÂ,
$ Bä-§-fpsS tamÄ F®w = 



$ X·m-{X-I-fpsS tamÄ F®w = 



STP bn DÅ hmX-I-¯nsâ hym]vXw X¶mÂ,

$ tamÄ F®w = 



tamÄ k¦-¸\w þ kao-IrX cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-§-fnÂ

A`n-Im-c-I-§-fpsS `mK¯pw D¸-¶-§-fpsS `mK-¯p-apÅ Hmtcm C\w
Bä-§-fp-sSbpw F®w Xpey-am-¡nb cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-§-fm-WtÃm kao-
IrX cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-§Ä.
Hmtcm cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\hpw Hcp kao-IrX cmk-k-a-hmIyw sIm­v
{]Xn-\n-[o-I-cn-¡m³ Ign-bpw. Atam-Wnb hmXIw \nÀan-¡p-¶-Xnsâ kao-
IrX cmk-k-a-hmIyw ]cn-tim-[n-¡q.
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
Hcp ss\{S-P³ X·m{X aq¶v ssl{U-P³ X·m-{X-I-fp-ambn {]hÀ¯n¨v
c­v Atam-Wnb X·m-{X-IÄ D­m-Ip-¶p. Hcp X·m-{Xbv¡v ]Icw
6.022 × 1023 ss\{S-P³ X·m-{X-IÄ BsW-¦ntem?
6.022 × 1023 N2 + 3 × 6.022 × 1023 H2 → 2 × 6.022 × 1023 NH3
tamÄ N2 +
1 3 tamÄ H2 → 2 tamÄ NH3
tamÄ Af-hns\ F®w F¶-Xp-t]mse amkv Bbpw hym]vX-ambpw
hymJym-\n-¡m-a-tÃm.
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH 3
28 g 3×2g 2 × 17 g (amkv)
STP bn 22.4 L 3 × 22.4 L 2 × 22.4 L (hym]vXw)
28 g ss\{S-P³ aXn-bmb Af-hn ssl{U-P-\p-ambn {]hÀ¯n-¸n-¨mÂ
34 g Atam-Wnb e`n-¡p-sa-¶ÀYw.
A§- s \- s b- ¦ n 140 g ss\{S- P ³ {]hÀ¯n- ¸ n- ¨ m F{X {Kmw
AtamWnb e`n-¡p-sa¶v {]h-Nn-¡m-atÃm?
o 28 g N2 {]hÀ¯n-¨m e`n-¡p¶ NH3 = 34 g

o 1 g N2 {]hÀ¯n-¨m e`n-¡p¶ NH3 =

34 g
28

o 140 g N2 {]hÀ¯n-¨m e`n-¡p¶ NH3 =

34 × 140 g
28
42
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

\nÝnX Afhv ss\{S- P - \ p- a mbn {]hÀ¯n- ¡ m- \ m- h - i y- a mb

ssl{UPsâ Af-hv, Hcp \nÝnX amkv Atam-Wn-btbm \nÝnX
hym]vXw Atam-Wnbtbm e`n-¡m³ th­ A`n-Im-c-I-§-fpsS Afhv
F¶n-h-sbms¡ kao-IrX cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-§-fn tamÄ k¦Â¸\w
{]tbm-Kn-¨p-sIm­v IW-¡p-Iq-«m-\m-hntÃ?
$ Atam-Wnb \nÀamW {]hÀ¯-\-¯n 500 g ss\{S-P-\p-ambn
{]hÀ¯n-¡m³ F{X {Kmw ssl{U-P³ th­n-h-cp-sa¶v IW-
¡p-Iq«n t\m¡q.
o 28 g N2 hpambn {]hÀ¯n-¡m³ th­ H2 = 6 g
6
o 1 g N2 hpambn {]hÀ¯n-¡m³ th­ H2 = 28 g

6
o 500 g N2 hpambn {]hÀ¯n-¡m³ th­ H2 = 28 × 500 g

$ STP bn 1000 L Atam-Wnb e`n-¡-W-sa-¦n F{X {Kmw N2

th­n-hcpw?
o 44.8 L NH3 e`n-¡m³ th­ N2 hnsâ amkv = 28 g
28
o STP bn 1 L NH3 e`n-¡m³ th­ N2 hnsâ amkv = 44 8 g 

o STP bn 1000 L NH3 e`n-¡m³ th­ N2 hnsâ amkv

28 × 1000 g
=
44 8


C¯cw IW-¡p-Iq-«-ep-IÄ ap³Iq«n \S-¯p-¶Xv AXp-ambn _Ô-

s¸« hyh-km-b-§-fn F{X-am{Xw {]tbm-P-\-{]-Z-am-Ip-sa¶v Nn´n-¨p
-t\m¡q.
emb-\n-I-fnse tamÄ F®w
Bkn-Up-Ifpw B¡-en-I-fp-apÄs¸sS ]e cmk-h-kvXp-¡fpw emb-
\n-bpsS cq]-¯n-emWv et_m-d-«-dn-I-fn D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶-Xv. C¯cw
kµÀ`-§-fn Hcp \nÝnX hym]vXw emb\n-bn F{X tamÄ eo\w
ebn-¨p -tNÀ¶n-«p­v F¶p IW-¡m¡n emb-\n-bpsS KmVX {]kvXm-
hn-¡m-dp­v. emb-\n-I-fpsS KmVX {]kvXm-hn-¡p¶ Cu coXn samfm-
cnän (Molarity) F¶ t]cn-emWv Adn-b-s¸-Sp-¶-Xv.

Hcp enäÀ emb-\n-bn F{X tamÄ eo\w AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p¶p F¶-

XmWv samfm-cn-än- sIm­v AÀY-am-¡p-¶-Xv.

Hcp enäÀ emb-\n-bn Hcp tamÄ eo\w Ds­-¦n AXns\ 1 tamfmÀ

(1 M) emb\n F¶p hnfn-¡p-¶p. Hcp enäÀ emb-\n-bn 2 tamÄ
eo\ap-s­-¦n AXv 2 M (2 tamfmÀ) emb-\n-bmWv. Hcp enäÀ emb-
\n-bnse eo\-¯nsâ Afhv 0.5 tamÄ (AYhm 2 L embn-\n-bn 1
tamÄ) BsW-¦n AXv 0.5 M emb\n-bm-Wv.

43
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

FP=kOTž
UBN€
'jX n
emb\n-bpsS samfm-cnän = FNC=OCQT4
IZN>W9X
FO EO~
or M = V

1M emb\n Xbm-dm-¡p¶ hn[w

NaCl sâ 1 M emb\n Xbm-dm-¡-W-sa-¶n-cn-¡-s«. Hcp tamÄ NaCl F¶Xv
58.5 g BsW¶v Adn-bm-a-tÃm.
c­v Ip«n-IÄ¡v 58.5 g (1 mol) hoXw NaCl \ÂIn. 1 M emb\n Xbm-dm-
¡m³ AhÀ sNbvX {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ Nn{Xo-I-cWw hni-I-e\w sN¿q.
IT @ School
Edubuntu hnse PhET 1.
epÅ samfmcnän B¸v
D]-tbm-Kn¨v IqSp-XÂ 1L 1L
{]hÀ¯-\-§Ä
sNbvXp t\m¡q.
Hcp enäÀ Pe-sa-Sp¯v 58.5 g NaCl ebn-¸n-¡p-¶p
2.

1L 1L

58.5 g NaCl FSp-¯-tijw Pe-¯n ebn-¸n¨v 1 L emb-\n-bm-¡p¶p

$ Ch- b n GXn- e mWv {]hÀ¯- \ - t ijw sam¯w emb- \ n- b psS
hym]vXw IrXyw 1000 mL (1 L) BsW¶pw AXn 1 mol eo\w
Ds­¶pw Dd-¸n-¡m³ Ign-bpI?
$ GXmWv 1 M NaCl emb\n Xbm-dm-¡m-\pÅ icn-bmb coXn?
Hcp tamÄ eo\w Hcp enäÀ emb-\n-bn F¶-Xn-\p-]-Icw c­p-tamÄ
eo\w c­p enäÀ emb-\n-bn-em-sW-¦nepw 1 M emb\n Xs¶ e`n-¡patÃm.
Xmsg \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶ ]«nI hni-I-e\w sN¿q.
eo\-¯nsâ emb-\n-bpsS sam¯w tamfmÀ KmVX
n
tamÄ F®w (n) hym]vXw (V) V
1 mol 1L 1M
2 mol 2L 1M
0.5 mol 0.5 L 1M
0.5 mol 1L 0.5 M
0.5 mol 2L 0.25 M
1
2 mol 10 L M
5
CXn \n¶pw hnhn[ hym]vX-§-fn Hcp tamfmÀ emb\n Xbm-dm-
¡p¶ hn[w a\-Ên-em-b-tÃm.
44
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

{][m\ ]T-\-t\-«-§fn s]-Sp-¶h

$ H¶n-e-[nIw A`n-Im-c-I-§-fpÅ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n GsX-¦n-

ep-sam¶v XoÀ¶m cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w \ne-bv¡p-¶p-sh¶v ]co-
£-W-¯n-eqsS sXfn-bn-¡m\pw Ah-bpsS cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-§Ä D]-
tbm-Kn¨v hni-Z-am-¡m-\papÅ tijn t\Sp-¶p.
$ Hmtcm cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯nepw A`n-Im-cI Bä-§-fpsS F®-§Ä
X½n Hcp \nÝnX Awi-_Ôw \ne-\n¡p-¶p-sh¶v hni-Z-am-
¡p-¶p.
$ Bt]-£nI amkv, Atäm-anI amkv, tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv F¶nh
\nÀhNn¨v DZm-l-c-W-§Ä hni-I-e\w sN¿m\pw Ign-bp-¶p.
$ {Kmw Atäm-anI amkv, {Kmw tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv F¶nh \nÀh-Nn-¨v
eLp-K-WnX {]iv\-§Ä \nÀ[m-cWw sN¿p-¶p.
$ Hcp GAM, Hcp GMM F¶n-h-bn-e-S-§n-bn-cn-¡p¶ AXmXv IWn-
I-I-fpsS F®w Xpey-am-sW¶v Xncn-¨-dn-ªv Ah-Kmt{Um kwJy
Fs´¶v hymJym-\n-¡p-¶p.
$ "tamÄ' \nÀh-Nn-¡p-¶-Xn\pw ck-X-{´-¯n "tamÄ' Afhn-\pÅ
{]m[m\yw Xncn-¨-dn-bp-¶-Xn\pw F®-¯n-sâbpw amkntâbpw ASn-
Øm-\-¯n "tamÄ' Afhns\ hymJym-\n-¡m\pw Ign-bp-¶p.
$ tamÄ F®w Is­- ¯ p- ¶ - X n- \ pÅ eLp- K - W n- X - { ]- i v \ - § Ä
\nÀ[mcWw sN¿p¶p.
$ hmX-I-§-fpsS hym]vXw F¶Xv hmX-I-X-·m-{X-IÄ hym]n¨p InS-
¡p¶ Øe-¯nsâ Af-hmWv F¶v Xncn-¨-dn-ªv Htc F®w
X·m-{X-IÄ DÄs¡m-Åp¶ hyXykvX hmX-I-§Ä¡v Htc Xm]-
\n-e-bnepw aÀZ-¯nepw Htc hym]vX-am-sW¶v DZm-l-c-W-§-fn-eqsS
Øm]n-¡p-¶p.
$ hmX-I-§-fpsS hym]vXw {]kvXm-hn-¡p-t¼mÄ Xm]-\n-e, aÀZw
F¶nh {]kvXm-hn-¡-s¸-tS-­-Xnsâ Bh-iy-IX hni-Z-am-¡p¶p.
$ STP bpw STP bnse tamfmÀ hym]vXhpw Fs´¶v hni-Z-am-¡m\pw
eLp-K-WnX {]iv\-§Ä \nÀ[m-cWw sN¿m\pw Ign-bp-¶p.
$ kao-IrX cmk-ka- h - m-Iy-§f- n tamÄ k¦-¸\w {]tbm-Kn-¡m\pw
amkv, hym]vXw F¶n-h-bp-ambn CXns\ _Ô-s¸-Sp-¯m\pw eLp-
K-WnX {]iv\§Ä \nÀ[m-cWw sN¿m-\p-apÅ tijn t\Sp-¶p.
$ emb-\n-bpsS cq]-¯n-epÅ cmk-h-kvXp-¡-fn Ah-bpsS Afhv
{]kvXm-hn-¡p¶ coXn a\-Ên-em¡n 1 M emb\n Xbm-dm-¡m-\pÅ
tijn t\Sp-¶p.
$ hyXykv X tamfmÀ KmV- X - b n- e pÅ emb- \ n- I Ä Xbm- d m-
¡p¶Xpambn _Ôs¸« eLp-K-WnX {]iv\-§Ä \nÀ[m-cWw
sN¿p-¶p.

45
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

hne-bn-cp-¯mw

1. ssl{U-P\pw HmIvkn-P\pw tNÀ¶v Pe-ap-­m-Ip¶ cmk{]hÀ¯-

\-¯n 20 ssl{U-P³ X·m-{X-Isf 20 HmIvkn-P³ X·m-{X-I-fp-
ambn {]hÀ¯n-¸n-¡m³ Ignªp F¶v Icp-Xp-I.
a. GXv A`n- I m- c IX·m- { X- I Ä Bbn- c n¡pw BZyw XoÀ¶p
t]mIpI?
b. GXnsâ X·m-{X-I-fm-bn-cn¡pw {]hÀ¯\ tijhpw Ah-ti-
jn-¡pI? F{X F®w?
2. Atäm-anI amkv {]kvXm-hn-¡p-¶X - n\v Ct¸mÄ Ah-ew-_a- mbn kzoI-
cn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶Xv Xmsg X¶n-cn-¡p-¶-h-bn GXn-s\-bmWv?
(ssl{U-P³, ImÀ_¬þ12, ImÀ_¬þ14, HmIvkn-P³þ16)
3. loen-b-¯nsâ Atäm-anI amkv 4 Dw HmIvkn-Psâ Atäm-anI amkv
16 Dw BWv. 40 g HmIvkn-P-\n DÅ AtX F®w Bä-§Ä e`n-
¡m³ F{X {Kmw loenbw FSp-¡-Ww.
(40 g, 160 g, 10 g, 4 g)
4. NphsS \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶h Hmtcm¶pw F{X {Kmw Atäm-anI amkv
hoXw Ds­¶v Is­-¯p-I.
a. 100 g loenbw b. 200 g HmIvkn-P³
c. 70 g ss\{S-P³ d. 1 g ImÂkyw
(kqN\: Atäm-anI amkp-IÄ He = 4, O = 16, N = 14, Ca = 40)
5. Xmsg X¶n-cn-¡p¶ Hmtcm-¶n-sâbpw {Kmw tamfn-Iyp-emÀamkv/{Kmw
t^mÀap-e-amkv IW-¡p-Iq-«p-I.
a. HNO3 b. CaCl2 c. Na2SO4 d. NH4NO3
(kqN\: {Kmw Atäm-anI amkp-IÄ H = 1 g, N = 14 g, O = 16 g,
Na = 23 g, S = 32 g, Cl = 35.5g, Ca = 40 g)
6. Nne km¼n-fp-IÄ NphsS X¶n-cn-¡p-¶p.
a. 400 g Pew (H2O) b. 400 g ImÀ_¬ (C)
c. 400 g loenbw (He) d. 400 g ssl{U-P³ (H2)
e. 400 g ¥qt¡mkv (C6H12O6)
a. Hmtcm-¶n-sâbpw tamÄ F®w Is­-¯p-I.
b. km¼n-fp-IÄ tamÄ F®w IqSn hcp¶ {Ia-¯n Fgp-Xp-I.
(kqN\: {Kmw tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkp-IÄ He = 4 g, C = 12 g, H2 = 2 g,
H2O = 18 g, C6H12O6 = 180 g)
7. Xmsg X¶n-cn-¡p-¶h IW-¡m-¡p-I.
p. 1 kg Pe-¯nse tamÄ F®w.

