Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 769–779

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

A knowledge based CAAD system for passive solar architecture

Abraham Yezioro*
Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A computer-aided design tool for assisting the designer to set appropriate passive solar systems for
Received 23 September 2007 heating and cooling is presented. The system is based on a knowledge base oriented design process
Accepted 17 April 2008 (KBDP). The knowledge base stores design guidelines and procedural methods for determining the
Available online 10 July 2008
passive systems that best suit the local climatic conditions. This tool is aimed to be used already at
the very early stages of the design process, the pre-conceptual and the conceptual, with the purpose
Keywords: of achieving a passive solar architecture from the energy point of view that will better fit local
Knowledge based system
climatic conditions. At the pre-conceptual design stage the system determined the bio-climatic
Passive solar architecture
Pre-conceptual design stage
strategies and at the conceptual design stage the recommended passive systems are presented
Conceptual design stage according to previously selected design strategies. This paper focuses mainly on the later one i.e. the
Computer architectural aided design conceptual stage, in which the geometry, as well as the building orientation are determined. The
Bio-climatic design strategies geometrical considerations include the determination of the type and size of the passive systems
that fit the requirements of both climatic conditions in winter and in summer at the given location.
In addition, the design tool that was developed includes knowledge bases that contain examples
and descriptive explanations. The knowledge base may be retrieved automatically by the system or
upon request. Thus the system can support the designer as an expert that provides advice when
needed.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The design process is characterized by being an ill defined

The process of designing energy-conscious buildings can be
viewed as a sequence of decisions made at different levels of
abstraction, each successive level more detailed and specific than
the former one [1]. These levels of abstraction correspond to
discrete design stages, which include [2–4]:
1. Briefing: statement of user needs.
2. Pre-conceptual design: feasibility study and determination of
detailed program requirements.
3. Conceptual design: exploring different schematic design alter-
natives that agree with the programmatic requirements. This
stage is concerned primarily with geometry and orientations,
without considering material compositions.
4. Preliminary design: determining material compositions and
building details.
5. Detailed design: exploring different detailed design alterna-
tives. This stage deals with the structure and material compo-
sition considerations.
6. Design documentation: preparing building documents.
* Tel.: þ972 4 8294044; fax: þ972 4 8294617.
E-mail address: ayez@tx.technion.ac.il
problem, which means that while searching for solutions, a better
understanding of the goals and constraints might occur. Therefore,
the design process should be conceived as an iterative process (see
Fig. 1). An iterative process allows to advance securely from stage to
stage, but at the same time enables the possibility of returning to
previous stages. As the design advances, it should acquire a greater
level of knowledge and details. However, the availability of the
required knowledge at the right time, and especially during the
early design stages, may reduce the necessity for too many itera-
tions, or the need to go back to very early design stages, after an
advanced design stage has already been reached.
Most of the available design tools do not comprise the overall
design process. They rather consider only one of the above
mentioned stages. Moreover, most design tools for the early
stages are manual, while the Computer-Aided Design (CAD) tools
and simulation engines, like DOE-2.2 [5], eQuest [6] and
EnergyPlus [7] for example, are aimed to serve as evaluative
tools at the advanced design stages, after the architect has
already proposed a solution [8]. At these advanced design phases
only the building detailing and materials can still be altered, but
it may be difficult to take major measures for improving the
energy performance of the design, like changing the orientation
and geometry of the building, that in most cases they had
already been fixed. There are few exceptional CAD tools, though,

