Intro.

To Aerospace
Eng. Design

• Functions and Requirements

outline

• Determining design functions

• Describing functions
• Function types
• Design requirements

February 7, 2019 | 2
Specifying functions

• A function describes what a system or artifact must do. The

description of a design function should remain solution-
independent.

February 7, 2019 | 3
Specifying functions

• A function describes what a system or artifact must do.

• The description of a design function should remain solution-
independent.
• In a general sense, when we describe a design function we are
describing how inputs are transformed into outputs.
• As engineers, we are used to the mathematical concept of a
function: y=f(x);
• Where the function f transforms the independent variable x
into the dependent variable y.

February 7, 2019 | 4
Engineering functions

• Most of the functions we will assign to a design problem will

be engineering functions which involve the transformation or
transport of energy, material, or information.

February 7, 2019 | 5
Engineering functions

• Most of the functions we will assign to a design problem will

be engineering functions which involve the transformation or
transport of energy, material, or information.
• For example, energy can enter a device as an input, be
transformed, and leave as an output.
• Mass or material can be transported into a system, be
combined in new ways, and transported out of a system.
• We can apply the laws of thermodynamics and mass transport
to describe this function using engineering analysis

February 7, 2019 | 6
Engineering functions

• Information can be transferred in a number of ways, and can

act as an input or an output. With respect to a function,
information may appear exclusively as an input or output.

February 7, 2019 | 7
Engineering functions

• Information can be transferred in a number of ways, and can

act as an input or an output. With respect to a function,
information may appear exclusively as an input or output.
• For example, information in the form of data may be used as
an input to control the function of a device. Information as an
output may appear in the form of data on a screen or as a
document.
• Finally, information may be conveyed as a signal to control the
flow of energy or mass.

February 7, 2019 | 8
Describing functions

• A function is typically expressed as a verb-object pair:

• Support a weight.
• Turn on a light.
• Measure a temperature.
• Contain a fluid.
• When describing a function, we should be careful to express
the most general case, to allow for the most useful design
solutions. We should also express functions in a solution-
independent manner.

February 7, 2019 | 9
Function types

• We can classify design functions by type as follows:

• Basic (or primary) function.
• Secondary function:
• required secondary functions.
• Unwanted secondary functions.

February 7, 2019 | 10
Basic versus secondary function

• A basic function is the specific or primary function that a

system or device has been designed to accomplish, i.e. the
most important function of the design.

February 7, 2019 | 11
Basic versus secondary function

• A basic function is the specific or primary function that a

system or device has been designed to accomplish, i.e. the
most important function of the design.
• Secondary functions are all the additional functions necessary
to complete the basic function, or additional functions that
result from the execution of the basic function.

February 7, 2019 | 12
Required versus unwanted secondary function

• A required secondary function is a supporting function,

necessary for the device to execute it’s basic function.
• A vehicle’s basic function is to provide locomotion for the
driver. A required secondary function is the ability to transport
passengers and materials.

February 7, 2019 | 13
Required versus unwanted secondary function
• A required secondary function is a supporting function,
necessary for the device to execute it’s basic function.
• A vehicle’s basic function is to provide locomotion for the
driver. A required secondary function is the ability to transport
passengers and materials.
• An unwanted secondary function is a natural and usually
unavoidable result of the execution of a basic function. The
production of waste heat, noise, and combustion products is an
unwanted secondary function of all internal combustion
powered vehicles.
• Unwanted secondary functions often have environmental or
social impacts.

February 7, 2019 | 14
Identifying functions

• Using functional analysis, we can analyze a design problem to

develop a function structure, an abstract model of how inputs
can be transformed into outputs.

February 7, 2019 | 15
Identifying functions

• Using functional analysis, we can analyze a design problem to

develop a function structure, an abstract model of how inputs
can be transformed into outputs.
• As devices or systems typically consist of multiple parts, each
contributing to the overall function of the design, it is natural
to break a function down into sub-functions.

February 7, 2019 | 16
Black box

• A common starting point for determining the function of a

design, is to treat the design problem as a black box. All
known and anticipated inputs and outputs are identified. We
will then attempt to address questions about how the
independent inputs are to be processed to produce the
dependent outputs.

February 7, 2019 | 17
Black box

• Note that as there may be multiple outputs, each may be

dependent on different combinations of inputs. In this case, we
may need to determine sub-functions within our black box. We
may also discover new inputs or outputs during our analysis.