46
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

q. 500 g CaCO3 bnse tamfp-I-fpsS F®w.

r. 88 g CO2 hnse X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®hpw BsI Bä-§-fpsS F®-
hpw.
s. STP bn ØnXn sN¿p¶ 170 g Atam-Wn-b -hm-X-I-¯nsâ hym]vXw.
t. STP bnse 112 L CO2 hmX-I-¯nsâ amkpw AXnse X·m-{X-I-fpsS
F®hpw.
(GMM/GFM - H2O − 18 g, CaCO3 − 100 g, CO2 − 44 g, NH3 − 17 g)

XpSÀ{]hÀ¯-\-§Ä

$ Hcp {Kmw loen-b-¯n-e-S-§n-bn-cn-¡p¶ AtX F®w Bä-§Ä e`n-¡m³

ImÀ_¬, HmIvkn-P³ F¶nh F{X {Kmw hoXw FSp-¡-Ww?
$ \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶ km¼n-fp-IÄ {i²n-¡p-I.
a. 20 g He
b. STP bn 44.8 L NH3
c. STP bn 67.2 L N2
d. 1 tamÄ H2SO4
e. 180 g Pew
(i) X¶n-cn-¡p¶ km¼n-fp-Isf X·m-{X-IfpsS F®w IqSn hcp¶ coXn-
bn {Iao-I-cn-¡p-I.
(ii) Hmtcm km¼n-fn-sebpw BsI Bä-§-fpsS F®-¯nsâ Btcm-lW
{Iaw F´m-bn-cn-¡pw?
(iii) b, c, d F¶n-h-bpsS amkv F{X hoX-am-bn-cn¡pw?
$ 90 {Kmw Pe-¯nÂ
a. F{X X·m-{X-IÄ D­mIpw?
b. BsI F{X Bä-§Ä D­mIpw?
c. C{Xbpw IWn-I-I-fnse BsI Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®w F{X-bm-
bn-cn-¡pw?
$ 100 g NaOH {InÌ-ep-IÄ, 200 mL Pew, _o¡-dp-IÄ {Xmkv F¶nh X¶n-
cn-¡p-¶p. Ch-bn \n¶v Bh-iy-am-b-{Xbpw hkvXp-¡Ä FSp¯v NaOH -
þ sâ Hcp tamÄ (1 M) emb\n \nÀan-¡p-¶Xv F§s\?
$ Idn-bp-¸nsâ 1 M emb\n 500 mL FSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶p.
a. CXn F{X {Kmw Idn-bp¸v ebn¨p tNÀ¶n-«p-­mIpw?
b. emb-\n-bn Pew tNÀ¯v t\À¸n¨ hym]vXw 2L B¡n-bm tamfmÀ
KmVX F{X-bm-Ipw?

47
ckX{¥w $ Ãmt‚¿Uv - X

\nXy-Po-hn-X-Øn¬ hnhn-[-ß-fmb cmk{]h¿Ø-\-߃ \n߃ \nco-

£n-®n-´p-≠t√m. Nn{XØn¬ ImWp∂ kμ¿`-߃- F-s¥m-s°-bmWv?
C\n \n߃°dn-bm-hp∂ IqSp-X¬ DZm-l-c-W-߃ Is≠Øn enÃv
hn]p-eo-I-cn-°q.
$ hndIv IØp-∂Xv
$ Ccpºv Xpcp-ºn-°p∂-Xv
$
$
hndIv IØp-∂Xpw Ccpºv Xpcp-ºn-°p-∂Xpw hyXy-kvXß-fmb c≠v
cmk-{]-h¿Ø\-ß-fm-Wv.
$ Ch Htc thK-Øn-emtWm \S-°p-∂Xv?

cmk-{]-h¿Ø-\-ß-fpsS thKw Iq´p-Itbm Ipd-bv°p-Itbm sNtø≠

kμ¿`-߃ D≠m-Im-dnt√?

48
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

Ccp¼v Xpcp-¼n-¡p¶ {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ thKw hfsc Ipd-bv¡p-¶-Xn-

s\-¸än Btem-Nn-¨n-«pt­m? AtX t]mse hndIv thK-¯n I¯m³
\mw B{K-ln-¡m-dntÃ?
hndIv I¯p¶ {]hÀ¯\w thK- ¯ n- e m- ¡ m³ km[m- c - W - b mbn
GsXms¡ amÀK-§-fmWv Ah-ew-_n-¡m-dp-ÅXv?
$ IqSp-XÂ hmbp e`y-am¡pI
$
$
Nne LS-I-§Ä cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-thK-s¯ kzm[o-\n-¡p¶p F¶tà CXv
kqNn-¸n-¡p-¶Xv? cmk-{]-hÀ¯\ thK-s¯-¡p-dn¨pw AXns\ kzm[o-
\n-¡p¶ {][m-\-s¸« LS-I-§sf¡pdn¨pw \ap¡v ]cn-tim-[n-¡mw.
KmV-Xbpw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-hpw
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fpsS thKw Is­-¯p-¶-Xn\v Hcp eLp-]-co-£Ww
sNbvXp-t\m-¡mw.
aKv\ojyw hyXykvX KmV-X-bpÅ sslt{Um-t¢m-dnIv BknUp (HCl)
ambn F§s\ {]hÀ¯n-¡p¶p F¶mWv ]cn-tim-[n-t¡-­Xv.
$ CXn-\mbn Hcp-t¡­ kma-{Kn-IÄ Fs´Ãmw?

$ aKv\ojyw dn_-Wnsâ amkv Xpey-am-bn-cn-¡t­?

$ HCl sâ hym]vXtam?

C\n ]co-£Ww sN¿mw. Nn{Xw 3.1 \nco-£n-¡q.

c­v sSÌvSyq_pI-fnepw Htc amkpÅ aKv\ojyw dn_-Wp-IÄ FSp-¡pI.
H¶n KmV HCl Dw atä-Xn t\À¸n¨ HCl Dw Xpey-hym]vXw hoXw
tNÀ¡p-I.

H2
KmV HCl t\À¸n¨ HCl

Mg dn_¬ Mg dn_¬
1 2
Nn{Xw 3.1
49
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

\n§-fpsS \nco-£Ww tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯q.

sImfo-j³ kn²m´w
(Collision Theory)
Cu kn²m´ {]Imcw cmk-
{]hÀ¯\w \S-¡W - s- a-¦n A`nIm-
cI IWn-II - Ä ]c-kv]cw Iq«n-ap-t«-
­-Xp-­v. A`n-Im-cI IWnI-IÄ
X½n-epÅ FÃm Iq«n-ap-«-ep-Ifpw
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n Iem-in-¡-W-
sa-¶n-Ã. IWn-II
- Ä¡v Hcp \nÝnX
Af-hnepw IqSp-XÂ DuÀP-ap-s­-
¦nte ^e-h-¯mb Iq«n-ap-«-ep-IÄ
\S¶v D¸-¶§ - Ä D­m-Iq. X·m{X-
I-fpsS F®w IqSp-¶Xpw DuÀPw
IqSp-¶Xpw \nÝnX ka-b-¯n-\p-
Ånse ^e-h-¯mb Iq«n-ap-«-ep-I-
fpsS F®w hÀ[n-¡m³ ImcW-
amIpw.
sSÌvSyq_v 1 :
sSÌvSyq_v 2 :
{]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ kao-I-cn¨ cmkka-hmIyw FgpXq.
$ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-Kw IqSp-X GXv sSÌvSyq_n-
emWv?
$ GXv sSÌvSyq_n-emWv bqWnäv hym]vX-¯n IqSpXÂ
HCl X·m-{X-IÄ DÄs¡m-Åp-¶Xv?
$ X·m-{X-If
- psS F®w IqSp-¶Xv cmk-{]-hÀ¯\ thKw
hÀ[n- ¡ m³ Imc- W - a m- I p- ¶ p­tÃm? CXn\v
t_mIvkn \ÂIn- b n- c n- ¡ p¶ sImfo- j ³
kn²m´¯nsâ ASn- Ø m- \ - ¯ n hni- Z o- I - c Ww
\ÂIn t\m¡q.

A`n-Im-c-I-§-fpsS KmVX IqSp-t´mdpw bqWnäv hym]vX-¯nse

X·m-{XI-I-fpsS F®hpw ^e-h-¯mb Iq«n-ap«ep-I-fpsS F®hpw
IqSp-¶p. XXv^-e-ambn cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w thK-¯n \S-¡p-¶p.

ap³ ]co-£W - n aKv\o-jy-¯nsâ Afhv Xpey-am-bn-cp-¶t- Ãm. HCl sâ

- ¯
KmV-X-bn-em-WtÃm hyXym-k-ap-­mbn-cp¶-Xv? GXv sSÌvSyq_n-Â
FSp¯ aKv\ojyw BWv thK-¯n XoÀ¶p-t]m-bXv?
(icn-bm-bXv "ü' sN¿p-I.)
KmVX IqSn-bXv KmVX Ipd-ªXv
aKv\ojyw thK-¯n XoÀ¶Xv {]hÀ¯\w thKw \S-¶-Xnsâ
kqN\-btÃ?
A§-s\-sb-¦n A`n-Im-cIw {]hÀ¯n¨pXocm³ FSp¯ ka-b-
¯nsâ ASn-Øm-\-¯n {]hÀ¯-\-th-Kw Xmc-Xayw sNbvXpIqtS?
KWn-X-]-c-ambn ]d-bp-I-bm-sW-¦n bqWnäv ka-b-¯n D]-tbm-Kn-
¡-s¸-Sp¶ GsX¦nepw Hcp A`n-Im-c-I-¯nsâ Af-hnsâ ASn-Øm-\-
¯n cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-\n-c¡v IW¡m-¡mw.

50
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

Bb-Xn-\mÂ,
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-\n-c¡v =
%>UCN,Od
"AO*ND*kOTž
"GIW cmk-ka- h
- m-Iy-§f- nÂ
"AO*ND*X
\>I|kOdWW
9PDNT = 4Qk
LBCX
]ZmÀY§fpsS A-hØ
ap³]v sNbv X ]co- £ - W - ¯ nse cmk- k - a - h mIyw cmk-ka - h
- mIyw Fgp-Xp-t¼mÄ A`n-
]cntim[n-¡p-I. Im- c - I - § - f p- s Sbpw D¸- ¶ - § - f p-
sSbpw `uXn-Im-hØ hyà-am-Ip-¶-
Mg (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Xn\v cmk-kq-{X-t¯m-sSm¸w ({_m¡-
Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯nse D¸-¶-§Ä GsXm-s¡-bmWv? änÂ) ]mZm-¦a - mbn Jc-¯n\v (solid) "s'
F¶pw {Zmh-I¯ - n\v (liquid) "l' F¶pw
D­mb H2 s\ tiJ-cn-¡m-a-tÃm. Cu ssl{U-Psâ Af- hmX-I¯ - n\v (gas) "g' F¶pw Peo-b-
hn \n¶v cmk-{]-hÀ¯\ thKw Is­-¯m-a-tÃm. em- b \n¡ v ( aqueous solution ) " aq'
F¶p-amWv D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-I.
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ ^e-ambn \nÝnX ka-b-¯n-\p-
Ån D­mb GsX-¦nepw Hcp D¸-¶-¯nsâ Afhv
D]-tbm-Kn¨pw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\\
- nc¡v Is­-¯mw.
F¦nÂ,
%iNC
%~trkOTž
"GIW
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-\n-c¡v = %~trX
%iN*NT = 4Qk
LBCX

A`n-Im-c-I-§-fpsS kz`m-h-hpw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-hpw

t\À¸n¨ HCl  kn¦v (Zn), aKv\ojyw (Mg) F¶o teml§-fpsS {]hÀ¯\
thKw Hcpt]mse-bm-bn-cn-¡ptam? ]co-£Ww sNbvXp-t\m-¡mw.
]co-£Ww sN¿p-¶-Xn\v Bh-iy-amb kma-{Kn-IÄ Fs´-Ãm-amWv?

Zn, Mg F¶nh Htc amkv hoXw GXm­v Htc BIrXnbn FSp-t¡-­-

XntÃ?
$ Cu ]co-£-W-§-fnse {]hÀ¯-\-{Iaw Fgp-Xn t\m¡q.

$ ChnsS {]hÀ¯-\-^-e-am-bp-­m-Ip¶ hmXIw GXmWv?

$ cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-§Ä Fgp-Xn t\m¡q.

{]hÀ¯\w 1 (Zn tNÀ¯-t¸mÄ) :
{]hÀ¯\w 2 (Mg tNÀ¯-t¸mÄ) :
$ GXv sSÌvSyq_n-emWv cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w thK-¯n \S-¶Xv?

$ Cu {]hÀ¯-\-§-fn D]-tbm-Kn¨ Bkn-Unsâ KmV-X-bn hyXym-

k-apt­m?

51
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

F¦n GXv LS-I-amWv ChnsS cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-s¯ kzm[o-\n-¨Xv?

cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-s¯ kzm[o-\n-¡p¶ Hcp LS-I-amWv A`n-Im-c-
I-§-fpsS kz`m-hw.
aÀZhpw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-hpw
hmXI A`n-Im-c-I-§Ä ]c-kv]cw {]hÀ¯n¨v hmXI D¸-¶-§Ä D­m-
Ip¶ Nne DZm-l-c-W-§Ä NphsS tNÀ¡p-¶p.
$ ss\{S-P³, ssl{U-P³ F¶nh kwtbm-Pn¨v Atam-Wnb D­m-Ip-¶p.
$ ssl{U-P³, t¢mdn³ F¶nh tNÀ¶v ssl{U-P³ t¢mssdUv D­m-
Ip-¶p.
$ ss\{S-P³, HmIvknP³ F¶nh {]hÀ¯n¨v ss\{SnIv HmIvssk-Up--
­m-Ip-¶p.
ss\{S-P\pw ssl{U-P\pw knen-­-dn FSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶-Xnsâ Nn{Xo-I-c-
W-amWv Nn{Xw 3.2  sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv. ]n̬ D]-tbm-Kn¨v aÀZw
hyXym-k-s¸-Sp-¯mw.
1 atm

N2 2 atm
H2
H2

N2

Nn{Xw 3.2
$ aÀZw 2 atm B¡n hÀ[n¨-t¸mÄ hym]vX-¯n F´v amä-amWv D­m-
bXv?
$ X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®-¯n hyXymkw h¶n-«pt­m?
hmX-I-§Ä DÄs¸« cmk{]hÀ¯-\-§-fn aÀZw IqSp-t¼mÄ X·m{X-
IÄ X½n IqSp-X ASp-¯v hcp-¶p.
$ aÀZw hyXym-k-s¸-«-Xnsâ ^e-ambn bqWnäv hym]vX-¯n-epÅ A`n-
Im-cI X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®-¯n-Â, amä-ap-­mtbm?
$ aÀZw IqSp-t¼mÄ X·m-{X-IÄ X½n-epÅ sImfo-j³ \nc-¡n F´v
amä-ap-­mIpw?
52
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

aÀZw IqSp-t¼mÄ hmXI A`n-Im-c-I-§-f-S-§nb cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fpsS

thKw IqSp-¶-sX-´p-sIm­m-bn-cn¡mw? Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ Nn{Xo-
I-cW-¯nsâ ASnØm-\-¯n Ipdn¸v Xbm-dm-¡q.
IT @ School
Edubuntu hnse PhET
epÅ Gas properties
App D]-tbm-Kn¨v
X·m-{X-IÄ Bib hyàX hcp-
o
¯p-I.
ASp¯p hcp-¶p.
hmX-I-§Ä IqSp-aÀZw
t¼mÄ o bqWnäv hym]vX-¯n-
DÄs¸« cmk- cmk-{]-hÀ¯\
{]-hÀ¯-\-§- epÅ X·m{X-If- psS \nc¡v IqSp¶p
fn F®w IqSp¶p.
o sImfo-j³ \nc¡v
IqSp-¶p.
Jc-]-ZmÀY-§-fpsS {]X-e-]c-¸fhpw
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-Khpw
Xpey-am-kpÅ amÀ_n-Ä IjWw, amÀ_nÄ s]mSn F¶n-h-bp-ambn Htc
-Km-V-X-bpÅ t\À¸n¨ HCl F§s\ {]hÀ¯n-¡p¶p F¶v t\m¡mw.
Nn{Xw 3.3 hni-I-e\w sNbvXv ]co-£-W-¯n\mh-iy-amb kma-{KnIfpw
{]hÀ¯\{Iahpw Fgp-Xq.

t\À¸n¨ HCl t\À¸n¨ HCl

amÀ_nÄ IjWw amÀ_nÄ s]mSn-¨Xv

Nn{Xw 3.3

Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ cmk-k-a-hmIyw FgpXn t\m¡mw.

CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
\nco£Ww F´mWv?
$ c­v _o¡-dp-I-fn-sebpw {]hÀ¯-\-th-K-¯n Fs´-¦nepw hyXym-
k-apt­m?

$ c­v {]hÀ¯-\-§-fnepw Bkn-Unsâ KmVX F{]-Im-c-amWv?

