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A needs analysis and testing battery for field hockey

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 ISSUE 36 / MARCH 2015 FIELD HOCKEY ANALYSIS

A needs analysis and

testing battery for field
hockey
By Chris Bishop, Jon Brazier, Jon Cree and Anthony Turner

INTRODUCTION

Classically, field hockey has been an intermittent sport, consisting of two

35-minute halves, with a high demand on various facets of physical fitness.29 Now
the demands of the game are changing: a rule change means that international
matches will be played in four 15-minute quarters. Existing literature places
greater emphasis on physiological facets such as repeated sprint ability (RSA)
and aerobic capacity. However, there is limited information available on other
components of physical fitness in field hockey, such as agility, change of direction
speed, strength and power. A common feature of hockey is the ‘semi-crouched’
position where players are lower to the ground.29 Classically, this tends to occur
when players are in direct possession of the ball such as in the case of a penalty
corner push-in. The nature of this position may have implications for potential
injuries.29 However, it must be noted that there is no available literature regarding
optimal ranges of motion for dorsiflexion, hip extension or back extension that
may depict whether or not players with greater ranges of motion at these joints
obtain less injuries. The purpose of this article is to outline the existing research
relating to the needs analysis of field hockey, and to offer the S&C coach some
insight into useful field-based tests for assessing physical performance.

of 5.61 kilometres being covered.54 This

Physiological demands of hockey
TIME MOTION ANALYSIS (TMA)
Jennings et al24 looked at the differences
in high-speed running (HSR) between
international and national Australian
hockey players, by playing position and
total distance covered. It was deduced that
international players covered a greater
total distance and more high speed
running activities than their national
counterparts.24 Results can be seen in
Table 1.
Fitness levels have drastically improved
from 40 years ago, when some of the
earliest TMA data reported distances
would suggest that the physical demands
of the game have changed, meaning
players have been required to become
fitter to cope with the changing physical
demands. When defined by playing
position at international level, it was found
that midfielders covered greater distances
in HSR zones when compared to strikers
(who also covered greater distances in
HSR zones than defenders). It should be
noted that no definition was provided
for HSR, nor was there a definition
differentiating it from lower speed activity
(LSA). The difference at national level was
that midfielders and strikers covered very
similar distances in the HSR zones, but
again, greater than defenders.24

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Table 1: A table showing the differences in distance covered, high speed running and lower speed activity between
international and national level Australian hockey players (adapted from Jennings et al24)

PLAYER STANDARD DISTANCE (M) HSR (M) LSA (M)