0960-1481/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2008.04.008
770 A. Yezioro / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 769–779
Fig. 1. The iterative design process.
that deal with bioclimatic and passive solar systems in the early
design stages. For example, Sunshades [9], PSD [10], Energy
Scheming [11], Sustarc [12], BDA [13].
For the early design stages different design tools were proposed
in order to assist the designer in choosing and implementing the
passive systems. The first type of design tools is manual methods.
Mazria presented a book meant to be used as a manual design tool
[14]. The book presents different bioclimatic passive solar heating
systems that can be applied in the early design stages. It gives
design guidelines about general required size for those systems, but
lacks the accurate treatment of local climatic conditions. Balcomb
suggested design guidelines as simplified methods for determining
the various passive solar heating systems [15]. This work does not
deal with passive cooling. Loeffler et al. [16] suggested a matrix that
represents the different passive systems for cooling and heating.
The matrix shows the building elements required for each system
and their consistency for both passive cooling and passive heating.
Their work is a manual design tool depicted by drawn schemes. As
such, it is a fixed matrix that cannot be changed dynamically and
automatically in order to fit to the specific local climatic conditions
and the specific constraints of the project.
The second type of design tools for the early design stages is CAD
systems. Brown presented a CAD system for evaluating different
passive systems for a proposed design [11,17], but no recommen-
dations on how to improve the performance of the design solution
are shown. Shaviv and Peleg [10] proposed a knowledge based CAD
model for the conceptual design stage, where suggestions on how
to improve the building performance are presented. Even though
their model deals only with direct gain system, it considers very
accurately the required size of this system for passive heating and
cooling. Balcomb and Prowler presented a CAD tool (ENERGY-10)
for designing low-energy buildings [18,19]. This tool enables the
designer to evaluate at the same time both standard and improved
buildings. This evaluation gives the designer energy conscious
guidelines for improving heating, cooling and daylighting in the
building.
In this work, a CAAD tool that is aimed to be used at the very
early design stages; the pre-conceptual and the conceptual one is
presented.
2. The early design stages – the pre-conceptual and
the conceptual design stages
At the early stages of a bio-climatic passive solar building design
the following questions arise.
1. What are the design strategies that best suit the climatic
conditions of the project site, so that the building will require
non-renewable energy as little as possible? The pre-conceptual
design stage deals with this issue.
2. What are the passive systems for both cooling and heating that
best suit these strategies. Moreover, we need to know the right
size for these systems in order to set the correct geometry,
specially the massing and the orientation of the building. The
conceptual design stage deals with this issue.
Nowadays, there is a wide range of knowledge related to bio-
climatic and passive solar systems for both heating and cooling
that allows us to reach a passive solar architecture, from the
point of view of energy conservation. The problem is that the
designers don’t know how to reach the relevant information, or
how to implement it. As a result, the proposed design may lack
appropriate climatic solutions. This paper presents a knowledge
based computer-aided design tool, PASYS (PAssive SYStems), that
is composed by two parts. The first part helps the designer in
selecting the best-suited thermal comfort design strategies at
the pre-conceptual design stage. This part takes into account the
local climatic conditions, as well as the building type to be
designed. This part will be presented very briefly in Section 2.1,
as it was presented with details in a former paper [20]. The
output of the first part is a number of possible combinations of
climatic design strategies out of which the designer selects one
of them (see Fig. 2) which is the input for the second stage, the
determination and the design of the passive systems for heating
and cooling. The second part, setting the systems type and size
for cooling and heating, belongs to the Conceptual design stage