$ amÀ_n-fnsâ amkv hyXym-k-s¸-«n-«pt­m?

53
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

$ amÀ_n-fnsâ {]X-e-]c-¸-fthm?

$ Htc kabw IqSp-X BknUv X·m-{X-IÄ amÀ_n-fp-ambn k¼À¡-

¯n hcm-\pÅ km[yX GXnemWv IqSp-XÂ?

$ {]X-e]c-¸-fhv IqSp-t¼mÄ sImfo-j³ \nc-¡n F´v amä-amWv

D­mIp¶Xv?

$ Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯n amÀ_n-fns\ ho­pw sNdnb Xcn-I-fm-¡n-bmÂ

AsÃ-¦n s]mSn-¨m {]hÀ¯-\-th-K-¯n F´v amä-ap-­mIpw?

Jc-h-kvXp-¡Ä DÄs¸« cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fn thK-s¯ kzm[o-\n-

¡p¶ Hcp LS-I-amWv {]X-e]c-¸-fhv (Surface area).
Jc-]-ZmÀY-§sf sNdp-I-jW-§-fm¡n amäp-t¼mÄ Asæn s]mSn¨v
D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-t¼mÄ AhbpsS {]Xe]c-¸-fhv IqSp-¶p. X·qew ^eh-
¯mb Iq«n-ap-«-ep-I-fn GÀs¸-Sp¶ X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®hpw IqSp-¶p.
AXn-\m cmk-{]-hÀ¯\thK-hpw IqSp-¶p.

hndIv sNdnb Ij-W-§-fm-¡p-t¼mÄ thK-¯n I¯p-¶-Xn-\pÅ ImcWw

CXn \n¶pw hyà-am-WtÃm?
{]X-e-]c-¸-fhv hÀ[n-¡p-t¼mÄ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-Kw IqSp¶p F¶-Xn\v
\nXy-Po-hn-X-¯n \n¶pw IqSp-X DZm-l-c-W-§Ä Is­¯q.
Xm]-\n-ebpw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-Khpw
tkmUnbw Xtbm-kÄt^äpw sslt{Um-t¢m-dnIv BknUpw X½n-epÅ
{]hÀ¯-\-¯n Xm]-\n-ebpsS kzm[o\w F´m-sW¶v t\m¡mw.
Bh-iy-amb kma-{Kn-IÄ :
tkmUnbw Xtbm- k Ät^- ä v , sslt{Um- t ¢m- d nIv
BknUv, Pew, t_mbn-enwKv Syq_v, kv]ncnäv em¼v.
s{XtjmÄUv F\ÀPn
(Threshold Energy) {]hÀ¯-\-{Iaw :
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n ]s¦-Sp-¡p- Hcp _o¡-dn tkmUnbw Xtbm-kÄt^-änsâ t\À¸n¨
¶-Xn\v X·m-{X-IÄ¡v Hcp \nÝnX emb\n Xbm-dm-¡p-I. Cu emb\n Xpey Af-hn c­v
Afhv KXn-tImÀPw Bh-iy-am-Wv. t_mbn-enwKv Syq_p-I-fn FSp-¡p-I. Hcp t_mbn-enwKv
Cu DuÀPs¯ s{XtjmÄUv Syq_ns\ AÂ]-k-abw NqSm-¡p-I. c­v t_mbn-enwKv
F\ÀPn F¶v ]d-bp-¶p. Syq_p-I-fnepw Htc Af-hn t\À¸n¨ sslt{Um-t¢m-
dnIv Bkn-Uv tNÀ¡pI.
$ \nco-£Ww tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯q.

54
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

$ GXv t_mbn-enwKv Syq_n-emWv s]s«¶v Ah-£n]vXw D­m-bXv?

$ t_mbn-enwKv Syq_pI-fn-ep-­mb Ah-£n-]vX-¯nsâ \ndw F´mWv?

c­v t_mbn-enwKv Syq_p-I-fnepw kÄ^À Ah-£n-]vX-s¸-«-Xp-sIm-­mWv \ndw

amäw D­m-bXv. cmk-k-a-hmIyw {i²n-¡q.
Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + SO2 (g) + S (s)
Cu {]hÀ¯-\-§-fn \n¶v cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-s¯ kzm[o-\n¨ LS-I-ta-
sX¶v a\-Ên-em-¡m-atÃm?
A`n-Im-c-I-§sf NqSm-¡p-t¼mÄ X·m-{X-I-fpsS DuÀPhpw Ne-\-th-K-Xbpw
hÀ[n-¡pw. AXm-bXv Xm]-\ne IqSp-t¼mÄ s{XtjmÄUv F\ÀPn DÅ X·m-
{X-I-fpsS F®w hÀ[n-¡p-¶p. XÂ^-e-ambn ^e-h-¯mb Iq«n-ap-«-ep-I-fpsS
F®w IqSp-Ibpw cmk-{]-hÀ¯\thKw IqSp-Ibpw sN¿p-¶p.

Xm]-\ne cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-s¯ kzm[o-\n-¡p¶ Hcp {][m\ LS-I-

amWv. Xm]-\ne hÀ[n-¡p-t¼mÄ cmk-{]-hÀ¯\thKw IqSp-¶p.

DÂt{]-c-Ihpw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-hpw
kzb-w hnL-S\w kw`-hn-¡p¶ Hcp kwbp-à-amWv ssl{U-P³ s]tdm-
IvsskUv (H2O2). CXnsâ Peob emb-\n-bmWv km[m-cW cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-
¯n\v D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶Xv. {]hÀ¯\ ka-hmIyw \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv t\m¡q.
2H2O2 (aq) → 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)
Hcp sSÌvSyq_n Aev]w ssl{U-P³ s]tdm-IvsskUv emb\n FSp-¡q.
sSÌvSyq_n-\p-Ån-te¡v Fcn-bp¶ Hcp Nµ-\-¯ncn ImWn-¡q.
$ F´mWv \nco-£Ww? Nµ-\-¯ncn I¯p-¶-Xn Fs´¦nepw amä-
apt­m?

AXn-\p-tijw sSÌvSyq_n-te¡v Aev]w amwK-\okv Utbm-IvsskUv (MnO2)

tNÀ¡q. ho­pw Fcn-bp¶ Nµ-\-¯ncn ImWn-¨p-t\m-¡q.
$ \nco-£Ww tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯q.

amwK-\okv Utbm-IvsskUv tNÀ¯-t¸mÄ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-Kw IqSp-Ibpw

thK-¯n HmIvkn-P³ D­m-hp-Ibpw sNbvXp F¶tà CXv kqNn-¸n-¡p-¶Xv?
{]hÀ¯\w ]qÀ¯n- b mbn¡gn- ª m emb- \ nsb Hcp ^n«À t]¸À
D]tbmKn¨v Acn¨p t\m¡q.
^n«À t]¸-dn Ah-ti-jn-¡p¶ ]ZmÀYw amwK-\okv Utbm-IvsskUv Xs¶-
bm-Wv. CXv kq£va-ambn ]cn-tim-[n-¨m AXnsâ Af-hntem KpW-¯ntem
amä-ap-­m-bnà F¶v ImWmw.
55
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯n amwK-\okv Utbm-Ivssk-Unsâ km¶n[yw cmk-{]-

hÀ¯-\-th-Kw hÀ[n-¸n-¡p-I-bmWv sNbvX-Xv. AXn-\m amwK-\okv Utbm-
IvsskUv Cu cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n DÂt{]-c-I- (Catalyst) ambn {]hÀ¯n-
¨p-sh¶v ]d-bmw.
kzbw cmk-am-ä-¯n\v hnt[-b-am-ImsX cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-¯n\v amä-
ap-­m-¡p¶ ]ZmÀY-§-fmWv DÂt{]-c-I-§Ä (Catalysts).

amwK-\okv Utbm-IvsskUv Cu cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ

thKw hÀ[n-¸n-¡p¶ DÂt{]-c-I-am-bmWv {]hÀ¯n-¨-Xv.
C¯cw DÂt{]-c-I-§Ä t]mkn-äohv -DÂt{]-c-I-§Ä
F³ssk-ap-IÄ þ Poh (Positive catalyst) F¶-dn-b-s¸-Sp-¶p.
i- m-kv{X-]c- a- mb DÂt{]-cI- §
- Ä ssl{U-P³ s]tdm-IvsskUv kzbw hnL-Sn¨v Pehpw
(Biocatalysts) HmIvkn-P\pw D­m-Ip-sa¶v a\-Ên-em-btÃm? At¸mÄ
Poh- t Im- i - § - f nse Poh ssl{U- P ³ s]tdm- I v s skUv hnL- S n¨v \in- ¡ msX
{]hÀ¯-\§ - Ä cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\§ - - kq£n-¡-W-sa-¦n hnL-S-\-th-Kw Ipd-bvt¡-­-XtÃ?
fm-Wv. Cu cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\§ - f- mWv Cu Bh-iy-¯n-\mbn ssl{U-P³ s]tdm-Ivssk-UnÂ
Poh³ \ne-\nÀ¯p-¶X - v. Ch-bpsS Aev]w t^mkvt^m-dnIv BknUv (H3PO4) tNÀ¡p-¶p.
{]hÀ¯\w F³ssk-ap-IÄ F¶- t^mkvt^m-dnIv BknUv ssl{U-P³ s]tdm-Ivssk-
dn-bs- ¸-Sp¶ k¦oÀW amwky-X· - m- Unsâ hnL-S-\-th-KX Ipd-bv¡p-¶-Xn-\m ChnsS AXv
{X-If- m \nb-{´n-Xa- m-W.v Aan-tekv Hcp s\Käohv DÂt{]-c-I- (Negative catalyst) am-sW¶v
F¶ F³ssk-amWv A¶-Ps¯ ]d-bmw.
amÄt«mkv B¡n amäp-¶-Xv. Dan-
\ocnemWv Aan-tekv ImW-s¸-Sp- kÄ^yqcn-Iv Bkn-Unsâ hymh-km-bnI D¸m-Z-\-¯nÂ
¶Xv. ht\-Unbw s]tâm-IvsskUpw Atam-Wn-b-bpsS hymh-

A¶-Pw + Pew Aantekv amÄt«mkv km-bnI D¸m-Z-\-¯n Ccp¼pw t]mkn-äohv DÂt{]-c-

I-§fmbn D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶p.

{]Im-ihpw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-hpw

{]Im-timÀP-¯n\v kzm[o-\-apÅ [mcmfw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä D­tÃm?

\n§Ä ]cn-N-b-s¸-«n-«pÅ {]Imi cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä¡v DZm-l-c-W-§Ä
Ipdn-¡q.

$ H2 Dw Cl2 Dw tNÀ¶v HCl D­mIp-¶-Xv.

knÂhÀ t{_mssaUnsâ hnL-S\w Hcp {]Im-i -cm-k-{]-hÀ¯\am-WtÃm?

IoS- \ m- i n- \ n- I - f psS \nÀam- W - ¯ n D]- t bm- K n- ¡ m- d pÅ kÄ^yq- s sdÂ
t¢mssdUnsâ \nÀamWw {]Im-i-¯nsâ km¶n-²y-¯n thKw \S-¡p-¶p.

SO2 (g) + Cl2 (g)

kqcy-{]-Imiw SO2Cl2 (g) (kÄ^yq-ssd t¢mssdUv)

56
 ���

��������������������� →������������������� ���

�����
����

���� ����

�������� ����

��������������������→ ........ + ........

��
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

AXm-b-Xv Cu {]hÀ¯-\-§-fn-seÃmw Hcp Zni-bn am{Xta cmk{]hÀ¯\w

\S-¡p-¶p-Åq.
A`n-Im-cI- §
- Ä {]hÀ¯n¨v D¸-¶§- f- mbn amdp-Ibpw F¶m CtX
kml-Nc- y-¯n Cu D¸-¶§ - Ä A`n-Im-cI- §
- f- mbn amdm-Xn-cn¡p¶Xp-
amb cmk-{]hÀ¯\§sf GI-Zn-im-{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä (Irreversible
reactions) F¶v ]d-bp-¶p.

GI- Z n- i m- { ]- h À¯- \ - § Ä¡v IqSp- X  DZm- l - c - W - § Ä \ÂIn- b n- c n- ¡ p- ¶ Xv

{i²n¡q.
$ NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl (s)
$ C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
$ Mg (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
FÃm cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§fpw GI-Zn-im-{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä BtWm?
Hcp ]co-£Ww sNbvXp-t\m-¡mw.
Hcp t_mbn-enwKv Syq_n AÂ]w Atam-Wnbw t¢mssdUv (NH4Cl) FSp¯v
NqSm-¡p-I. Hcp {]tXy-I -KÔw A\p-`-h-s¸-Sp-¶ntÃ?
$ D­mb hmXIw GXmhm\mWv km[yX?

$ CuÀ¸-apÅ Nph¶ enävakv t]¸À t_mbn-enwKv Syq_nsâ hmbv `mK¯v

ImWn-¡q. F´p- am-ä-amWv \nco-£n-¨Xv?

Cu amäw hmX-I-¯nsâ t_kn-Ikz`m-h-atà kqNn-¸n-¡p-¶-Xv?

cq£ -K-Ôhpw t_knI kz`m-h-hp-apÅ Cu hmXIw Atam-Wnb (NH3) BsW¶v
Dd-¸m-btÃm?
Ipd-¨p-t\cw IqSn enävakv t]¸À t_mbn-enwKv Syq_nsâ hmbv`mK¯v ]nSn¨v
\ndw amäw \nco-£n-¡q.
$ F´v amä-amWv D­m-bXv?

ssl{U-P³ t¢mssdUv (HCl) hmX-I-¯nsâ km¶n-[y-amWv CuÀ¸-apÅ enävakv

ho­pw Nph¸v \nd-am-Im³ Imc-Ww. Atam-Wnbw t¢mssdUv (NH4Cl) NqSm-¡p-
t¼mÄ km{µX Ipdª NH3 BZyw ]pd¯phcp-¶p. XpSÀ¶v AXns\-¡mÄ
km{µX IqSnb HCl hmX-I-hpw.
$ Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ cmk-k-a-hmIyw Fgp-Xn t\m¡q.

58
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

sSÌvSyq_nsâ hi-§-fn Hcp shfp¯ s]mSn ]än-¸n-Sn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶Xv {i²n-

¨ntÃ. CXv Atam-Wnbw t¢mssdUv BWv. ]pd-t¯¡v hcp¶ NH3 bpw HCl
hmX-Ihpw {]hÀ¯n-¨mWv CXp-­m-Ip-¶-Xv. CXv Dd-¸phcp¯p-¶-Xn\v asämcp
]co-£Ww sNbvXv t\m¡mw. Nn{Xw 3.4 {i²n-¡q.

Hcp ¥mkv Syq_v FSp-¡p-I. Syq_nsâ Hc-ä¯v HCl  ap¡nb ]ªnbpw atä
Aä¯v Atam-Wnb emb-\n-bn ap¡nb ]ªnbpw Syq_nsâ AI-¯m-bn hc-
¯-¡h
- n[w h-bv¡p-I. Syq_nsâ c­-ähpw tImÀ¡p-sIm­v \¶mbn AS-bv¡pI.
¥mkv Syq-_n-\p-Ån D­m-Ip¶ amä-§Ä \nco-£n-¡p-I.

HCl  ap¡nb ]ªn Atam-Wnb emb-\nbn ap¡nb ]ªn

NH4Cl sâ shfp¯ I«n-bpÅ ]pI

Nn{Xw 3.4
shfp¯ I«n-bpÅ ]pI D­m-b-tÃm? HCl _mjv]w NH3 hmX-I-hp-
ambn kwtbm-Pn-¨X
- mWv CXn\v Imc-Ww. Atam-Wnbw t¢mssdUv L\o-
`-hn-¨p-­mb shfp¯ s]mSn ]än¸nSn¨ `mK¯v ¥mkv Syq_v NqSm¡n
t\m¡q.

$ NqSm-¡p-t¼mÄ I«n-bpÅ shfp¯ s]mSn¡v F´v kw`-hn-¡p¶p?