February 7, 2019 | 18
Case study

A black box for a power drill

Source: Figure 6.1 “Engineering Design: A Project-Based Introduction, 4th ed.,

Clive L. Dym et al, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2014
February 7, 2019 | 19
Case study

A black box for a radio

Source: “Engineering Design: A Project-Based Introduction, 4th ed.,

Clive L. Dym et al, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2014

February 7, 2019 | 20
Transparent or glass box

• As there may be multiple connections between outputs and

inputs, we may choose to open or reveal the contents of the
black box, hence creating a transparent or a glass box.
• In doing so, we can define further sub-functions, each of
which are black boxes.

February 7, 2019 | 21
Transparent or glass box

• As there may be multiple connections between outputs and

inputs, we may choose to open or reveal the contents of the
black box, hence creating a transparent or a glass box.
• In doing so, we can define further sub-functions, each of
which are black boxes.
• By defining the flow of energy, material, and signals from
inputs to outputs, we can define the basic function using a
network of sub-functions.
• In function analysis, there are a number of common functions
that are shared by many devices.

February 7, 2019 | 22
Glass box case study

A glass box for a power drill

Source: Figure 6.2 “Engineering Design: A Project-Based Introduction, 4th ed.,

Clive L. Dym et al, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2014
February 7, 2019 | 23
Dissection

• Using dissection or reverse engineering, we can take apart an

existing device to determine it’s basic function from it’s
component parts and sub-functions. In effect, we are
developing a glass box functional analysis by directed
observation and interpretation.

February 7, 2019 | 24
Dissection

• Using dissection or reverse engineering, we can take apart an

existing device to determine it’s basic function from it’s
component parts and sub-functions. In effect, we are
developing a glass box functional analysis by directed
observation and interpretation.
• While using dissection, we must be careful not to constrain
our design solutions. By reverse engineering a solution to a
similar problem, we can get a better idea of how to implement
common sub-functions.

February 7, 2019 | 25
Case study

An exploded view of the major subsystem in a power drill

Source: Figure 6.3 “Engineering Design: A Project-Based Introduction, 4th ed.,
Clive L. Dym et al, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2014
February 7, 2019 | 26
Elementary functions

• Collections of common elementary functions exist in

published technical reports and journals. For example, in the
NIST technical Note 1447, common functions for modifying
flows of energy, materials, or signals are presented based upon
a survey of design research.

February 7, 2019 | 27
Elementary functions

• Collections of common elementary functions exist in

published technical reports and journals. For example, in the
NIST technical Note 1447, common functions for modifying
flows of energy, materials, or signals are presented based upon
a survey of design research.
• Each of the above flows or functions can be further classified
using increasing levels of detail. For example, a material may
be a bio-based, solid, liquid, glass, plasma, or mixture.
• Each of these can be further refined in detail, for example, to
specify an input from a human hand.

February 7, 2019 | 28
Function types

• Using common function terminology, we would say that the

function of the drill requires the following sub-functions.
• Import of a human hand to provide a force to hold the drill (by means of
a handle).
• Transmit of electrical power into the device (by means of a power
chord).
• Convert electrical energy into rotational (by means of a universal motor)
• Change in the form of a decrement of rotational speed an increment of
torque (by means of a transmission)
• Actuate and regulate electrical energy to the motor (by means of a
switch and variable resistor)

February 7, 2019 | 29
Enumeration

• A basic method of determining design functions is to simply

list or enumerate as many functions as possible for your design
problem.
• The difficulty with this method is ensuring that all necessary
functions are identified, and organizing functions according to
basic and secondary functions.

February 7, 2019 | 30
Functions-means trees

• Although we wish to develop solution-independent functional

descriptions of a design problem, it can be helpful to think of
possible means of implementation to reveal necessary
secondary functions.

February 7, 2019 | 31
Functions-means trees

• Although we wish to develop solution-independent functional

descriptions of a design problem, it can be helpful to think of
possible means of implementation to reveal necessary
secondary functions.
• Starting with a basic function, list a number of possible means.
• For each means, consider the necessary functions required to
support each means. Repeat, alternating levels of functions
and means.
• This is best presented as a tree or graph of relationships.

February 7, 2019 | 32
Case study

A functions-means tree for a hot beverage container

February 7, 2019 | 33
Functions-means trees

• After completing a function-means tree, we should list all the

functions that have been identified. Those functions common
to multiple means are likely common functional requirements
of the problem.
• Those functions that are specific to a particular
implementation should be set aside.