and will be presented in this paper. This part contains a wide
knowledge base that was developed in different studies and will
be presented in Sections 2.2 and 3. The system PASYS was
developed as a continuation process, taking care of both parts,
with the ability to go in cycles and return from the second part
back to the first one, if no satisfactory solution is achieved.
2.1. The pre-conceptual design stage
In the pre-conceptual design stage first adaptations between
project demands as is dictated by the program, specific constraints,
specific conditions of the place and the available design strategies
are taken place. In this stage local climatic conditions are verified
and checked against goals in order to establish design principles
that best suit both place and project.
From the climatic point of view the main goals for this
stage are.
1. To achieve a thermal comfort solution that will require minimal
use of non-renewable energy. In other words, to look for energy
conscious design solution on one hand, and to use, as far as
possible, passive solar and low energy cooling strategies on the
other, so that thermal comfort conditions are achieved.
2. To reach goal 1 by using minimum thermal comfort design
strategies, which mean that a smaller diversity passive systems
for heating and cooling will be required in the building. Goal 2
will ensure that less different building elements should be
added to the building in order to achieve the required thermal
comfort, thus obtaining a simpler and more economical
solution.
 A. Yezioro / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 769–779
Fig. 2. PASYS – pre-conceptual design stage. Combinations of climatic design strategies in Tel Aviv (from Yezioro and Shaviv [20]).
For this design stage PASYS presented a sensitive bio-climatic
chart as a CAD tool for determining all possible combinations of
passive cooling and heating strategies. PASYS integrated knowledge
base and procedural methods to allow achieving solutions that best
fit the local climatic conditions and the type of building. Fig. 2
shows a typical output of the pre-conceptual design stage that
includes the bio-climatic chart (left), monthly and seasonal analysis
showing simple solutions (one strategy only) (right) and annual
comprehensive analysis showing composed solutions of two or
more climatic design strategies (top). As the designer picks one of
the composed solutions in order to continue to the next stage, it
becomes the input for the conceptual design stage.
2.2. The conceptual design stage
In the conceptual design stage schematic alternatives are
checked according to the program demands and the specific place.
This stage relates mainly to the definition of building geometry and
orientation without referring in detail to materials [1].
From the climatic point of view the main goal of this stage is to
define the necessary passive systems for heating and cooling in-
cluding determining their sizes, in order to achieve thermal comfort
conditions with minimal use of non-renewable energy. Climatically
and economically we would like to achieve passive systems in
which elements provide both passive cooling and heating yielding
a simpler solution. For example, the system of ‘‘direct gain’’ for
771
passive heating in winter consists of southern windows and thermal
mass to store the energy from day to night. These building elements
can serve also as passive cooling system, which is ‘‘thermal mass
with night ventilation’’. Therefore, if in the pre-conceptual stage the
two strategies: ‘‘passive heating’’ and ‘‘passive cooling with thermal
mass and night ventilation’’ were found as the best climatic strat-
egies for the project location, one should be recommended to use
such passive systems as a solution. The model PASYS, developed in
this work, will recommend the solution of ‘‘direct gain’’ as the one
that is preferred, and will rate it as such (see for example Fig. 6 up-
left).
3. The knowledge base required for the
conceptual design stage
Since we wish to have tools that support the design process, we
are introducing the idea of the knowledge base design process
(KBDP). The process relies on a per stage KB, meaning that instead
of a general KB for the whole process, there will be local KBs for
each stage. The advantage of this is that each KB can be more
quickly accessed and easily manipulated. The KB supports any of
the activities of each design stage, namely: Analysis, Synthesis and
Assessment of the solution, at the level of each stage (see Fig. 3).