NqSm-¡p-t¼mÄ Atam-Wnbw t¢mssdUv hnL-Sn-¡p-¶Xnsâbpw hnL-

Sn-¨p-­mb D¸-¶-§Ä ho­pw kwtbm-Pn-¡p-¶Xnsâbpw ka-hm-Iy-
IT @ School Edubuntu
§Ä t\m¡q. hnse School Resources
$ NH4Cl (s) → NH3 (g) + HCl (g) epÅ Chemistry for
Class X open sNbvXv
$ NH3 (g) + HCl (g) → NH4Cl (s) Nne Atem-l- kwbp-à-
Ch Hä ka-hm-Iy-ambn Fgp-Xn-bmtem? §Ä F¶ t]Pn \n¶v
Atam-Wnbbpw ssl{U-
NH4Cl (s) U NH3 (g) + HCl (g) P³ t¢mssdUpw
"U " NnÓw Ccp-Zn-i-I-fn-te¡pw {]hÀ¯\w \S-¡p-¶-Xns\ kqNn- {]hÀ¯n-¡p-¶-Xnsâ
hoUntbm \nco-£n-¡p-I.
¸n-¡p-¶p.

Ccp-Zn-i-I-fn-te¡pw \S-¡p¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§sf D`-b-Zn-im-{]-

hÀ¯-\-§Ä (Reversible reactions) F¶v hnfn-¡p-¶p.
D`-bZ- n-im{]-hÀ¯-\¯
- n A`n-Im-cI
- §
- Ä D¸-¶§
- f- mbn amdp¶
{]hÀ¯-\s¯ ]ptcm-{]-hÀ¯\w (Forward reaction) F¶pw
D¸¶- § Ä A`n- I m- c - I - § - f mbn amdp¶ {]hÀ¯- \ s¯
]ÝmXv{]hÀ¯\w Backward reaction F¶pw ]d-bp-¶p.
( )

59
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ cmk-kahm-Iy-§Ä ]cn-tim-[n¨v ]ptcm-{]-hÀ¯-

\hpw ]Ým-Xv{]-hÀ¯-\hpw GsXm-s¡-sb¶v tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯p-I.
$ N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) U 2NH3 (g)
$ 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) U 2SO3 (g)
$ H2 (g) + I2 (g) U 2HI (g)
D`-b-Zn-im-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fnse kwXp-e-\m-hØ
(Equilibrium State)
Hcp {]hÀ¯\w sNbvXv t\m¡mw.
s]m«mkyw ss\t{Säv (KNO3) emb\n, s]m«mkyw Xtbm-k-b-t\äv (KCNS)
emb\n, s^dnIv ss\t{Säv (Fe(NO3)3) emb\n F¶nh FSp-¡p-I.
FSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ emb-\n-I-fpsS \ndw \nco-£n¨v ]«nI 3.1 ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡pI.
emb\n \ndw
KCNS ..................
Fe(NO 3) 3 ..................
KNO 3 ..................
]«nI 3.1
sSÌvSyq_n AÂ]w t\À¯ s^dnIv ss\t{Säv emb\n FSp¯tijw
AXn-te¡v GXm\pw XpÅn s]m«mkyw Xtbm-k-b-t\äv emb\n Hgn-¡p-I.
$ F´mWv \nco-£Ww?

{]hÀ¯-\-k-a-hmIyw sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶Xv {i²n-¡q.

Fe(NO3)3 (aq) + 3KCNS (aq) → Fe(CNS)3 (aq) + 3KNO3 (aq)
s^dnIv s]m«mkyw s^dnIv Xtbm- s]m«mkyw
ss\t{Säv Xtbm-kb
- t- \äv k-bt- \äv ss\t{Säv
Fe(NO3)3 Dw KCNS Dw tNÀ¶v Fe(CNS)3 D­m-b-XmWv
Nph¸v \nd-¯n\v Imc-Ww.

$ emb\n A\-¡msX hbv¡p-I. Nph¸v \ndw IqSp-

s^dnIv Xtbmkb-t\änsâ ¶pt­m?
Nph-¸v \ndw
s^dnIv Xtbmkb-t\äv aq¶v L«-§f
- n A¸-t\cw Ignªv ho­pw \ndw \nco-£n-¡p-I. amä-
D­m-Ip-¶p. sam-¶p-an-ÃtÃm?

Fe3+ + CNS– U Fe(CNS)2+ emb\n t\À¸n-¨- tijw A¸-t\cw Ignªv

\nco-£n-¡p-I.
Fe(CNS)2+ + CNS– U Fe(CNS) +2
$ Fs´-¦nepw amäw ImWp-¶pt­m?
Fe(CNS) +2 + CNS– U Fe (CNS)3
CXn Fe(CNS)2+ Atbm¬ BWv ISpw t\À¸n¨ emb- \ n aq¶v v sSÌv S yq_p- I - f n Xpey
Nph¸p \ndw D­m-¡p-¶X
- v. Afhn Hgn-¡p-I.

60
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

sSÌvSyq_v 1
(a) sSÌvSyq_v 1 Â Fe(NO3)3 tNÀ¡p-I. F´mWv \nco-£Ww?

GXv ]ZmÀYw D­m-b-XmWv Cu \ndw amä-¯n\v ImcWw?

sSÌvSyq_v 2
(b) c­m-a-s¯-Xn A¸w KCNS emb\n tNÀ¡p-I. F´mWv \nco-£Ww?

F´mWv Cu \ndw amä-¯n\v ImcWw?

sSÌvSyq_v 3
(c) aq¶m-as¯ sSÌvSyq_nte¡v Hcp XpÅn KmV KNO3 emb\n Hgn-¨p-
t\m-¡q. emb-\n-bpsS \ndw hf-sc-b-[nIw Ipd-ªn-tÃ?
]co-£-W-^-e-§fpw Imc-Whpw \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶ ]«nI 3.2 ]cn-tim-[n-¡q.

sNbvX -{]-hÀ¯\w \nco-£Ww ImcWw

Fe(NO3)3 tNÀ¯p emb- \ n- b psS Nph¸v Fe(NO3)3 emb\n _m¡n- b p-

\ndw IqSn ­m- b n- c n- c p¶ KCNS ambn
{]hÀ¯n¨v IqSp-X D¸-
¶w D­m-bn.
KCNS tNÀ¯p emb- \ n- b psS Nph¸v KCNS emb\nbn Ah-ti-
\ndw IqSn jn- ¨ n- c p¶ Fe(NO 3 ) 3 ambn
{]hÀ¯n¨v IqSp-X D¸-
¶w D­m-bn.

KNO 3 bpsS Hcp emb- \ n- b psS Nph¸v Fe(CNS) 3 F¶ D¸¶w

XpÅn KmV- e m- b \n \ndw hf- s c- b - [ nIw KNO ambn {]hÀ¯n¨v A`n-
3
tNÀ¯p. Ipd-ªp. Im-c-I-§-fmbn amdn.
]«nI 3.2
Cu {]À¯-\-§-fn \n¶v F´mWv a\-Ên-em-¡m³ Ign-bpI? emb-\n-bnÂ
D¸-¶-§fpw A`n-Im-c-§fpw \ne-\n¡p-¶p. CXv Hcp D`-b-Zn-im-{]-hÀ¯-\-
am-Wv.
t\cs¯ Xs¶ hyql-¯n D¸-¶-§-tfm-sSm¸w A`n-Im-c-I-§fpw D­m-
bn-cp¶p F¶n«pw \ndw amdn-bn-Ã. F´m-bn-cn¡pw ImcWw?
D¸-¶-§Ä D­m-Ip-¶p-s­-¦nepw Ah AtX kml-N-cy-¯n Xncn¨v A`n-
Im-c-I-§-fmbn amdp-¶-Xp-sIm-­m-hntÃ?
A`n-Im-c-I-§Ä D¸-¶-§Ä BIp¶ thK-hpw D¸-¶-§Ä A`n-Im-c-I-§Ä
BIp¶ thK-hpw Xpey-am-b-Xp-sIm-­mWv \ndw amäw D­m-Im-Xn-cp¶Xv.
61
ckX{¥w $ Ãmt‚¿Uv - X

AXm- b Xv ]ptcm- { ]- h ¿Ø- \ - Ø n- s ‚bpw ]›mXv { ]h¿Ø- \ - Ø n- s ‚bpw

\nc°p-Iƒ Xpey-am-b-Xp-sIm-≠mWv \ndw amdm-Xn-cp-∂-Xv.
Hcp cmk-{]-h¿Ø-\Ø - n¬ ]ptcm-{]-h¿Ø-\Ø
- ns‚bpw ]›mXv{]h¿Ø-
\-Øn-s‚bpw \nc°v Xpey-ambn hcp∂ L´sØ cmk-kw-Xp-e-\m-hÿ
(Chemical equilibrium) F∂v ]d-bp-∂p.

CXphsc sNbvX ]co-£W \nco-£W-ß-fn-eqsS Is≠-Ønb kwXp-e\

- m-
h-ÿbpsS khn-ti-jX-If
- mWv NphsS sImSp-Øncn°p-∂Xv.
$ kwXp-e-\m-h-ÿ-bn¬ A`n-Im-c-I-ßfpw D¬∏-∂-ßfpw
kl-h¿Øn-°p∂p.
kwhr-Xh
- yqlw $ kwXp-e-\m-h-ÿ-bn¬ ]ptcm˛-]-›mXv {]h¿Ø-\ -\n-
(Closed System) c-°p-Iƒ Xpey-am-bn-cn-°pw.
Hcp hyql-Øn-te°v ]pXpXmbn $ cmk-kw-Xp-e\w X∑m-{X-mX-e-Øn¬ KXn-I-am-Wv.
bmsXm∂pw tN¿°m-Xn-cn-°p-Ibpw
$ A`n-Im-c-I-ß-fp-sSbpw D¬∏-∂-ß-fpsSbpw KmVX
AXn¬ \n∂pw bmsXm∂pw \o°w
Xpey-a-s√-¶nepw hyql-Øn\v kwXp-e-\m-hÿ {]m]n-
sNøm- X n- c n- ° p- I bpw sNbv X m¬
°m≥ Ign-bpw. kwXp-e\ - m-hÿ t\Sn-°g - n-™m¬ A`n-
AØcw hyql- a mWv kwhr- X -
hyqlw. kwhr- X - h yq- l Øn¬ Im- c - ß fpsSbpw D¬∏- ∂ - ß - f psSbpw KmVXbv ° v
am{Xta kwXp- e - \ m- h ÿ hyXymkw hcpI-bn-√.
(Equilibrium) km[y-am-Iq. $ kwhrXhyql-ß-fn-emWv cmk-kw-Xp-e\w ssIh-cn-°p-
∂-Xv.

D`-b-Zn-im-{]-h¿Ø-\-Øns‚ {Km^v (Nn{Xw 3.5) hni-I-e\w sNbvXv

\¬In-bn-cn-°p∂ tNmZy-߃°v DØcw Is≠-Øm≥ {ian-°q.

]p
tc
cmk-{]-h¿Ø-\- \nc°v →

m{]
h¿
Ø
-\w
B
A
C kwXp-e-\mhÿ
-\w
Ø
h¿
v{]
mX
]›

kabw →
Nn{Xw 3.5
$ kabw Ign-bp-t¥mdpw ]ptcm-{]-h¿Ø-\-th-Kw, ]›mXv{]h¿Ø-\-
thKw F∂n-hbv°v D≠m-Ip∂ am‰w F¥v?

62
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

$ ]ptcm-{]-hÀ¯-\¯nsâbpw ]Ým-Xv{]hÀ¯-\¯nsâbpw \nc-

¡pIÄ Xpey-am-Ip¶ _nµp GXv?

FÃm kwXp-enXhyql-§-fnepw A`n-Im-c-I-§fpw D¸-

¶-§fpw \ne-\n¡p¶p F¶v \½Ä I­tÃm? kwXp-
e-\m-h-Ø-bn ]ptcm]Ým-Xv{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä \ne-bv¡p-
¶n-Ã-tÃm. CXn\memWv cmk-kw-Xp-e\w X·m-{Xm-X-e-
¯n KXn-I-am-sW¶v ]d-bp-¶-Xv.
Fe(NO3)3, KCNS F¶nh D]-tbm-Kn¨v sNbvX cmk-{]-
hÀ¯-\-¯n kwXp-e-\m-h-Øbv¡v amäw h¶ kmlNcy-
§Ä GsX-Ãm-amsW¶v enÌv sN¿q.
$ e-\m-hØ {]m]n-¡p-¶-Xv. kwXp-e-
$ \m-hØ- b- nepw A`n-Im-cI X·m-{X-
$
atä-sX-¦nepw LS-I-§Ä kwXp-e-\m-h-Øsb kzm[o-\n-
¡p-¶pt­m?
cmk-kw-Xp-e-\m-h-Ø-bp-ambn _Ô-s¸« {][m-\-s¸« Hcp
imkv{X-- X¯z-amWv se -jmävenbÀ F¶ imkv{X-Ú³
Ah-X-cn-¸n¨Xv.
cmk-kw-Xp-e\w
KXnIkwXp-e\w
kwXp-e-\m-h-Ø-bn-epÅ hyql-
¯n cmk{]hÀ¯\w \nebv-¡p-
¶- X p- a q- e - a Ã, ]ptcm- ] ÝmXv
{]hÀ¯-\-§-fpsS \nc¡v Xpey-am-
hp-¶-Xp-sIm-­mWv hyqlw kwXp-
IÄ {]hÀ¯n¨v D¸-¶-X-·m-{X-
Ifpw D¸- ¶ - X - · m- { X- I Ä
{]hÀ¯n¨v A`n-Im-cI- X- ·- m-{X-Ifpw
D­m-bn-s¡m-­n-cn-¡p-¶p.AXn-\mÂ
cmk-kw-Xp-e\w X·m-{Xm-X-e-¯nÂ
KXn-I-kw-Xp-e-am-sW¶v (Dynamic
equilibrium) ]d-bmw.

se jm-även-bÀ X¯zw (Le Chateliers' Principle)

""kwXp-e-\m-h-Ø-bn-epÅ Hcp hyql-¯n KmVX, aÀZw, Xm]-\ne

F¶n-hb
- n GsX-¦nepw H¶n\p amäw hcp-¯n-bm hyqlw Cu amäw-

aq-ea
- p-­m-Ip¶ ^ew CÃmbva sN¿-¯¡hn[w kzbw Hcp ]p\{I-ao-I-

cWw \S¯n ]pXnb kwXp-e\

- m-hØ
- b
- n-se-¯p¶p''. CXmWv seþjmäven-

bÀ X¯zw.

kwXp-enX-hyq-l-¯n KmV-X-bpsS kzm[o\w

Atam-Wn-b-bpsS hymh-km-bnI \nÀam-W-¯nsâ cmk-k-a-hmIyw NphsS
sImSp-¡p-¶p.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) U 2NH3 (g)

CXnÂ
$ ss\{S-Psâ KmVX Iq«n-bm GXv {]hÀ¯-\-amWv thK-¯nÂ
\S-¡p-¶Xv?
]ptcm-{]-hÀ¯\w/]Ým-Xv{]-hÀ¯\w (icn-bm-bXv ü sN¿p-I)
$ Atam-Wn-b-bpsS KmVX Iq«n-bmtem?

63
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

$ D¸m-Zn-¸n-¡-s¸-Sp¶ Atam-Wn-bsb XpSÀ¨-bmbn hyql-¯n \n¶v

amän-bm F´m-bn-cn¡pw ^ew?

Cu kwXpenX-hyq-l-¯n KmV-X-bn D­m-Ip¶ amä-¯nsâ ^ew

FgpXn ]«nI 3.3 ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡q.

{]hÀ¯\w KmV-X-bnse hyXymkw thK-¯nse amäw

$ IqSp-X ssl{U-P³ $ A`n- I m- c - I - ¯ nsâ KmVX $ ]ptcm- { ]- h À¯\ thKw

tNÀ¡p-¶p. Iq«p-¶p. IqSp-¶p.
$ IqSp- X  Atam- W nb $ D¸-¶-¯nsâ KmVX Iq«p- $ .................................................
tNÀ¡p-¶p. ¶p.
$ Atam- W nb \o¡w $ D¸¶-¯nsâ KmVX Ipd- $ .................................................
sN¿p-¶p. bv¡p-¶p.
$ IqSp- X Â ss\{S- P ³ $ A`n- I m- c I- ¯ nsâ KmVX $ .................................................
tNÀ¡p-¶p. Iq«p¶p.
]«nI 3.3
cmk-kw-Xp-e-\hpw aÀZhpw
hmX-I-§-fn-emWv aÀZ-¯n\v {]I-S-amb kzm[o\w DÅXv F¶v \n§Ä¡v-
Adn-bm-atÃm?
Atam-Wnb \nÀam-W-¯n aÀZ-hy-Xym-k-¯nsâ kzm[o\w \ap¡v ]cn-
tim-[n-¡mw.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) U 2NH3 (g)

$ Cu cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-¯n A`n-Im-cI X·m-{X-IÄ BsI F{X tamÄ

D­v?