International 9776 ± 720 2294 ± 433 7441 ± 511

National 8589 ± 623 1652 ± 416 6905 ± 447

HSR = high speed running, LSA = lower speed activity, m = metres

The authors suggested that the most likely
explanation for the increase in distance
covered by the international players was that
they possessed a greater aerobic capacity. It
has also been suggested that international
players may possess a more advanced level
of technical and tactical ability which, in
turn, may alter movement demands during
matches.23
Spencer et al47 addressed elite field hockey
with a specific focus on assessing the
requirement for repeated sprinting during
games. TMA was taken from 14 players
from the Australian national squad (age 26
± 3 years, body mass 76.7 ± 5.6 Kg and VO2
max 57.9 ± 3.6 ml/kg/min).47 Low intensity
movement patterns (walking, jogging and
standing) collectively accounted for 94.4% of
total game time, in comparison to striding
which occurred 4.1% and sprinting 1.5%
during games. McManus and Stevenson33
also addressed TMA of hockey players, but
at a non-elite level, with specific focus on
agility and intensity of bouts. It was found
that on average players performed around
500 changes of direction per game, with
changes occurring every 8-11 seconds. In
addition, up to 300 moderately high or high
intensity movements were recorded per
game with emphasis placed on anaerobic
efforts, especially towards the end of playing
periods.33 The available data on TMA
highlights the necessity for high aerobic/
anaerobic capacities and efficient agility/
change of direction mechanics.
AEROBIC CAPACITY
The TMA data demonstrated that players
must repeat high intensity bouts throughout
matches. Subsequently, a higher aerobic
capacity would help to support recovery
during this type of activity.50, 51, 52
Lemmink and Visscher30 analysed the role
of energy systems in two intermittent field
tests in female field hockey players. The
energetics of two field tests were examined
in 21 players. The interval shuttle run test
(ISRT) consisted of 20m shuttles being
run for 30 seconds with 15 seconds walking
recovery. The speed at which subjects were
required to run was increased by 1 km/hour
every 90 seconds, from a starting speed of
10 km/hour. The interval shuttle sprint test
(ISST) consisted of ten 32m shuttle sprints,
with each shuttle starting 20 seconds after
the previous one.30 Due to the repeated sprint
demands in field hockey,7,23,35,47,48 interval
shuttle runs may be a more appropriate field
test for assessing aerobic capacity than a
traditional laboratory-based VO2max test.
Regression analyses concluded that both
aerobic and anaerobic energy systems
acted as the main contributors during the
ISST. This was supported by a correlation
coefficient of (r = 0.62) between the ISST
and the Wingate 30 second test, and
(r = 0.64) between the ISST and VO2max. The
results for the ISRT were slightly different.
The aerobic system acted as the primary
supplier as indicated by an r value of 0.74
between the ISRT and VO2max, but the
relationship between the Wingate test and
ISRT was not as strong (r = 0.37).30 Such a
relationship may not be surprising given
the longer work-to-rest ratios reported in
this test, a relationship that has been noted
elsewhere; in general, as an RSA increases
in work time and decrease in rest, aerobic
energy contribution increases.52 It would
seem logical that the ISRT and VO2max tests
were correlated because players with higher
aerobic capacities would be able to perform
the next sprint at closer levels of their
maximal effort, due to the quicker recovery
in the 15s walking recovery bout.
Chapman et al10 investigated the effective-
ness of an interval training program
on the conditioning of hockey players.
The interval program consisted of short
(5-50m), medium (10-60m) and long (70-
100m) shuttles, that were performed either
once or twice a week. This program was
measured by three performance tests. The
first was a 20m multiple stage shuttle run
test (MSSR), better known as a ‘beep test’.
The second and third tests were as follows:
a 1000m repeated effort time trial (RTT) and
a 100m repeated effort shuttle run (RSR),

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Table 2: Mean pre and post test scores for a range of field-based aerobic tests for field hockey players (adapted from
Chapman et al10)

GENDER MSSR (LEVEL) RTT (MINUTES) RSR (MINUTES)

Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post

Women 8.6 8.9* 5:34 - 5:14 5:03

Men 12.1 13.1* 4:12 - 4:06 4:03

* Significance difference (P < 0.05), MSSR = Multi stage shuttle run test, RTT = Repeated time trial, RSR = Repeated shuttle run
test