The KB is classified according to: Place, Building Type, and Available
Technology. For each advanced design stage the level of detailing is
increasing and more specific information for these three categories
772 A. Yezioro / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 769–779
Fig. 3. Basic scheme of the main activities in the conceptual design stage.
of KB is presented. The KBDP allows, as in the traditional design
process to loop back to previous stages (as shown in Fig. 1).
However, since the KBDP supports the designer decisions, the
probability of finding major faults in the design performance at
later stages will decrease. Hence, the continuity of the process is
maintained and fewer back loops will be required.
The conceptual design stage is based on a wide knowledge
base published worldwide [i.e. Ref. 15] and special design
guidelines developed for the Israeli climate and building
technology [21]. In both cases the design guidelines were
developed by sensitivity studies using hourly simulation codes. A
full description of such design guidelines is presented by Shaviv
[8]. The model PASYS does not propose new design guidelines
but rather compiled and organized existing knowledge in order
to present the designer the relevant information at the right time
when it is most needed. This paper presents the approach to
handle the various kinds of existing knowledge and the different
kind of KB that were developed. However, it does not include all
the knowledge in the area.
The knowledge base includes the following topics (see Fig. 4).
A. Heuristic rules representing design guidelines.
B. Passive systems and their components.
C. Knowledge base of existing passive systems – principles and
examples.
3.1. Heuristic rules representing design guidelines
According to the goals of the conceptual design stage, the
knowledge base includes information on topics related to the
definition of the general form of the building, like orientation,
proportions and the allowed area of outside walls. The knowledge
base should facilitate the retrieving, in an easy way, the relevant
knowledge according to the place and the building type. For
example, the recommendation of the required southern glazing
area and the area of the thermal mass needed to store the passive
solar energy from day to night are not the same in Jerusalem and in
Tel Aviv because of the different climatic conditions. In the same
way it will be different according to the building use and occupancy
pattern, for example, a residential building or a school. Even in
a residential building a unit below the roof will require larger
southern window to heat the building in winter than the same unit
located in a middle floor. Moreover, the design guidelines for
a standard insulated residential building may be different than
those for an improved insulated one. Fig. 5 shows various design
guidelines for both standard and improved insulated residential
buildings in Tel Aviv [21,22]. Those heuristic rules include.
1. Orientation of the building: related to the orientation of the
main facade toward the south so that the passive solar system
located on it will still be effective. For instance, for a standard
insulated apartment on a top floor in Tel Aviv, the main facade
should be oriented to the south sector, 40 east of south to 35
west of south.
2. Building proportion: determines the building’s energy lost
through its envelope, but is also defined according to the
climate of Tel Aviv and the existing recommendations. The
proportion, for a residential building can be a free parameter.
3. Outside walls area: is defined by the number of external walls,
where 1 W is 25% of floor area. As for example, 2 W means
a middle apartment, and 3 W means a corner apartment in
attached residential building. This parameter determines the
building’s energy lost through its envelope.
4. Southern glazing area required for the different passive systems:
this recommendation is a function of the area of the building
(or the unit) and the passive system type to be implemented. It
assures that the amount of passive solar energy that the
building receives fits the requirements for the winter and at the
same time doesn’t cause over heating in summer. As for ex-
ample, the glazing area of a top corner apartment in Tel Aviv
should be 18% of the floor area, when direct gain system is used.
5. Thermal mass area: defined as a function of the required
southern glazing area, according to the passive system type that
 A. Yezioro / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 769–779 773