$ D¸¶-§-tfm?

ChnsS A`n-Im-c-I-§fpw D¸-¶-§fpw hmX-I-§-fm-W-tÃm.

]ptcm-{]-hÀ¯\w : 4 tamÄ A`n-Im-cI X·m-{X-IÄ → 2 tamÄ

D¸¶ X·m-{X-IÄ (hym]vXw Ipd-bp-¶p)
]Ým-Xv{]-hÀ¯\w : ...... tamÄ DÂ]-¶X·m-{X-IÄ → ...... tamÄ A`n-
Im-cI X·m-{X-IÄ (hym]vXw . . . . . .)
Hcp hmXI hyql-¯n X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®w Ipd-bp-¶Xv aÀZw Ipd-bm³
klm-b-I-am-Ip-a-tÃm.
se jmävenbÀ X¯z-a-\p-k-cn¨v kwXp-e-\m-h-Ø-bn-epÅ hyql-¯n aÀZw
Iq«n-bm hyqlw aÀZw Ipd¨v ho­pw kwXp-e-\m-hØ {]m]n-¡p-hm³
{ian-¡p-a-tÃm.
64
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

$ Atam-Wnb \nÀam-W-¯n GXv Zni-bn-te-¡pÅ {]hÀ¯\w \S-¡p-

t¼m-gmWv X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®w Ipd-bp-¶Xv?

$ hyql-¯nsâ aÀZw Iq«n-bm F´p kw`-hn-¡p-¶p.

$ hyql-¯nsâ aÀZw Ipd-¨mtem?

$ Atam-Wnb \nÀam-W-¯n 200 - 900 atm hscbpÅ DbÀ¶ aÀZw D]-

tbm-Kn-¡p-¶Xv F´n-\m-bn-cn¡pw?

NphsS \ÂIn-bn-«pÅ hmXI cmk-{]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ cmk-k-a-hmIyw hne-bn-

cp-¯q.
H2 (g) + I2 (g) U 2HI (g)
$ A`n-Im-c-I-§-fpsS BsI F®w F{X- tamÄ BWv?

$ D¸¶-§-fp-sStbm?

ChnsS ]ptcm-þ-]-Ým-Xv{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fpsS ^e-ambn A`n-Im-c-I-§-fp-sSbpw

D¸-¶-§-fp-sSbpw tamÄ F®-¯n hyXymkw D­m-Ip-¶n-Ã-tÃm.
]ptcm-þ-]-ÝmXv {]hÀ¯-\-§-fpsS ^e-ambn A`n-Im-cIþD¸¶ X·m-
{X-bpsS F®-¯n hyXym-k-an-sÃ-¦n A¯cw hmXI cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-
§-fn aÀZ-¯n\v kwXpe\mhØbn bmsXmcp kzm[o-\-hp-ap­-mbn-cn-
¡p-I-bnÃ.

cmk-kwXp-e-\hpw Xm]-\n-ebpw
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä \S-¡p-t¼mÄ DuÀP-amäw \S-¡p¶p F¶v \mw I­p.
Xm]w BKn-cWw sN¿p¶h Xm]m-Kn-c-W-{]-hÀ¯-\-§fpw Xm]w tamNn-¸n-
¡-s¸-Sp¶ {]hÀ¯-\-§Ä Xm]-tamNI{]hÀ¯-\-§-fp-am-Wv F¶v \mw a\Ên-
em-¡n-bn-«p-­v.
Hcp sSÌvSyq_n AÂ]w KmV HNO3 FSp¯v AXn GXm\pw sN¼p-No-
fp-IÄ/\yqkvt]¸À t_mÄ CSp-I. Hcp hmXIw ]pd-t¯¡v hcp-¶ntÃ? CXnsâ
\nd-sa-´mWv? D­m-Ip¶ hmXIw asämcp sSÌvSyq_n tiJ-cn-¡q. Cu
sSÌvSyq_ns\ tImÀ¡v sIm­v AS-bv¡pI (Nn{Xw 3.6).

sNdnb
sFkv
NqSp-Å P
- ew
N2O 4 NO 2
NO 2
km[m-cW Xm]-\n-e-bnÂ
Nn{Xw 3.6 Xm]w
65
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

sFkv \nd¨ ]m{X-¯n sSÌvSyq_v sh¨m Xhn-«p-\ndw a§p-¶p. NqSp-

shÅw \nd¨ ]m{X-¯n sh¨m Xhn-«p-\ndw IqSp-¶p.
Xm]m-Kn-cWw
N2O4 (g) 2NO2 (g)
Xm]-tam-NIw
se -jm-även-bÀ X¯zw D]-tbm-K-s¸-Sp¯n Cu {]hÀ¯\w hni-I-e\w sN¿mw.
ChnsS Xhn-«p-\n-d-apÅ hmXIw NO2 BW-tÃm. sFkv \nd¨ ]m{X-¯nÂ
h¨v Xm]-\ne Ipd-bv¡p-t¼mÄ Xm]-tam-NI {]hÀ¯\w \S¶v NO2 hmXIw
\nd-an-Ãm¯ A`n-Im-c-amb ssU ss\{S-P³ sSt{Sm-IvsskUv (N2O4) Bbn
amdp-¶p. NqSm-¡p-t¼mÄ Xm]m-Kn-cW {]hÀ¯\w thK-¯n \S¶v IqSp-
XÂ NO2 hmXIw D­m-Ip-¶-Xp-sIm­v Xhn«p \ndw IqSp-¶p.
Atam-Wnbm \nÀamW {]hÀ¯-\-¯n Xm]-¯nsâ kzm[o\w ]cntim[n-
¡mw.
hymh-km-bnIambn NH3\nÀan¡p-¶Xv tl_À {]{Inb hgn-bm-sW¶v \n§Ä
]Tn-¨n-«p-­t- Ãm. ChnsS ]ptcm-{]-hÀ¯\w Xm]-tam-NI
- a- m-Wv.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) U 2 NH3 (g) + Xm]w

Xm]-\ne Iq«n-bm hyqlw AXv Ipd-bv¡m³ {ian-¡p-¶X - nsâ ^e-ambn Xm]m-

Kn-c-W-{]-hÀ¯\w thK-¯n-em-Ip-¶p. XXv^-e-ambn D¸-¶-amb Atam-Wnb
hnL-Sn¨v N2, H2 F¶nh-bmbn amdp-¶p. AXp-sIm­v NH3 IqSpX-ep-­m-Ip-hm³
se jmäven-bÀ X¯z-{]-Imcw Xm]-\ne Ipd-bv¡p-I-bmWv th­-Xv. ]t£
Xmgv¶ Xm]-\n-e-bn ]ptcm-þ-]-ÝmXv {]hÀ¯-\-§-fpsS \nc¡v hfsc Ipd-
ªp-t]m-Ip-¶-Xn-\m an{inXw kwXp-e-\m-hØ {]m]n-¡m³ IqSp-X kabw
th­n- h-cpw. AXn-\m hyh-km-bn-I-ambn NH3 \nÀan¡p-t¼mÄ 450 oC BWv
A\p-Iqe Xm]-\n-e-bmbn (Optimum temperature) kzoI-cn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv.
cmk-kw-Xp-e-\hpw DÂt{]-c-Ihpw
cmk-{]-hÀ¯\thKw hÀ[n-¸n-¡p¶ ]ZmÀY-§-fm-WtÃm t]mkn-äohv DÂt{]-
c-I-§Ä. D`-b-Zn-im-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fn ]ptcm-{]-hÀ¯-\hpw ]ÝmXv{]hÀ¯-
\-hp-ap-­v. GsX-¦nepw Hcp {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ am{Xw thKw hÀ[n-¸n-¡m³
DÂt{]-c-I-¯n\v Ign-bn-Ã-tÃm. At¸mÄ D`-b-Zn-im-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fn DÂt{]-
c-I-¯nsâ [Àaw F´m-bn-cn¡pw? Hcp D`-b-Zn-im-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n DÂt{]-c-I-
§Ä ]ptcm-þ-]-Ým-Xv{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fpsS thKw Htc \nc-¡n hÀ[n-¸n-¡p-
¶p. ^etam hyqlw hfsc thK-¯n kwXp-e-\m-hØ {]m]n-¡p-¶p. kwXp-
e-\m-h-Ø-bn F¯n-bm aäp LS-I-§Ä hyXym-k-s¸-Sp¯n cmk-{]-hÀ¯-
\-th-Kw \nb-{´n-¡m-a-tÃm.
kwXp-e-\m-hØ ssIh-cn¨ tijw hyql-¯n DÂt{]-cIw tNÀ¡p-¶Xv
KpWw sN¿ptam?

66
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

kwXp-e-\m-h-Ø-bn hnhn[ LS-I-§-fpsS kzm[o\w a\-Ên-em-¡n-b-tÃm.

k¼À¡- {]-{Inb hgn kÄ^yq-cn-¡m-knUv \nÀan-¡p¶ hnhn[ L«-§-fn-sem-
¶nsâ cmk-k-a-hmIyw \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv hne-bn-cp-¯q. Cu {]hÀ¯-\-
¯n NphsS \ÂIn-bn-«pÅ LS-I-§-fpsS kzm[o\w F{X-t¯m-f-sa¶v
Is­¯p-I.
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) U 2SO3 (g) + Xm]w
$ HmIvkn-Psâ Afhv hÀ[n-¸n-¡p-¶p.
$ aÀZw hÀ[n-¸n-¡p-¶p.
$ A\p-Iqe Xm]-\n-e-bm-¡p-¶p.
$ DÂt{]-cIw (V2O5) tNÀ¡p-¶p.
$ SO3 \o¡w sN¿p-¶p.

{][m\ ]T-\-t\-«-§-fn s]Sp-¶h

$ hnhn[ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä sNbvXv t\m¡n cmk-{]-hÀ¯\thKw

XmcXayw sN¿m\pw \nK-a-\-§Ä cq]o-I-cn-¡m\pw Ignbp-¶p.
$ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-\n-c-¡nsâ {]mtbm-KnI \nÀh-N\w cq]o-I-cn¨v Fgp-Xp-¶p.
$ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-s¯ kzm[o-\n-¡p¶ c­v LS-I-§-fmWv A`n-Im-c-I-
§-fpsS kz`m-hw, KmVX F¶v a\-Ên-em¡n Ah-bpsS kzm[o\w hni-Zo-
I-cn-¡m³ Ign-bp-¶p.
$ hnhn[ ]co-£-W-§-fn-eqsS aÀZw, Xm]-\ne, DÂt{]-c-I-§Ä F¶nh cmk-
{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-s¯ \nb-{´n-¡p¶ LS-I-§-fm-sW¶v a\-Ên-em¡n hni-
Zo-I-cn-¡m³ Ign-bp-¶p.
$ GI-Zn-im-{]-hÀ¯-\-§fpw D`-b-Zn-im-{]-hÀ¯-\-§fpw a\-Ên-em-¡p-Ibpw
DZm-l-c-W-§-fn-eqsS hni-Zo-I-cn¡m\pw Ignbp-¶p.
$ ]co-£W§fn-teÀs¸«v cmk-kw-Xp-e\w KXn-I-am-sW¶v Xncn-¨-dn-bp-¶p.
$ se jm-även-bÀ X¯zw D]-tbm-Kn¨v kwXp-e-\m-h-Ø-bn F¯p¶ cmk-
{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fn IqSp-X-embn DÂ]¶w \nÀan-¡p-hm-\pÅ amÀK-§Ä
Is­-¯p-Ibpw hni-Zo-I-cn-¡p-Ibpw sN¿p-¶p.
$ D`-b-Zn-im-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fn DÂt{]-c-I-§-fpsS kzm[o\w Xncn-¨-dnªv hni-
Zo-I-cn--¡p-¶p.

67
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

hne-bn-cp¯mw
1. a) Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ D`-b-Zn-im-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fn GXn-emWv
aÀZ-¯n-ep-­m-Ip¶ amäw kwXp-e-\m-h-Øsb kzm[o-\n-¡m-¯Xv?
ImcWw F´m-bn-cn¡pw?
i) H2 (g) + I2 (g) U 2HI (g)
ii) N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) U 2NH3 (g)
b) ss\{S-P\pw ssl{U-P\pw tNÀ¶v Atam-Wnb D­m-Ip¶ {]hÀ¯-
\-¯n DbÀ¶ aÀZw {]tbm-Kn-¡p-¶X
- p-sIm-­pÅ {]tbm-P\
- s- a´v?

2.
Xm]w
C (s) + H2O (g) U CO (g) + H2 (g)
a) Cu cmk- { ]- h À¯- \ - ¯ nse A`n- I m- c - I - § fpw D¸- ¶ - § fpw
FgpXpI.
b) hyql-¯n \n¶v D¸-¶-§Ä CS-bv¡nsS amän-s¡m-­n-cn-¡p-¶p.
ImcWw hyà-am-¡p-I.
3. N2O4 (g)
Xm]mKn-cWw 2NO2 (g)
Xm]-tam-NIw
a) Cu cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n Xhn«p\nd-apÅ hmX-I-taXv?
b) Xm]-\ne hÀ[n-¸n-¡p-¶Xv kwXp-e-\m-h-Øsb F§s\ kzm[o-
\n-¡p¶p?
c) D¸-¶-amb NO2 IqSp-X F§s\ e`y-am¡mw?
4. amÀ_nfpw t\À¸n¨ HCl epw X½n-epÅ cmk-{]-hÀ¯\ ka-hmIyw X¶n-
cn-¡p-¶p.
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
a) ChnsS D­m-Ip¶ hmXIw GXmWv?
b) cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-Kw Iq«m³ c­v amÀK-§Ä \nÀtZ-in-¡pI.
AXnsâ ImcWw hyà-am-¡p-I.
5. 2NO (g) + O2 (g) U 2NO2 (g) + Xm]w
Cu cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n Xmsg-¸-d-bp-¶h D¸-¶-¯nsâ Af-hns\
F§s\ kzm[o-\n-¡p-¶p?
a) Xm]-\ne Ipd-bv¡p¶p b) aÀZw Iq«p¶p

68
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

c) HmIvkn-Psâ KmVX Iq«p¶p

6. N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) U 2NH3 (g) + Xm]w
a) Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯n A`n-Im-c-I-§-Ä DÂ]-¶-ambn amdp-t¼mÄ
hym]vX¯n F´p-am-ä-ap-­m-Ip¶p?
b) IqSp-X D¸¶w e`n-¡m³ aÀZ-¯n F´v amäw hcp-¯Ww?
c) ]ptcm-{]-hÀ¯\w thK-¯n-em-¡m³ KmV-X-bn hcp-t¯­ amä-
sa´v?
d) Cu cmk-{]-hÀ¯\¯n D]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶ DÂt{]-cIw GXv?
AXnsâ kzm[o-\-sa´v?

XpSÀ{]-hÀ¯\§Ä
1. Nne D]-I-c-W-§fpw cmk-h-kvXp-¡fpw X¶n-cn-¡p-¶p.
Zn, Mg, t\À¸n¨ HCl, CaCO3, sSÌvSyq-_v, Pew
a) A`n-Im-c-I-§-fpsS kz`mhw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-s¯ \nb-{´n-
¡p¶p F¶v sXfn- b n- ¡ m³ Hcp ]co- £ Ww Bkq- { XWw
sN¿pI.
b) cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fpsS ka-hm-Iy-§Ä Fgp-XpI
c) cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-\nc¡nsâ kq{XhmIyw Fgp-XpI.

{]
h
→

À
¯
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\- \nc¡v

-\
w
C

A
kwXp-e-\mhØ

w
D
-\
¯
À
h
{]

kabw →

2. N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) U 2NH3 (g) + Xm]w F¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\s¯ kqNn¸n-

¡p¶ {Km^mWv NphsS X¶n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv. -
a) X¶n-cn-¡p¶ cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-¯n \n¶v {]hÀ¯\w C bpw
{]hÀ¯\w D bpw Xncn-¨-dnªv Fgp-Xp-I.

