Aerodynamics

Chapter 1 – History
Orville and Wilbur Wright – December 17, 1903
Montgolfier brothers – hot-air balloons
Sir George Cayley – father of aerial navigation
William Samuel Henson & John Stringfellow – aerial steam carriage
Felix Du Temple & Alexander F. Mozhaiski – first two powered hops
Otto Lilienthal – the glider man – human flight in flying experiments
- followed by Percy Pilcher
Octave Chanute – collected every piece of aeronautical information
Samuel Langley – unsuccessful manned flight, Aerodrome
Aeronautical Triangle – Samuel Langley, Wright brothers, Glenn Curtiss
Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir – first practical gas engine

Chapter 2 – Fundamental Thoughts

Aerodynamics – science that deals with the flow of air
Temperature – (3/2)kT
*k – Boltzmann constant (1.38 x10-23 J/K)
Intermolecular force field – ramification of the complex interaction of the electromagnetic
properties of the electrons and nucleus
A perfect gas is one in which intermolecular forces are negligible
2500 K – oxygen molecules begin to dissociate (tear apart) into oxygen atoms
4000 K – nitrogen begins to dissociate
At these temperatures, air becomes a chemically reacting gas

Chapter 3 – The Standard Atmosphere

Newton’s law of gravitation – g varies directly as the square of the distance from the center of
the earth.

Chapter 4 – Basic Aerodynamics

Euler’s equation / Momentum equation – relates rate of change of momentum to the force
Adiabatic process – a process in which no heat is added or taken away, dq = 0
Reversible process – a process in which no frictional or other dissipative effects occur
Isentropic process – a process which is both adiabatic and reversible
Total pressure at a given point in a flow is that pressure that would exist if the flow were slowed
down isentropically to zero velocity
Any point of a flow where V=0 is called a stagnation point.
Shockwaves are not visible to the naked eye, but are made visible by means of a schlieren
system.
The failure of the theory to predict drag was bothersome to early nineteenth century
aerodynamicists and was even given by name, d’Alembert’s paradox.
The aerodynamic lift is derived from the net component of a pressure distribution in the vertical
direction.
Skin friction drag – more for turbulent, less for laminar
Pressure due to separation (form drag) – more for laminar, less for turbulent
Profile drag = Skin friction drag + Form drag
Reynolds Number is proportional to the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces in a fluid flow.
Daniel Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, Henri Pitot, Ernst Mach,
Ludwig Prandtl – “father of aerodynamics”

Chapter 5 – Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes

Drag – component of the aerodynamic force parallel to the relative wind
Lift – component of the aerodynamic force perpendicular to the relative wind
Aerodynamic center – certain point on the airfoil about which moments essentially do not vary
with α.
Lift coefficient – function of angle of attack, Mach number, and Reynolds number
Supercritical airfoil – designed to place the drag-divergence Mach number extremely close to
1.0
- flow is largely supersonic, and shape is designed to discourage the formation of shock
waves.
Drag polar – plot of CD versus CL
The effect of a finite wing is to reduce the lift curve slope
By sweeping the wings of subsonic aircraft, drag divergence is delayed to higher Mach
numbers
The advantage of sweeping the wings for supersonic flight is in general to obtain a decrease in
wave drag, and if the wing is swept inside the Mach cone, a considerable decrease can
be obtained.
Low-aspect ratio wings are efficient for supersonic flight, whereas high-aspect ratio wings are
efficient for subsonic flight.
Vstall – the slowest speed at which an airplane can fly in straight and level flight.
NACA Report No. 18 – “Aerofoils and Aerofoil Structural Combinations”
Carl G.P. de Laval, Herman Glauert
First supersonic flight – Bell X-1 (originally Bell XS-1) piloted by Capt. Charles “Chuck” E.
Yeager
First hypersonic flight – North American X-15

Chapter 6 – Elements of Airplane Performance

CDo = 1/3 CDi for CL3/2 / CD max
CDo = 3 CDi for CL1/2 / CD max
Vfreestream for minimum PR is less than that for minimum TR.
Drag is smaller for climbing than for level flight at the same Vfreestream.
Maximum rate of climb does not occur at maximum climb angle.
The smallest equilibrium glide angle occurs at (L/D) max, which corresponds to the maximum
range for the glide.

Range and Endurance (Propeller-driven)

Endurance depends on altitude, whereas range is independent of altitude (propeller-driven)
Specific fuel consumption – (Propeller-driven) weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit
time
– (Jet) weight of fuel consumed per unit thrust per unit time
Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when the airplane is flying at
minimum power required / CL3/2/CD is maximum.
Maximum range for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when the airplane is flying at a velocity
such that CL/CD is maximum.

Range and Endurance (Jet)

Specific fuel consumption – (Jet) weight of fuel consumed per unit thrust per unit time
Maximum endurance for a jet airplane occurs when the airplane is flying at minimum thrust
required / CL/CD is maximum.
Maximum range for a jet airplane occurs when the airplane is flying at a velocity such that
CL1/2/CD is maximum.
Range depends on altitude, whereas endurance is independent of altitude (jet)

Typical cruising altitudes for subsonic commercial jet transports are from 30,000 to 40,000 ft; for
supersonic transports they are from 50,000 to 60,000 ft.
Total takeoff distance is the sum of the ground roll distance and the distance (measured along
the ground) to clear a 35-ft height (for jet-powered civilian transports) or a 50-ft height (for all
other airplanes)
Total landing distance is the sum of the ground roll distance (measured along the ground) to
achieve touchdown in a glide from a 50-ft height.
Airplanes with lower wing loadings will have smaller turn radii and larger turn rates, everything
else being equal.
The time rate of change of energy height is equal to the specific excess power.

Louis-Charles Breguet

Chapter 7 – Principles of Stability and Control

Mac is sometimes called the zero-lift moment

Chapter 9 – Propulsion
The reduction of PA with altitude can be delayed if a supercharger is used on the engine.
Supercharger – pump, driven from the engine crankshaft
Turbosupercharger – driven by a small turbine mounted in the engine exhaust jet
Supersonic Combustion Ramjet – SCRAMjet
The specific impulse is a direct measure of the efficiency of a rocket engine-propellant
combination
Best combination for specific impulse – hydrogen fluorine
He 178 – first gas turbine-powered, jet-propelled aircraft, engine by Hans von Ohain
Frank Whittle – first jet engine to successfully operate
Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star – first US production-line jet airplane
Robert H. Goddard – world’s first liquid-fueled rocket