February 7, 2019 | 34
Functions-means trees

• After completing a function-means tree, we should list all the

functions that have been identified. Those functions common
to multiple means are likely common functional requirements
of the problem.
• Those functions that are specific to a particular
implementation should be set aside.
• Note that while function-means trees are a useful way to
perform functional decomposition, we must be careful not use
this as a substitute for generating design alternatives. There
may be other better design choices presented through a
solution-independent functional analysis.
February 7, 2019 | 35
Design requirements

• A design requirements specifies the functions, behaviors, and

attributes of a design problem in a formal manner. It consists
of the following:
Prescriptive: requirements specify values for attributes of
the desired object.
Procedural: requirements specify procedures for
calculating attributes or behavior.
Performance: requirements specify performance levels
that must demonstrate successful functional behavior.

February 7, 2019 | 36
Case study

• “The airfoil shape at the wing root will be BAC 463 to BAC
468” is a prescriptive requirement.

February 7, 2019 | 37
Case study

• “The airfoil shape at the wing root will be BAC 463 to BAC
468” is a prescriptive requirement.
• “The life to drag ratio at cruise conditions shall be determined
using wind tunnel or numerical simulation” is a procedural
requirement.

February 7, 2019 | 38
Case study

• “The airfoil shape at the wing root will be BAC 463 to BAC
468” is a prescriptive requirement.
• “The life to drag ratio at cruise conditions shall be determined
using wind tunnel or numerical simulation” is a procedural
requirement.
• “the minimum life to drag ratio at cruise will be 16” is a
performance requirement.

February 7, 2019 | 39
Zone of interest

• To attach values to a design requirement, an engineer needs to

determine a measure of performance in executing a design
function, and then establish the effective range over which the
measure of performance is valid for design consideration.

February 7, 2019 | 40
Zone of interest

• To attach values to a design requirement, an engineer needs to

determine a measure of performance in executing a design
function, and then establish the effective range over which the
measure of performance is valid for design consideration.
• A common experience in design is that a performance measure
varies with respect to a design attribute or parameter. At one
end of the scale the performance saturates in terms of utility.

February 7, 2019 | 41
Utility plot

Saturation curves showing that no additional benefit is achieved below

some minimal realized level and above saturation.
Source: Figure 6.5 “Engineering Design: A Project-Based Introduction, 4th ed.,
Clive L. Dym et al, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2014
February 7, 2019 | 42
Establishing design parameters

• As part of setting performance requirements, an engineer must

determine which design parameters can be used to represent
design functions or attributes, and how performance can be
calculated from these design parameters.
• During the design process, we will choose values of these
design parameters which satisfy our design requirements.

February 7, 2019 | 43
Establishing design parameters

• All values of a design parameter which produces a

performance measure below a lower usefulness threshold can
be considered equal.
• Similarly, all values of a parameter which produce a
performance level above a saturation limit can be considered
equal.
• This zone of interest between these two limits establishes a
prescriptive requirement on our design parameters.

February 7, 2019 | 44
Establishing design parameters

• As prescriptive requirements on design parameters typically

set limitation on the allowed values, these requirement can
also be considered as design constraints.
• As design requirements are applied to functions and behaviors,
it is not surprising that specifying a desired function typically
imposes a constraint on our design.

February 7, 2019 | 45
Establishing design parameters

• As an end user of consumer products, you have likely seen

design requirements published in user manuals or product
specifications. For example, most consumer electronics
specify limitations on operating temperature. These products
were designed to function correctly within these prescribed
requirements on ambient temperature.

February 7, 2019 | 46
Interface performance requirements

• The operation of a device or system that must work with other

devices or systems, requires a carefully specified interface
performance requirements.
• For large systems, design of various components may be done
in parallel by different teams of designers.
• Successful integration of parts requires an agreement on the
requirements of the interface in advance.

February 7, 2019 | 47
Interface performance requirements

• For devices and components that are produced by multiple

manufacturers, for integration by other manufacturers it is
common to establish standards for interface requirements.
These standards may be published by organizations and
funded through licensing agreements.
• For example, automotive diagnostics can be retrieved from
most North American vehicles using a connector based on the
OBD-II specification.

February 7, 2019 | 48
Metrics versus requirements

• A reminder that
Metrics are applied to objectives!
Requirements are applied to functions or behaviors!

February 7, 2019 | 49