69
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

b) {Km^nse A _nµp-hnsâ Øm\-¯n\v DÂt{]-cIw IqSn D]-tbm-

Kn-¨m F´p amäw hcpw? {Km^v hc¨v ImWn-¡p-I.
3. c­v hnZymÀYn-IÄ sNbvX ]co-£-W-§-fmWv Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-
¡p-¶-Xv.
]co-£-Ww þ 1
Hcp sSÌvSyq_n 2 mL tkmUnbw XtbmkÄt^äv emb\n FSp¯v
NqSm-¡n-b-tijw 2 mL HCl emb\n tNÀ¡p-¶p.
]co-£Ww þ 2
Hcp sSÌvSyq_n 2mL tkmUnbw Xtbm-kÄt^äv emb\n FSp¯v
2 mL HCl emb\n tNÀ¡p-¶p.
a) GXv ]co- £ - W - ¯ n- e m- b n- c n¡pw s]s«¶v Ah- £ n]v X w
e`n¨Xv? \n§-fpsS D¯cw km[q-I-cn-¡p-I.
b) {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ kao-IrX ka-hmIyw Fgp-Xp-I.
4. ]co-£-W-im-e-bn e`y-amb Nne ]ZmÀY-§Ä \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶p.
aáojyw dn_¬, amÀ_nÄ s]mSn- ¨ - X v , amÀ_nÄ IjW- § Ä,
t\À¸n¨ HCl, KmV HCl.
a) Ipdª ka- b - ¯ n- \ p- Å n IqSp- X  ImÀ_¬ ssU
HmIvsskUv \nÀan-¡m³ GsXÃmw ]ZmÀY-§Ä Xnc-sª-
Sp¡pw?
b) {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ kao-I-cn¨ cmk-k-a-hmIyw Fgp-Xp-I.

70
Nn{Xw {i²n-¨ntÃ? Nn{X-¯n-ep-ÅXv Fs´-Ãm-amWv?

sshZypXn D]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶ Nne kµÀ`-§fpw Nne sshZypX t{kmX-Êp-I-fp-

atà Nn{X-¯n ImWn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv.
teml-§-fpsS Nne cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fnÂ\n¶v sshZypXn \nÀan-¡p-¶Xpw
emb-\n-I-fneqsS sshZypXn IS-¯n-hn«v teml-§fpw Atem-l-§fpw thÀXn-
cn-¡p-¶-Xp-amb {]hÀ¯-\-§Ä BWtÃm Ch-bn \S-¡p-¶-Xv.
Hcp skÃn Xs¶ hy-X-ykvX teml-§Ä D]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶-Xn\v ImcWw
Ah-bpsS cmk-Kp-W§fnse hy-X-ym-k-a-tÃ?
teml-§Ä ]e-Xcw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fn D]-tbm-K-s¸-Sp¯mdp-­v. Nne
teml-§Ä hfsc Xo{h-ambn cmk{]hÀ¯-\-¯n GÀs¸-Sp-t¼mÄ aäp-Åh
hfsc Ipd-ª Xo{h-X-bn-emWv AtX cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n GÀs¸-Sp-¶-Xv.
cmk-{]-hÀ¯\ Xo{hX Xmc-Xayw sNbvXv {Inbm-ioew Ipd-ªXpw IqSn-b-Xp-
amb teml-§sf Is­-¯mw.
teml-§-fpsS {Inbm-io-e-¯n-epÅ Cu hyXymkw Is­-¯n Ah \ap¡v
F§s\sbms¡ {]tbmP\-s¸Sp¯msa¶p t\m¡mw.
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

teml-§-fpsS cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-tijn
Hmtcm teml-¯n\pw cmk{]h-À¯-\-¯n GÀs¸-Sp-hm-\pÅ Ignhv hyXy-
kvX-am-Wv. Pe-hp-am-bpÅ Nne teml-§-fpsS cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w sNbvXp
as®®
t\m¡mw (Nn{Xw 4.1).
tkmUnbw Hcp sSÌvSyq_n Ipd¨v Pe-sa-Sp-¯v AXn c­p XpÅn ^nt\m-^vX-
hmXI en³ Hgn-¡p-I. Cu an{in-X¯
- n-te¡v Pe-¯nsâ A{Xbpw Af-hn as®®
Ipan-fI
- Ä
Pew
Hgn-¡p-I. AXn-te¡v Hcp sNdnb IjWw tkmUnbw C« tijw \nco-
£Ww tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯q.
Nn{Xw 4.1
$ tkmUn-b-¯n\p apI-fn hmXI Ipan-f-IÄ ]än¸n-Sn-¨Xv I­tÃm?
D­mb hmX-Iw GXm-bn-cn¡pw?
$ Pe¯n\v \ndw amä-ap-­mtbm?
IT @ School cmk-{]-hÀ¯\ ka-hmIyw ]cn-tim-[n¨v ImcWw Is­-¯q.
Edubuntu hnse 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
School Resources
epÅ Chemistry for Pe-¯n\v ]n¦v \nd-ap-­m-b-Xn\v ImcWw hyà-am-bn-tÃ?
Class X open
sNbvXv tem-l§- Ä c­v sSÌvSyq-_p-Ifn H¶n Ipd¨v XWp¯ Pehpw atä-Xn NqSpÅ
F¶ t]Pn \n¶pw Pehpw FSp-¡q. c­p sSÌvSyq-_p-I-fn-te¡pw Hmtcm XpÅn ^nt\m-^vX-
tkmUnbw apX-emb en³ tNÀ-¯ tijw Aev]w aáojyw C«v \nco-£Ww tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯q.
teml§Ä Pe-hp- $ GXn \n¶mWv thK-¯n ssl{U-P³ hmXIw ]pd¯p h¶Xv?
ambn {]hÀ¯n-¡p-¶-
Xnsâ hoUntbm
\nco-£n-¡p-I.
cmk-{]-hÀ¯\ka-hmIyw t\m¡q.
Mg (s) + 2H2O (l) → Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
NqSpÅ Pe-¯n thK-¯n ]n¦p \ndw D­m-b-Xn\v Imc-W-sa-´mWv?
Ab¬, tIm¸À F¶nh XWp¯ Pe-hp-ambn {]hÀ¯n¨v ssl{U-P³
D­m-¡ptam? \nXy-Po-hnX kµÀ`-§-fp-ambn _Ô-s¸-Sp¯n Nn´n-¡q.
Ab¬ DbÀ¶ Af-hn NqSm-¡nb \ocm-hn-bp-ambn (Super heated steam)
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n GÀs¸-Sp-¶p­v. ka-hmIyw ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡m-a-tÃm.
Fe (s) + H2O (g) → Fe3O4 (s) + ........
tIm¸À \ocm-hn-bp-ambnt]mepw {]hÀ¯n-¡p-¶n-Ã.
Cu, Mg, Fe, Na F¶o teml-§-sf Ah-bpsS Pe-hp-am-bpÅ {]hÀ¯-\-
tijn Ipdªphcp-¶-X-\p-k-cn¨v {Iao-I-cn-¡q.
teml-§-fpsS Hcp {]tXy-I-X-bm-WtÃm teml-ZypXn. I¯n D]-tbm-Kn¨v
Hcp IjWw tkmUnbw apdn-¡p-I. apdn¨ `mKw \nco-£n-¡p-I. Ipsd-t\cw
Ign-bp-t¼mÄ apdn¨ `mK-¯nsâ Xnf¡w Ipd-ª-Xmbn ImWp-¶ntÃ?
72
 ck-X{¥w $ Ãmt‚¿Uv - X

F¥mWn- X n\p ImcWw F∂v NphsS sImSpØ cmkka- h mIy߃

hniIe\w sNbvXv Is≠-Ømtam?
4Na (s) + O2 (g) → 2Na2O (s)
2Na (s) + 2H2O (1) → 2NaOH (s) + H2 (g)
2NaOH (s) + CO2 (g) → Na2CO3 (s) + H2O (1)
A¥co£Øn-ep≈ HmIvkn-P≥, Pemw-iw, Im¿_¨ ssUHmIvsskUv
F∂nh tkmUn-b-hp-ambn {]h¿Øn-®v AXns‚ kwbp-‡-ßfmbn amdn-b-
Xt√ CXn\v Imc-Ww?
]pXnb aKv\o-jyw dn_¨ Ipsd Znhkw hmbp-hn¬ Xpd-∂p-h®
- n-cp-∂m¬ Xnf°w
\jvS-s∏-Sp-∂Xv I≠n-´nt√? CXn\v Imc-Whpw A¥-co-£-hm-bp-hp-am-bp≈
{]h¿Ø\w Xs∂-bmWv.
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) →
Aeq-an-\nbw ]m{X-ßfpsS Xnf°w Ime-{I-taW Ipd-bp-∂-Xmbn ImWmw.
sNºp ]m{X-ßfmhs´ ¢mhv ]nSn®v Xnf°w \jvS-s∏-Sm≥ amk-ß-tfmfw
FSp-°p-∂p. F{X-Imew Ign-™mepw kz¿W-Øns‚ Xnf°w \jvS-s∏-Sptam?
teml-߃ hmbp-hp-ambn hyXykvX thK-Øn¬ {]h¿Øn-°p-∂p F∂t√
CXv kqNn-∏n-°p-∂-Xv?
$ aKv\ojyw, tIm∏¿, kz¿Ww, tkmUnbw, Aeqan-\nbw Ch-bn¬ G‰hpw
thKw Xnf°w \jvS-s∏-Sp∂ temlw GXmWv?

$ hmbp-hp-ambn {]h¿Øn®v Xnf°w \jvSs∏-Sp-∂Xns‚ Ah-tcm-l-W-

{IaØn¬ apI-fn¬ \¬In-bn-´p≈ teml-߃ FgpXn t\m°q.

km[m-c-Wbmbn teml-߃ t\¿∏n® HCl ambn {]h¿Øn®v ssl{U-P≥

D≠m-Ipa-t√m. Mg, Pb, Zn, Fe, Cu F∂o teml-߃°v t\¿∏n® HCl ambp≈
cmk-{]-h¿Ø-\-Øns‚ thKw Xmc-Xayw sNøp-∂-Xn\v Hcp ]co-£Ww
(Nn{Xw 4.2) Bkq-{XWw sNbvXmtem? cmk-{]-h¿Ø\-thKw Ipd™p hcp∂
coXn-bn¬ sSÃvSyq-_p-Isf {Iao-I-cn-°q.

1 2 3 4 5
Nn{Xw 4.2
73
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X
teml-§Ä¡v hyXy-kvX-amb cmk-{]-hÀ¯\ tijn-bm-Wp-Å-sX¶v
sNbvXp-t\m-¡nb ]co-£-W-§-fn \n¶v a\-Ên-em-¡n-b-tÃm.
Nne teml-§sf Ah-bpsS cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-tijn Ipdªp hcp-¶-X-
\p-k-cn¨v {Iao-I-cn¨ t{iWn-bmWv ]«nI 4.1 Â sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv.
CXv {Inbm-io-et - {iWn (Reactivity series) F¶-dn-bs
- ¸-Sp-¶p. Cu t{iWn-
bn cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-ti-jn-bpsS Xmc-X-ay-¯n\v th­n ssl{U-P³
IqSn DÄs¸-Sp-¯n-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv {i²n-¡q.

s]m«mkyw K
tkmUnbw Na
ImÂkyw Ca t\À¸n¨ BknUpambn {]hÀ¯n¨v ssl{U-
Ps\ BtZ-iw sN¿p-¶p.
aáojyw Mg
Aeq-an-\nbw Al
kn¦v Zn
Ab¬ Fe
\n¡Â Ni
Sn³ Sn
seUv Pb
ssl{U-P³ H
tIm¸À Cu
t\À¸n¨ BknUpambn {]hÀ¯n¨v ssl{U-Ps\
knÂhÀ Ag BtZ-iw sN¿p-¶nÃ.
tKmÄUv Au
]«nI 4.1

{Inbm-io-e-t{i-Wnbpw BtZ-i-cm-k-{]hÀ¯-\-§fpw

Hcp _o¡-dn Ipd¨v CuSO4 emb\n Xbm-dm¡n hbv¡p-I. AXn-te¡v

Hcp Zn ZÞv Cd¡n hbv¡p-I (Nn{Xw 4.3). ]«nI 4.2 ]qcn-¸n¨v \nco-
£-W-¡p-dn¸v ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡q.

\nco-£n-t¡-­Xv ]co-£-W-¯n-\p- ]co-£-W-¯n-\p- kn¦v

ap¼v tijw ZÞ v

Zn2+
kn¦v -Z-Þnsâ .................... ....................
\ndw
Zn
CuSO4
CuSO emb-\n- .................... .................... Cu2+
emb-\n- Cu
bpsS \ndw
4

]«nI 4.2 Nn{Xw 4.3

74
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

kn¦v ZÞn-\p-­mb -hy-Xym-k-¯n\p Imc-W-w ]cn-tim-[n-¡mw.

CuSO emb-\n-bpsS \oe \nd-¯n\p ImcWw Cu Atbm-Wp-I-fm-Wv.
2+

F¶m Zn ZÞv CuSO emb-\n-bn ap¡n h¨-t¸mÄ emb-\n-bpsS

4

\ndw a§n-b-tÃm. CXn\v Imc-W-sa-´mWv?

4

ChnsS \S¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w t\m¡mw.

Zn (s) + CuSO (aq) → ZnSO (aq) + Cu (s)
$ ChnsS GXv teml-amWv BtZiw sN¿--s¸-«Xv?
4 4

$ Zn, Cu Ch-bn GXn-\mWv {Inbm-ioew IqSp-X�

$ F´p-sIm-­mWv Cu BtZiw sN¿--s¸-«-sX¶v {Inbm-io-e-t{i-Wn-
bnse Zn, Cu F¶n-h-bpsS Øm\s¯ ASnØm-\-s¸-Sp¯n hni-
Zo-I-cn-¡mtam?
kn¦n\v (Zn) tIm¸-dn-t\¡mÄ (Cu) {]hÀ¯-\-tijn IqSp-X-em-b-Xp-
sIm-­t- Ã C§s\ kw`-hn-¨-Xv?
apI-fn sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ ka-hm-Iy- s¯ Atbm-Wp-IÄ hyà-am-¡p¶
hn[-¯n NphsS sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶-Xp-t]mse Fgp-Xn-bmtem?
Zn0 + Cu2+SO42– → Zn2+SO42– + Cu0
Zn\v h¶ amäw : Zn → Zn + 2e
0 2+ –

$ Cu {]hÀ¯\w HmIvko-I-cWw F¶m-W-tÃm Adn-b-s¸-Sp-¶-Xv.

F´mhmw ImcWw?
Cu \v h¶ amäw :
2+

+ →
$ Cu {]hÀ¯\w F´v t]cne- mWv Adnb- s- ¸-Sp-¶Xv? F´p-sIm-­mWv?
Zn \v Hm-Ivko-I-cWw kw`-hn-¨p. Cu \v \ntcm-Ivko-I-c-W-hpw. AXm-
2+

bXv ChnsS Htc kabw HmIvko-I-c-Whpw \ntcm-Ivko-I-c-Whpw \S-

¡p-¶p. Cu {]hÀ¯\w Hcp dntUmIvkv {]hÀ¯-\-am-Wv.
$ knÂhÀ ss\t{S-äp- em-b-\n-bn Hcp tIm¸À I¼n C«p- tIm¸À

h-¨m F´p kw`-hn¡psa¶v \nco-£n-¡q (Nn{Xw 4.4).

$ tIm¸ÀI¼n-¡p­mb amäsa´v? F´m-bn-cn¡pw CXn\p AgNO3 emb\n
ImcWw? Cu
Cu2+

$ knÂhÀ ss\t{S-äp-em-b-\n-bpsS \nd-¯n\v F´p amä-ap- Ag +

­mbn? Imc-W-sa´v? Ag

Nn{Xw 4.4 75
 ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

$ cmk-{]-hÀ¯\ ka-hmIyw ]qÀ¯o-I-cn-¡q.

2AgNO3 (aq) + Cu (s) → Cu(NO3)2 (aq) +
$ Atbm-WpIÄ hyà-am-¡p¶ ka-hmIyw Ipdn-¡q.

$ HmIvko-I-cWw kw`-hn¨ temlhpw \ntcm-Ivko-I-c-Ww -kw`-hn¨

teml AtbmWpw Is­-¯q.

$ HmIvko-Ic
- W ka-hm-Iyhpw \ntcm-Ik
v o-Ic
- W ka-hm-Iyhpw FgpXn t\m¡q.
HmIvko-I-cWw :
\ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw :
Mg, Cu, Zn, Fe, Ag F¶o teml- § fpw Ah- b psS eh- W - e m- b - \ n- I fpw
]«n-I- 4.3 Â \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. Hcp kvt]m«nMv ssSensâ klm-b-¯mÂ
teml-§Ä eh-W-em-b-\n-bn ap¡n h¨v \nco-£n-¡p-I. ]«nI ]qÀ¯n-bm-
¡p-I. temlw BtZiw sN¿p¶hbv¡v "ü' amÀ¡pw AÃm-¯-hbv¡v "X'

IqSp-XÂ ]cn-io-e-\-
amÀ¡pw tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯n ]«nI ]qÀ¯o-I-cn-¡q.