Fig. 4. The hierarchy of the knowledge base.

was chosen as a solution. As for example, when the thermal direction the passive systems that fit the cooling strategies are
mass is located only in a standard concrete Israeli floor with presented as well. So far, the following systems are included in PASYS.
cement tiles, the relation of the southern glazing area to the floor For passive heating:
area should be 9–1, in order to preserve a temperature swing of
3  C. When the thermal mass is distributed along floors and a. direct gain.
walls (10 cm concrete wall with plaster on both sides), the b. vented trombe wall.
relation should be about 16–1 in order to keep the same 3  C. c. greenhouse.
6. Shading coefficient: in winter determines the percentage of
southern glazing area that should be exposed to the sun so that and for passive cooling:
energy transmittance is effective. In summer it defines the
requirements for reducing cooling. 1. natural ventilation divided in two sub-systems:
cross ventilation.
stack ventilation.
3.2. Passive systems and their components 2. high thermal mass and night ventilation.
3. evaporative cooling.
Fig. 6 presents the matrix of the different passive systems for
heating and cooling. In the horizontal direction the passive systems This knowledge base was built in such a way that allows
that suit passive heating strategies are presented and in the vertical including other passive systems in future development.

Fig. 5. Design guidelines for residential apartment buildings in Tel Aviv. Left: standard insulated building; Right: improved insulated building. Up: recommended size for southern
glazing and thermal mass for different passive systems (the scheme of the building present the different kind of floors; above columns, middle, and below the roof. In each floor
there are corner and inner appartments); Down: design guidelines for building orientation, wall area, building proportion and shading coefficient (from Shaviv and Capeluto [21]).
774 A. Yezioro / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 769–779

Fig. 6. PASYS initial screen based on the thermal comfort design strategies recommended for a residential building in Tel Aviv.

Since not all the passive systems on the matrix may suit the specific location. For instance, if in the pre-conceptual design stage
thermal comfort strategies for the particular place, PASYS shows we choose for Tel Aviv the following design strategies; Passive Solar
only those systems that fit these strategies. This option makes it Heating (PSH), Natural Ventilation (NV) and High Thermal Mass
easier for the designer to relate the relevant knowledge for the with Night Ventilation (HTM), PASYS will show a matrix that
 A. Yezioro / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 769–779
includes only the systems that can implement those strategies.
Therefore, in Fig. 6 the systems for the strategy ‘‘Evaporative
Cooling’’ (EC) are omitted.
The degree of fitness for winter and summer building
elements is graded by one, two or three dots. Three dots mean
that the same building elements perform well for both seasons.
Two dots mean that the passive system requires some building
elements that work for only one of the seasons. One dot means
that there is a minimal fitness between winter and summer
building elements. When no item appears in this matrix it
means no fitness at all and therefore such a system is not
recommended and is omitted from the matrix (see for example,
trombe wall and cross ventilation in Fig. 6). The user can ask
PASYS to show only the most recommended systems like three
dots only (see for example Fig. 12).
Each passive system shown in the matrix describes the building
elements and their performance, so that the designer can learn
about it. However, if this information is not clear enough to him, he
can ask for more information about the passive system by pressing
the ADVICE button. This advice is given by PASYS as a text that
explains about the correct use of the selected system, constraints,
etc (see Fig. 7).
3.3. Knowledge base on existing passive systems – principles
and examples
This knowledge base presents general information about
passive systems. It is intended to assist the designer on the
search of different possibilities of solutions for the design
problem. Shown here are either cases that were built and
Fig. 7. Written explanation about Direct gain system. Explanation called upon request for ADVICE by the designer.
775
evaluated to be good climatic-passive solutions, or schematic
principles explaining how to implement a specific passive
system (see Fig. 8). This knowledge can be retrieved according to
the possibilities presented in Fig. 4.
4. Creating solutions for determining the passive systems
for heating and cooling
Based on the thermal comfort design strategies that fit both
place and building type as explained above (see Fig. 2), the designer
selects the combination of strategies that best suits the current
context. Based on this selection PASYS proposes the passive sys-
tems and geometric parameters relevant to the specific case (see
Fig. 6). With this knowledge in hand, the designer sets the initial
geometry of the building (i.e. form, volume, building proportion
and orientation) in a manual way. Fig. 9 shows a first geometric
design scheme (buildings marked A and B). This suggested that the
building needs to be evaluated in order to see if it has enough
southern façade area to implement different kind of passive heating
systems.
For each building the following calculations are performed.
a. Floor area.
b. Shading coefficient of the southern facade (based on a method
developed by Yezioro and Shaviv [24]).
c. Effective southern facade area.
The effective southern facade area for each building is calculated
as follows:
776 A. Yezioro / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 769–779

Fig. 8. Knowledge base on existing passive systems as shown in PASYS. Left: principle of greenhouse system performance (from Mazria [14]); Right: example of the greenhouse
system implementation, Balcomb house (from Mazria [14], and Harris et al.[23]).