totalling a distance of 1000m. Both of these
tests were repeated three times with an
exercise-to-rest ratio of 1:1.10 Male and female
groups (n = 22 each group) trained twice and
once per week respectively over a 20-week
period. The difference was controlled by
equating the total time and distance covered
each week. Distances ranging from 5–100m
were used to perform interval shuttle sprints
over a four-week meso-cycle.10 The results
can be seen in Table 2.
Using an MSSR test has been used in the
field as a measure of assessing aerobic
capacity.29 After 20 weeks of conditioning,
both women and men made significant
improvements in the MSSR test. However,
improvements in the RSR test were reported
using effect sizes and it was deemed that
these were small (0.49 and 0.50 for women
and men respectively).
The results demonstrated that significant
improvements can be made to a field
hockey player’s aerobic capacity during
a competitive season, but only marginal
improvements to his/her repeated sprint
endurance capacity.10 When interpreting
the lack of improvement in the RSR tests,
the exercise-to-rest ratio of 1:1 must be
taken into consideration. If this ratio had
been manipulated to reduce the amount
of rest further (eg: 2:1), then this may have
had a more positive effect on the repeated
tests due to the onset of blood lactate
accumulation (OBLA) much sooner, thus
replicating better the nature of a repeated
test.
However, these results are in agreement
with a study by Astorino et al,3 who assessed
changes in physical fitness parameters
during a competitive field hockey season
in female collegiate athletes. Thirteen
female players took part in this study, and
their VO2max and body composition were
recorded. During pre-season, mean VO2max
scores were recorded at 39.9 mL/kg/min for
the players, increasing to 43.3 mL/kg/min
throughout mid-season and peaking at 45.4
mL/kg/min in the post-season.3
Although aerobic capacity improved
throughout a competitive season, there was
no detail on the training plan throughout the
season, and therefore an objective analysis
of why there were such improvements is
impossible to make. In comparison, Reilly
and Borrie,42 published a review article on
the physiology of field hockey and reported
VO2max scores ranging from 45 to 59 mL/kg/
min.
REPEATED SPRINT ABILITY (RSA)
Spencer et al47 assessed repeated sprint
activity as part of a TMA study. The criteria
for ‘repeated sprint’ activity were a minimum
of three sprints with an average rest of less
than 21 s between sprints. Repeated sprints
were recorded a total of 17 times during the
analysed match. A further study by Spencer
et al48 addressed a tournament scenario,
looking at multiple games in succession.
Repeated sprint activity was monitored
(as mentioned above), with the number of
bouts decreasing over three games from
17 in game one, 11 in game two and 8 in
game three. This suggested that fatigue
played a role in the TMA of elite players in
a tournament scenario and may provide the
S&C coach with implications for specific
conditioning to train RSA. For example,
Turner et al52 provided guidelines on how to
train RSA.
Enhancing a hockey player’s ability to
withstand lactate would appear to be of
paramount importance (as seen by the drop-
off in performance in the study by Spencer
et al48). If the onset of OBLA cannot be
directly measured (this may not be possible
in the field), then using RSA protocols that
produce performance decrements may best
indicate that the players are producing
lactate. Players’ ability to withstand this
build-up of lactate will be enhanced if
training protocols continually address this
facet of performance,52 as it has been found

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 FIELD HOCKEY ANALYSIS
that OBLA correlated best with RSA in elite
soccer players.13
To the authors’ knowledge, the only
information specifically outlining any
work-to-rest ratios was taken from 1973,54
but the physical demands of hockey
have changed and, therefore, so have the
physiological requirements.
Bishop et al7 investigated the predictors
of repeated sprint ability in 14 elite female
hockey players (body mass 61.1 ± 5.9 Kg
and VO2max 55.7 ± 3.2 ml/kg/min), where
a VO2max test and a repeated sprint test
(5 x 6s sprints every 30s) were undertaken.
There was no significant correlation
between VO2max and total work done or
VO2max and power decrement. Although
this relationship is not definitive, VO2max
and RSA may be two components of fitness
that need to be trained concurrently as the
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ISSUE 36 / MARCH 2015
that need to be trained concurrently as the
relationship is still unclear. In contrast,
Boddington et al8 investigated the validity of
a 5m shuttle test (5-MST) for assessing fitness
in female field hockey players. It was reported
that the 5-MST had a correlation coefficient of
0.92 with VO2max. However, it must be noted
that VO2max was estimated from the 20m
multiple shuttle test, which has been used to
assess subjects’ endurance capacity.41
It is clear however, that RSA is an important
component of fitness for field hockey players.7,
34, 47
Spencer et al47 investigated the reliability
of a 6 x 30m repeated sprint test on field
hockey players. This test was repeated seven
days apart from one another, with reliability
being measured by the typical error of
measurement (TE). Total sprint time proved to
be very reliable, with test one reporting results
of 26.79 ± 0.76s, and test two reporting 26.83 ±
0.74s with a TE of 0.7%.47 The 6 x 30m repeated
sprint test allows the S&C coach to place
increasing emphasis on specific protocols for
enhancing RSA.
The required dosage for effective training
of RSA is not always understood.35, 51, 52
However, if there are large decrements in RSA
performance, then it would be advisable to
alter work-to-rest ratios by reducing the rest
time. The correlation between OBLA and RSA
(r2 = 0.89)13 would suggest that challenging
a player’s ability to withstand lactate would
have a positive effect on RSA performance,
and reducing rest intervals will successfully
increase the build-up of lactate. This physical
component has been shown to directly
enhance hockey performance due to the bouts
of repeated sprints that occur in matches.33, 47, 52
Biomechanical demands of hockey
THE PENALTY CORNER
The penalty corner is a specific consideration
associated with field hockey.23, 27, 36 Mosquera
et al36 stated that 58% of goals in field hockey
occur from strategic actions; moreover, it
has been reported that success rates from
penalty corners have been as high as 83% in
competitions.23
The two types of corners that exist are long
corners and short corners. A long corner is
given if the ball goes out over the back line
after last being touched by an opponent’s
player. The attacking team will get a free 25m
hit from the corner of the ‘D’. A short corner is
awarded if a foul occurs inside the ‘D’.1
Amjad et al1 analysed the penalty corner from
six hockey matches during the 2010 World
 ISSUE 36 / MARCH 2015 FIELD HOCKEY ANALYSIS