¯n\mbn IT @ temlw/emb\n Mg Cu Zn Fe Ag
School Edubuntu aKv\ojyw kÄt^äv
hnse School
Resources epÅ tIm¸À kÄt^äv
Chemistry for Class
X open sNbvXv tem- kn¦v kÄt^äv
l-§Ä F¶ s^dkv kÄt^äv
t]Pnse BtZi
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä knÂhÀ ss\t{Säv
F¶ Interactive
animation {]hÀ¯n- ]«nI 4.3
¸n¡p-I.
{Inbm-ioew Ipdª teml-§sf Ah-bpsS ehW emb-\n-bn \n¶v

{Inbm-ioew IqSnb teml-§Ä BtZiw sN¿p-¶p.

$ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf hn«p-sIm-Sp-¯p-sIm­v cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n GÀs¸-

Sp-hm-\pÅ Ignhv Ipdªp hcp¶ {Ia-¯n apI-fn \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶

teml-§sf {Iao-I-cn-¡q.

ap¼v sNbvX {]hÀ¯-\-§Ä {Inbm-ioe t{iWn-bp-ambn Xmc-Xayw sNbvXv

{Iaw ]men-¡-s¸-«n-«pt­m F¶v ]cn-tim-[n-¡q.

sshZypXn\nÀan-¡m\pw teml-§-Ä þ KmÂhm-\nIv skÂ

{Inbm-ioew IqSnb teml-§Ä s]mXpsh Peob emb-\n-I-fn Ce-Ivt{Sm-

Wp-Isf \jvS-s¸-Sp¯n t]mkn-äohv Atbm-Wp-I-fm-Im³ {]h-WX

ImWn¡p¶p. Ce- I vt{Sm¬ \jvS- s ¸- S p- h m- \ pÅ teml§fpsS Ignhv

hyXykvX-am-sW¶v \½Ä I­p Ign-ªp. Hcp ]co-£Ww sNbvXm-tem?

Nn{Xw 4.5 \nco-£n-¡q.

76
 ck-X{¥w $ Ãmt‚¿Uv - X
e- {]hmlZni

thmƒ´v ao‰¿ IqSp-X¬ hy‡X hcp-

Cu Zfiv Øp∂-Xn-\mbn IT @
Zn Zfiv tkmƒ´v {_nUvPv
School Edubuntu hnse
School Resources ep≈
Chemistry for Class X
open sNbvXv tem-l-
ZnSO4
߃ F∂ t]Pnse
CuSO4
Km¬h-\nIv sk¬ F∂
hoUntbm \nco-£n-°pI
Nn{Xw 4.5 Interactive animation
{]h¿Øn-∏n-°pI.
c≠p _o°-dp-I-ƒ FSpØv H∂n¬ 1 M KmV-X-bp≈ 100 mL ZnSO4
emb-\nbpw at‰-Xn¬ Xpey KmV-X-bp≈ CuSO4 emb-\nbpw AtX Af-
hn¬ FSp-°p-I. Zn Zfiv ZnSO4 emb-\n-bnepw Cu Zfiv CuSO4 emb-\n-
bnepw ap°n hbv°p-I. Hcp thmƒ´vao‰-dns‚ s\K-‰ohv sS¿an-\¬ Zn
Zfin-t\mSpw s]mkn-‰ohv sS¿an-\¬ Cu Zfin-t\mSpw _‘n-∏n°pI.
c≠p _o°-dp-I-fnse emb-\n-I-fpw XΩn¬ tkmƒ´v {_nUvPv D]-tbm-
Kn®v _‘n-∏n-°p-I. (KCl emb-\n-bn¬ \\® Hcp \o≠ ^n¬´¿ t]∏¿
IjWw kmƒ´v {_nUvPn\v ]I-ca - mbn D]tbmKn°m-hp-∂X
- mWv). Ct∏mƒ
thmƒ´vao‰¿ doUnwKnse am‰w \nco-£n-°q. CØcw {Iao-I-cWw hgn
sshZypXn \n¿an-°m-at√m?
cmk-{]-h¿Ø\w hgn-bm-Wt√m ChnsS sshZypXn D≠m-b-Xv.

dntUmIvkv cmk-{]-h¿Ø\-ØneqsS cmtkm¿Pw sshZyp-tXm¿P-

am-°p∂ {IaoI-c-W-amWv Km¬hm-\nIv sk¬ AYhm thmƒ´m-
bnIv sk¬.

Zn \v Cu s\°mƒ {Inbm-ioew IqSp-X-em-sW∂v ap≥ ]co-

£-W-ß-fn¬ \n∂v a\- n-em-°n-b-t√m.
$ Ch D]-tbm-Kn®v \n¿an® sk√n¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf tkmƒ´v {_nUvPv
hn´p-sIm-Sp-°m≥ Ign-bp∂ Ce-Ivt{SmUv GXmbn-cn°pw?
KCl, KNO3, NH4Cl Ch-bn¬ GsX-
¶nepw Hcp ehWw Pem-‰n-\n¬
$ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf t\Sm≥ Ign-hp-≈tXm? As√-¶n¬ AK¿ AK¿ sP√n-bn¬
Ie¿Ønb A¿[- J c cq]- Ø n-
ep≈ t]Ãv \nd® U BIr- X n-
Zn Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un¬ \S-°p∂ cmk-{]-h¿Ø\w NphsS \¬In-
bp≈ Syq_mWv tkmƒ´v {_nUvPv.
bn- c n- ° p- ∂ - h - b n¬ GXmWv ? icn- b m- b Xv Is≠Øn 9 CXv Atbm-Wp-I-fpsS \o°w hgn
sNøpI. k¿°o´v ]q¿Øn- b m- ° p- I bpw
Zn (s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− → Zn (s) sk√nse \yq{Sm-en‰n \ne \n¿Øp-
ChnsS \S-°p∂ {]h¿Ø\w HmIvko-I-cW {]h¿Ø-\-am- Ibpw sNøp-∂p.
W-t√m. AXm-bXv Zn c≠v Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ hn´p-sImSpØv
77
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

Zn2+ BIp-¶p. C{]-Imcw HmIvko-I-cW {]hÀ¯\w

\S-¡p¶ Ce-Ivt{SmUv BWv Bt\m-Uv. Zn ZÞn\v

Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ {]hm-lZ- nibpw s\K-äohv NmÀPm-bn-cn-¡pw.

sshZypX {]hm-lZ- nibpw Zn ZÞn \n¶v kzX-{´-am-Ip¶ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ

_mly- k À¡o- « n- e qsS tIm¸À ZÞn- s e- ¯ p- I bpw
KmÂh- \ nIv skÃn Ce- I v t {Sm¬ emb-\n-bnse tIm¸À Atbm¬ Cu Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-

{]hmlw s\K- ä ohv Ce- I v t {Sm- U n Isf kzoI-cn¨v tIm¸À Bbn amdp-Ibpw sN¿p-¶p.

(Bt\m-Uv) \n¶v t]mkn-äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm- Cu CeIv t {Sm- U nse cmk- { ]- h À¯\ ka- h mIyw

Unte¡v- (ImtYm-Uv) B-Wt- Ãm. F¶m FgpXn t\m¡q.

sshZypX {]hm-l-Zni FÃm-bvt¸mgpw

t]mkn-äo-hn \n¶v s\K-äo-hn-te-b¡ v mWv
]cn-KW- n-¡s¸Sp-¶X- v. BZy-Im-e§ - f- nÂ
sshZypXn t]mkn-äo-hn \n¶v s\K-äo-
hn-te¡v \o§p¶p F¶v hniz-kn-¡p-
Ibpw CXn-\-\p-k-cn¨v [mcmfw \nb-a-
§fpw ka-hm-Iy-§fpw cq]o-I-cn-¡-s¸-
SpIbpw sNbvXp. ]n¶oSv Ch Xncp-¯p-
¶-Xn-epÅ {]bmkw aqew CXns\ ]c-
¼-cm-KX- a- mb Id­ (Conventional current)
v
F¶ coXn-bn ]cn-KW - n-¡p-Ibpw Ce-
CsXmcp \ntcm-Ivko-I-cW {]hÀ¯-\-am-Wv. \ntcm-
Ivko-Ic
- W {]hÀ¯\w \S-¡p¶ Ce-Ivt{SmUv BWv
ImtYm- U v . tIm¸À ZÞn t]mkn- ä ohv NmÀPv
BWtÃm?
HmIvko-I-cWw \S-¡p¶ Ce-Ivt{SmUv Bt\mUpw
\ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw \S-¡p¶ Ce-Ivt{SmUv ImtYm-
Up-am-Wv.
Zn Ce- I v t {Sm- U nepw Cu Ce- I v t {Sm- U nepw \S¶
{]hÀ¯-\-§-fpsS cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-§sf Hcp-an¨v -

Ivt{Sm¬ {]hml Znisb Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ tNÀ¯v Fgp-Xn-bmtem?

Id­v F¶ coXn-bn ]cn-KW - n-¡p-Ibpw Zn Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un Zn (s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e–

sNbvXp. Cu Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un Cu 2+ (aq)+2e - → Cu (s)
Zn (s)+Cu 2+ (aq) → Zn 2+ (aq)+Cu (s)
CXv Hcp dntUmIvkv {]hÀ¯-\-amW-tÃm.

Cu dntUmIvkv {]hÀ¯-\¯nsâ ^e-ambp­m-Ip¶ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬

ssIam-äamWv skÃn sshZypX {]hmlw D­m¡p¶Xv.

Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ {]hmlZni Bt\m-Un \n¶v ImtYm-Un-te-¡m-sW¶v

{i²n-¨-tÃm.

knÂhÀ Ce-Ivt{SmUpw tIm¸À Ce-Ivt{SmUpw D]-tbm-Kn¨v Hcp skÂ

\nÀan-¨mtem?

Bh-iy-amb kma-{Kn-IÄ:

knÂhÀ I¼n, tIm¸À ZÞv, c­p _o¡-dp-IÄ, tIm¸À kÄt^-äv,-

knÂhÀ ss\t{S-äv, tkmÄ«v {_nUvPv, thmÄ«vaoäÀ, tIm¸ÀI¼n, Pew

XpS-§n-bh.

$ \nÀan¨ sk Nn{Xo-I-cn-¡q.

78
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

$ KmÂhm\
- nIv skÃnse {]hÀ¯\w Ipdn¡
- pI.

$ Nn{Xo-I-c-W-¯n Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ {]hm-l-Zni

teml-\m-i\w
(Corrosion of metals)
A´-co-£h- m-bp-hp-ambpw CuÀ¸-hp-ambpw
AS-bm-f-s¸-Sp-¯q.

I m t Y m - U n e p w B t \ m - U n e p w \ S - ¡ p ¶ c m k -

\nc-´c k¼À¡-¯n-teÀs¸«v Hcp temlw

{]hÀ¯\§Ä FgpX
- n- t\m¡q.

AXnsâ kwbpà-ambn amdp¶ {]{In-b-

bmWv teml-\m-i-\w. teml-§Ä Ce-
Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf \jvSs- ¸-Sp-¯p-Ibpw HmIvkn-
ImtYm-UnÂ:

P³ Ahsb kzoI-cn¡ - p-Ibpw sN¿p¶ Hcp

sshZypX cmk{]hÀ¯- \ - a mWv CXv .
Bt\m-UnÂ:

Ab¬, kn¦v, tIm¸À XpS-§nb teml-

kn¦pw tIm¸dpw D]-tbmKn¨v \nÀan¨ skÃnÂ

t I m ¸ À I m t Y m - U m - b m - W t à m { ] h À ¯ n - ¨ - X v .

§Ä \mi-\h- n-t[-ba- m-Ip-¶Xv Cu coXn-bn-

F¶m knÂhdpw tIm¸dpw D]-tbm-Kn-¨-t¸mtgm?

em-Wv. {Inbm-ioew IqSnb s]m«m-kyw,

tkmUnbw XpS-§nb teml-§Ä t\cn-
«pÅ cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w hgn-bmWv \mi\
C h n s S \ S - ¡ p ¶ d n t U m I v k v c m k - { ] - h À ¯ \ w

hnt[-ba- m-Ip-¶X- v.
\ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv t\m¡q.

Cu (s) + 2Ag+ (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2Ag (s)

\n§Ä Zn, Cu, Ag F¶o 3 teml-§Ä D]-tbm-K-

s¸- S p- ¯ nbtÃm. CXp]- t bm- K n¨v F{X- X cw
skÃpIÄ cq]o-I-cn-¡mw.
Ch-bn-tem-tcm¶n-sebpw Bt\m-Uv, ImtYmUv
F¶nh FgpXn ]«n-I 4.4 ]qÀ¯o-I-cn¡q.
skÂ
• Zn - Cu
• sshZyptXmÀPw D¸m-Zn-¸n-¡p-¶-Xv.
• ss{U sk (Dry cell), saÀ¡pdn skÂ
cmtkmÀPw sshZyp-tXmÀP-ambn amdp¶ cmk-{]-
hÀ¯- \ - § Ä \½Ä ]cn- N - b - s ¸«p - I - g nªp.
F¦n sshZyp- t XmÀPw D]- t bm- K n¨v cmk-
{]hÀ¯\w \S¯m\pw Ign-bpatÃm.
hnhn[Xcw cmk-skÃp-IÄ
Bt\mUv ImtYmUv cmtkmÀPw sshZyp-tXmÀP-ambn amä-s¸-
Sp¶Xnsâ ASn-Øm\ X¯zw {]tbm-P-
\-s¸-Sp-¯n-bmWv cmk skÃp-I-fnÂ
]«nI 4.4 (Mercury cell) F¶nh ho­pw NmÀPv
sNbvXv D]-tbm-Kn¡- m³ Ignb- m¯ skÃp-
I-fmWv. Ch ss{]adn skÃp-IÄ F¶
hn`m-K¯
- n DÄs¸-Sp-¶p. F¶m sk¡-
­dn skÃp- I - f mb seUv tÌmtdPv
_mädn, \n¡Â-þI- m-Uvanbw sk (Ni-Cd
cell) F¶nh NmÀPv XoÀ¶m ho­pw
NmÀPv sNbvXv D]-tbm-Kn-¡m-hp-¶X- m-Wv.
samss_Â t^mWnepw aäpw D]-tbm-Kn-
¡p¶ enXnbw Atbm¬ skÃpw C¯-
c-¯n-ep-ÅX- m-Wv. ssl{U-P³ þ- HmIvkn-
P³ ^yphÂsk KmÂh-\n¡v skÃp-
I-fnse Hcp \qX\ Bi-ba- mWv.
79
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

Pes¯ sshZypXhntÇ-jWw sNbvXv ssl{UP\pw HmIvkn-P\pw

thÀXncn¨ {]hÀ¯\w \n§Ä sNbvXn-«p-­-tÃm.
4.5 V C§-s\-bpÅ asämcp kwhn-[m-\w ]cn-N-b-s¸-Smw.
V
sshZypXhntÇ-jW skÃp-IÄ
Nn{Xw 4.6 Â \ÂInb-nc-n¡p¶ ]co-£Ww {i²n-¡q.
-
Hcp _o¡-dn Ipd¨v Ip{]nIv t¢mssdUv (CuCl ) FSp-
2

{Kmss^äv
+
¡p-I. c­p {Kmss^äv ZÞp-I-fp-]-tbm-Kn¨v 4.5 V DÅ
ZÞv {Kmss^äv Hcp _mä-dn-sb Nn{X-¯n-se-t]mse _Ôn-¸n-¡p-I.
ZÞv $ CuCl sshZypXn IS¯n hnSp-¶pt­m?
2

CuCl2
emb\n
Aev]w Pew Hgn¨v CuCl emb\n B¡p-I.
2

Nn{Xw 4.6 $ Ct¸mÄ emb\n sshZypXn IS¯n hnSp-¶pt­m?