1. Find all the facades that are in the range of the allowed south can be considered as southern glazing, and therefore
maximum deviation from the south based on the heuristic will be included in the calculations (see Fig. 10).
rules (see Fig. 5 down). According to these design rules, 2. Calculation of the southern projected area of the facade (Asp)
facades that are oriented 35 west of south or 40 east of (see Fig. 10):

Fig. 9. First geometric design sketch. Left: plan; Right: axonometrics from sun’s point of view.
 A. Yezioro / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 769–779
Fig. 10. Calculation of the effective south facade area.
Asp ¼ Af  cos a  H
When Af ¼ area of the facade; a ¼ orientation of the facade; and
H ¼ height of the building.
3. Calculation of the Geometrical Shading Coefficient (GSC)
of the checked facade. The GSC is defined as the re-
lationship between the shaded area and the total area of
this facade [24].
Calculating the shading coefficient on each southern facade is
very important and its goal is to define the effectiveness of this
facade to collect passive solar energy.
4. Calculation of the effective southern facade area (Aseff).
Aseff ¼ Asp  GSC
Fig. 11. PASYS proposed passive systems for a specific alternative. Left: standard insulated building; Right: improved insulated building.
777
5. Calculation of the total effective southern facade area (Total
Aseff). This area is the sum of all the effective southern facade
areas that are oriented 35 west of south or 40 east of south
and are not shaded.
n
X
Total Aseff ¼ Aiseff
i¼1
The effective southern facade area determines which passive
heating systems can be implemented. This is because each passive
system has different area requirements. The most effective system
is that of direct gain, then the greenhouse system, and last
the trombe wall. For each passive system PASYS checks whether the
total effective southern facade area is large enough to locate the
recommended size of each passive system (see Fig. 11).
The upper part presents solutions that are composed of only one
passive system. The middle part presents solutions composed by
a combination of two systems, when each system provides 50% of
the required solar radiation. The bottom part presents a combina-
tion of three systems in which the main system provides 50% of the
demands and the other two systems provide 25% each.
PASYS provides the following information.
a. Percentage of fulfillment of the passive heating requirements.
For instance, the result ‘‘100% solar building’’ means that the
selected passive solar system can be fully implemented
according to the recommendations defined in Shaviv and
Capeluto [21], as shown in Fig. 6. It doesn’t mean, however, that
no auxiliary heating is required, as the recommendations are
based on economical considerations, as well as avoiding over
heating in summer.
b. In the case that the performance of a certain system, or
combination of systems, doesn’t satisfy the passive solar
heating demands, PASYS criticizes the solution. The model
warns that the effective southern facade area of the solution
is not large enough to accommodate the required southern
glazing area for that particular combination of passive
heating systems. Therefore, it suggests the required
778 A. Yezioro / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 769–779
Fig. 12. The preferred passive systems selected for a specific design alternative. Improved insulated building.
enlargement size. As for example, the geometry of the
building presented in Fig. 9 gives an effective southern
facade area of 9.6 m2, which is less than the requirements
for all standard insulated cases. (see Fig. 11 left). However,
improving the insulation shows that the proposed solution
provides the required southern facade for the proposed
cases (see Fig. 11 right).
Moreover, in the improved insulated building there are
different passive systems that could be implemented as alter-
native solutions. Therefore, the designer may ask PASYS to show
him only the most preferred ones, i.e. just the solutions with the
highest level of adaptability between winter and summer
elements. The recommended passive system solutions presented
in Fig. 12 are:
a. Direct gain combined with cross ventilation.
b. Direct gain combined with high thermal mass and night
ventilation.
c. Greenhouse system combined with stack ventilation.
d. A combination between direct gain and greenhouse systems.
5. Summary and conclusions
The model PASYS is based on various knowledge bases that give
a wide support in the early stages of the design process. PASYS
shows the designer a range of many possible solutions of the
passive systems that fit the project in hand. It also points to the
required area of each system, depending on both building type and
specific climate, allowing in such a way, a better passive solar
architecture product.
The selection of the different systems for passive solar heating
depends on the effective southern facade area on which these
systems may be located. The effective southern facade area is
defined as the insolated southern area only.
PASYS presents the designer with information on how to
improve the design so that a better energy conscious building may
be achieved.
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