Peob emb\nbmIp-t¼mtgm Dcp-Inb Ah-Ø-bn-tem sshZyp-Xn

IS¯nhnSpIbpw cmk-am-ä¯ - n\v hnt[-ba- m-hp-Ibpw sN¿p¶ ]ZmÀY-
§-fmWv Ce-Ivt{Sm-sse-äp-IÄ (Electrolytes). Bkn-Up-If- pw, B¡-
en-If- pw, eh-W-§fpw Dcp-Inb Ah-Øb - nepw, emb-\nIfmIp-t¼mgpw
Ce-Itv {Sm-sse-äp-If- m-W.v
Peo-b emb-\nbntem {Zmh-Im-h-Ø-bntem Bb CeIvt{Smsseäp-I-
fn Atbm-Wp-IÄ kzX-{´-ambn k©-cn-¡p-¶p. Cu Atbm-Wp-I-
fmWv Ce-Ivt{Sm-sse-änse sshZypX Nme-I-Xbv¡v Imc-Ww.
CuCl sâ Peob emb\n sshZ-ypX Nme-I-am-Im³ ImcWw Atbm-Wp-
2
IÄ cq]o-I-cn-¡-s¸«Xmbn-cn-¡p-atÃm. CXnsâ Atbm-Wo-I-cW ka-
hmIyw -t\m-¡q.
CuCl2 → Cu2++ 2Cl–
$ Ipsd t\cw sshZypXn IS¯nhnSp-t¼mÄ Hmtcm Ce-Ivt{Sm-Unepw
F´p-am-ä-amWv kw`-hn-¡p-¶Xv? \nco-£Ww tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯q.

_mä-dn-bpsS t]mkn-äohv {[ph-¯n LSn-¸n¨ Ce-Ivt{Sm-UnÂ

(t]mknäohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-UnÂ) D­mb hmXI¯nsâ KÔ-¯n \n¶v
AXv t¢mdn-\m-sW¶v Xncn-¨-dn-bm-atÃm.
_mä-dn-bpsS s\K-äohv {[ph-¯n LSn-¸n¨ Ce-Ivt{SmUv (s\K-äohv
Ce-Ivt{Sm-Uv) ]pd-s¯-Sp¯v amäw \nco-£n-¡q.
$ ImÀ_¬ ZÞn ]än-¸n-Sn¨ temlw GXmWv?

80
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

CuCl2 emb-\n-bpsS \ndw Ipd-ªs

- X-´p-sIms­¶v
AXn-eqsS sshZypXn
IS¯n hn«-t¸mÄ D­mb cmk{]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ ka-hmIyw ]cn-tim-
[n-¨v Ipdn¡q.
CuCl2 (aq) → Cu (s) + Cl2 (g)

ChnsS CuCl emb-\n-bn-eqsS sshZypXn IS¯n hn«-t¸mÄ Cu Dw Cl Dw

2 2
e`n-¨p. C§s\ sshZyptXmÀPw D]-tbm-Kn¨v Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm-sse-äns\
hnL-Sn-¸n-¡p-¶-Xn-s\-bmWvv sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-jWw (Electrolysis) F¶p ]d-
bp-¶-Xv.
sshZypXn IS¯n hnSp-t¼mÄ Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm-seäv cmk-am-ä-¯n\v
hnt[-b-am-Ip¶ {]hÀ¯-\-amWv sshZypXhntÇ-j-Ww.
_mä-dn-bpsS s\K-äohv {[ph¯n LSn-¸n¨ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un \S¶
cmk{]hÀ¯\w \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶p.
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu
$ ChnsS HmIvko-I-c-W-amtWm \ntcm-Ivko-I-c-W-amtWm \S-¶Xv?

\ntcm-Ik
v o-Ic- Ww \S¶ Ce-Itv {Sm-Uns\ ImtYmUv F¶p ]d-bm-at- Ãm.
Cu Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un\v s\K-äohv NmÀPm-bn-cn-¡p-atÃm?
AXp-t]mse _mä-dn-bpsS t]mkn-äohv {[ph¯n LSn-¸n¨ Ce-Ivt{Sm-
Un \S¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w X¶n-cn-¡p-¶p.
2Cl− → Cl2 + 2e–
$ HmIvko-I-cWw \S¶ Cu Ce-Ivt{Sm-Uns\ Bt\mUv F¶v ]d-bm-
a-tÃm. ChnsS Bt\m-Unsâ NmÀPv F´m-bn-cn¡pw?
sshZypXhntÇ-jWthf-bn B\-tbm-Wp-IÄ (s\K-äohv Atbm-Wp-
IÄ) Bt\m-Un-tebv¡pw Imä-tbm-Wp-IÄ (t]mkn-äohv Atbm-Wp-IÄ)
ImtYm-Un-te¡pw \o§p-¶p. KmÂhm\nIv skÃn Bt\mUv s\K-äohpw
ImtYmUv t]mkn-äohpw BWv. AtX-k-abw sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-j-W-sk-
Ãn Bt\mUv t]mkn-äohpw ImtYmUv s\K-äohpw BWv. c­nepw Bt\m-
Un HmIvko-I-c-Whpw ImtYm-Un \ntcm-Ivko-I-c-Whpw \S-¡p-¶p.
Pe¯nsâ sshZypXhntÇ-j-W-¯nsâ ck-X-{´w
ip²Pew sshZ-yp-Xnsb IS¯n hnSptam? \n§-fpsS A`n-{]mbw Ipdn-¡q.

ip²-Pew hfsc sNdnb tXmXn am{Xw Atbm-Wo-I-cn-¡-s¸-Sp¶ Hcp

]ZmÀY-am-Wv. cmk-k-a-hmIyw {i²n-¡q.
H2O (l) + H2O (l) U H3O+ (aq) + OH– (aq)

81
ckX{¥w $ Ãmt‚¿Uv - X

Atbm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆw hfsc Ipd-hm-b-Xn-\m¬ ip≤-Pew sshZyp-

Xnsb ISØn hnSp-∂n-√.
A¬∏w BknUp tN¿Ø Pe-Øn-eqsS sshZypXn ISØn hnSp-tºm-
gp≈ am‰-߃ \n߃ apºv ]cn-N-b-s∏-´n-´p-≠v.
PeØn¬ A¬∏w t\¿∏n® kƒ^yq-cnIv BknUv tN¿°p-tºmƒ
hfsc henb Af-hn¬ sslt{Um-Wnbw Atbm-Wp-Iƒ (H3O+) D≠m-
Ip∂p. kƒ^yq-cnIv Bkn-Uns‚ Atbm-Wo-I-c-W-Øn-eqsS e`n-°p∂
H+ Atbm-Wp-Iƒ Pe-hp-ambn kwtbm-Pn-®mWv H3O+ D≠m-Ip-∂-Xv.
cmkk-ahmIyw {i≤n-°q.
H2SO4 (l) +2H2O (l) → 2H3O+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)
CXns\ sshZypXhnt«-jWw sNøp-tºmtgm?
$ s\K-‰ohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un-te°v (ImtYmUv) \oßp∂ Atbm¨ GXv?

Cu Ce-Ivt{SmUn¬ \S-°p∂ cmk-{]-h¿Ø\w t\m°q.

2H3O+ (aq) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
t]mkn-‰ohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Unte°v (Bt\mUv) \oßp∂ Atbm¨ SO42-
BsW-¶nepw AhnsS \S-°p-∂ cmk-{]-h¿Ø\w {i≤n-°q.
2H2O (l) → O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e−
Pehpw SO42- Dw XΩn¬ Xmc-Xayw sNøp-tºmƒ Pe-Øn-\mWv HmIvko-
I-c-W-km-[yX IqSp-X¬. CXn¬ \n∂v Pew sshZ-ypXhnt«-j-W-Øn\v
hnt[-b-am-Ip-tºmƒ H2 ImtYm-Unepw O2 Bt\m-Unepw e`n-°p-∂-Xns‚
ck-X{¥w a\- n-embn°mWpat√m.
Dcp-Inb tkmUnbw t¢mssd-Uns‚ sshZyp-X-hn-t«-jWw
Jcm-h-ÿ-bn-ep≈ tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv sshZyp-X-hm-ln-b√. Imc-
Ww CXn¬ Atbm-Wp-Iƒ°v Ne\ kzmX-{¥y-an-√. F∂m¬ Dcp-Inb
tkmUnbw t¢mssd-Un-eqsS sshZypXn IS∂p t]mIpw. tkmUnbw
t¢m-ssdUv Dcp-Ip-tºmƒ t]mkn-‰ohv Nm¿Pp≈ tkmUnbw Atbm-Wp-
Ifpw (Na+) s\K-‰ohv Nm¿Pp≈ t¢mssdUv Atbm-Wp-Ifpw (Cl−) Ne\
kzmX-{¥yw ssIh-cn-°p-∂p.
$ t]mkn-‰ohv Ce-Ivt{SmUn-te°v GXv Atbm-WmWv BI¿jn-°-
s∏-Sp-I?

$ AhnsS \S-°p∂ cmk-{]-h¿Ø\w F¥m-bn-cn°pw?

$ s\K-‰ohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un-te°v BI¿jn-°-s∏-Sp∂ AtbmtWm?

AXn\v kw`-hn-°p∂ am-‰w Fgp-Xq.

Dcp-Inb tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv sshZypX hnt«-jWw sNøp-tºmƒ

t]mkn-‰ohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Unepw s\K-‰ohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Unepw e`n-°p∂ D¬∏-
∂-߃ GsXm-s°-sb∂v hy‡-am-b-t√m.
82
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv emb\nbpsS sshZypXhntÇ-jWw

tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv emb-\n-bnse Atbm-Wp-IÄ GsXÃmamWv?
NaCl sâ Atbm-Wp-IÄ :
$ t]mknäohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un-te¡v BIÀjn-¡-s¸-« Atbm-tWXv?

$ s\K-äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un-te¡v BIÀjn-¡-s¸-Sp-¶-tXm?

Hmtcm Ce-Ivt{Sm-Unepw \S-¡p¶ cmk-am-ä-hpw e`n-¡p¶ D¸-¶-§fpw

]«n-I 4.5 Â \ÂInbn-cn-¡p-¶Xv t\m¡q.
Ce-Ivt{Sm-Up-IÄ cmk-amäw D¸¶w
t]mkn-äohv Ce-Ivt{SmUv 2Cl− → Cl2 + 2e− t¢mdn³ hmXIw
s\K-äohv Ce-Ivt{SmUv 2H2O + 2e− → H2 + 2OH− ssl{U-P³ hmXIw
]«nI 4.5
Na+ Atbm-Wpw Pehpw Xmc-Xayw sN¿pt¼mÄ \ntcm-Ivko-I-cW {]h-
WX IqSp-X Pe-¯n-\m-Wv. AXn-\m ImtYmUn H kzX-{´-am-¡-
s¸-Sp-¶p. AXp-t]mse Pehpw AtbmWpw Xmc-Xayw sN¿p-t¼mÄ
Cl−
2

Cl− \mWv HmIvko-I-cWw kw`-hn-¡p-¶-Xv. AXn-\m Bt\mUnÂ

t¢mdn³ hmXIw kzX-{´-am-¡-s¸-Spw.
Nne kwbp-à-§-fpsS sshZypXhntÇ-j-W-¯nsâ ck-X{´w ]cn-N-b-
s¸-«-tÃm.
sshZ-ypXhntÇ-jWw D]-tbm-K-s¸-Sp-¯p¶ Nne taJ-e-IÄ enÌv
sNbvXncn-¡p-¶p.
$ teml-§fp-sSbpw Atem-l-§-fp-sSbpw \nÀamWw.
$ cmk-]-ZmÀY-§-fpsS \nÀamWw
$ teml-§-fpsS ip²o-I-cWw
$ sshZ-ypXte]\w
teml§ÄsIm­v \nÀan¨ hkvXp-¡-fn aäv teml-§Ä te]\w sN¿p-
¶-Xns\ Ipdn¨v \n§Ä tI«n-«ntÃ?
Nne DZm-l-c-W-§Ä t\m¡q.
$ kzÀ®w ]qinb B`-c-W-§Ä
$ t{Imanbw ]qinb Ccp¼v ssI]n-Sn-IÄ
$ shÅn ]qinb ]m{X-§Ä
IqSp-X DZm-l-c-W-§Ä Is­¯n enÌv hn]p-eo-I-cn-¡q.
$
$
83
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv -X

{][m\ ]T-\-t\-«-§-fn s]-Sp-¶h

$ teml- § - f psS cmk- { ]- h À¯- \ - t ijn hyXy- k v X - a mWv F¶v

]co£W-§-fn-eqsS Is­-¯p-¶p.
$ {Inbm- i o- e - t {i- W n- b psS klm- b - t ¯msS teml- § - f psS
{Inbmioew Xmc-Xayw sN¿p-¶p.
$ dntUmIvkv {]hÀ¯-\-§Ä Xncn-¨-dn-bp-¶p.
$ teml-§-fpsS BtZiw sN¿m-\pÅ Ignhv Xncn-¨-dnªv ]«nI
]qÀ¯o-I-cn-¡p-¶p.
$ KmÂhm-\nIv sk \nÀan-¡p-¶p.
$ hnhn-[-Xcw sshZ-ypXhntÇ-jW skÃp-IÄ ]cn-N-b-s¸«v AXnse
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä hni-Zo-I-cn¡p-¶p.

hne-bn-cp¯mw

1. \mev sSÌvSyq_p-I-fn-embn ZnSO4, FeSO4, CuSO4, AgNO3 F¶o

emb\nIÄ FSp- ¯ n- c n- ¡ p¶p. Ch- b n- t em- t cm- ¶ nepw Hmtcm
Ccp¼mWn ap¡n hbv¡p¶p F¶n-cn-¡-s«.
$ GXv sSÌvSyq-_n Xmgv¯n h¨ Ccp-¼m-Wn-bn BWv \nd
hyXym-k-ap-­m-Ip-¶-Xv?
$ AhnsS \S-¡p¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-sa´v?
$ \n§-fpsS D¯cw km[q-I-cn-¡p-I.
2. Dcp-Inb s]m«mkyw t¢mssd-Uv, s]m«mkyw t¢mssdUv emb-\n-
F¶n-h-bneqsSbpÅ sshZypXhntÇ-jWw Xmc-Xayw sN¿p-I.
ImtYm-Unepw Bt\m-Unepw \S-¡p¶ {]hÀ¯-\-sa´v?
3. AgNO3 emb-\n, MgSO4 emb-\n, Ag ZÞv, Mg dn_¬ F¶nh
\ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. Ch D]-tbm-Kn¨v KmÂhm-\nIv sk F§s\
{Iao- I - c n¡mw? ImtYm- U nepw Bt\m- U nepw \S- ¡ p¶ cmk
{]hÀ¯-\-§Ä Fgp-Xp-I.

XpSÀ{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä

1. tIm¸À kÄt^äv emb-\n-bn 2 ImÀ_¬ ZÞp-IÄ Xmgv¯n-

hbv¡p-I. emb-\n-bneqsS sshZypXn IS¯n hnSp-I.
(i) GXv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un-emWv \ndw amäw D­m-Ip-¶Xv? Bt\m-
Untem AtXm ImtYm-Un-tem?

84
 ck-X{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X

(ii) tIm¸À kÄt^äv emb-\n-bpsS \oe-\n-d-¯n\v Fs´-¦nepw

amä-ap-­m-Ip-¶pt­m?
(iii) ChnsS \S-¡p¶ amä-§-fpsS cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-§Ä Fgp-Xp-I.
2. Bkn-Up-tNÀ¯ tIm¸À kÄt^äv emb-\n-sb sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-
jWw sNbvXm Bt\m-Un HmIvkn-P³ e`y-am-Ipw. Fs´Ãmw
{Iao-I-c-W-§-fmWv CXn-\mbn Hcp-t¡-­-Xv. ImtYm-Un \nt£-
]n-¡-s¸-Sp¶ aqeIw GsX¶v Is­-¯p-I.
3. \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶ teml-§Ä D]-tbm-Ks
- ¸-Sp¯n KmÂh-\nIv skÂ
\nÀan-¡p-t¼mÄ Hmtcm skÃnepw {]hÀ¯-\-§Ä F{]-Im-c-am-
bn-cn¡pw F¶v Is­-¯p-I. ({Inbm-ioew Mg > Zn > Cu > Ag)
Ch DÄs¸« F{X skÃp-IÄ \nÀan-¡m³ km[n¡pw.
(Ag, Cu, Zn, Mg)
4. hnhn-[-Xcw sk¡-­dn skÃp-I-fn D]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶ Nne hkvXp-
¡Ä \n§Ä ]cn-N-b-s¸-«n-«p-­v. hnhn[ Xcw cmk-sk-Ãp-I-fpsS
Hcp enÌv Xbm-dm-¡q. Ch ]cn-Øn-Xnsb F§s\ kzm[o-\n-¡p-
¶p-sh¶v hni-I-e\w sN¿p-I.

85
 Ipdn∏pIƒ

86
Ipdn∏pIƒ

87
 Ipdn∏pIƒ

88