Table 3: 3D analysis of successful vs unsuccessful drag-flick techniques in field hockey (adapted from Bari et al6)

VARIABLE SUCCESSFUL/UNSUCCESSFUL NO OF SHOTS ANALYSED MEAN RESULT

Drag distance Successful 6 2.14

(metres) Unsuccessful 6 2.00

Ball velocity Successful 6 18.61

(metres/second) Unsuccessful 6 16.29

Stick velocity Successful 6 16.39

(metres/second) Unsuccessful 6 14.92

SAO ( ̊) Successful 6 63.67

Unsuccessful 6 54.17

HAO ( ̊) Successful 6 49.17

Unsuccessful 6 48.33

SAO = Shoulder axis orientation during follow-through HAO = Hip axis orientation during follow-through

Cup. It was noted that there was a total
of 32 long corners and 30 short corners
throughout the six matches. The difference
in success rates between the two types was
worthy of note. Only 6% of long corners were
successful, whereas 40% of short corners
resulted in a goal being scored.1 The ball
would be received by the attacker faster from
a short corner, due to the reduced distance
the ball needs to travel, thus allowing the
attacker a longer time to select his shot type.
Before discussing how the S&C practitioner
can contribute to field hockey performance,
we must first understand the mechanics
of common shot-types from these penalty
corners.
THE DRAG-FLICK TECHNIQUE
Mosquera et al36 noted that there are six
different shot styles that can be executed
from a penalty corner. Below are the study’s
definitions of these six different shot types:
• Drag flick: A player crouches low, picking
the ball up on the shaft of the stick. The
ball is then pushed along the ground while
the stick is moved with a ‘slinging action’
and serves to accelerate the ball quicker
• Hit: The ball is struck using a swinging
action of the stick
• Deflection: A shot in which the path of the
passed ball is altered without the shooter
actually stopping or trapping the ball
• Flick: Pushing the ball so that it is raised
off the ground
• Push: Moving the ball along the ground
while using a pushing movement of the
stick, after it has been positioned close to
the ball. When a push is made, both the
ball and head of the stick are in contact
with the ground.
• Sweep: A stroke where the stick remains
in contact with the pitch making an arc
around the base of the feet.
There is a large amount of research that has
been published on the drag flick technique
in field hockey;2,5,6,14,15,18,22 however, it must
be noted that the majority of research in
this area has been done on individual or
pairs of athletes and may not be completely
applicable to the entire hockey population.
Performance analysis has identified that the
drag-flick technique results in goals being
scored more frequently than any other
technique.2,28 Hussain et al22 classified the
drag-flick as a ‘push’ shot as opposed to a
‘hit’. This classification allows the shot to be
lifted higher off the ground, making it harder
for your opponents to defend. As such, its
usage has become more widespread within
the attacking arsenal. Bari et al6 compared
successful versus unsuccessful drag-flick
techniques using three dimensional analysis
although, once again, this was done on one
player as opposed to multiple players, and
therefore any trends should be interpreted
with caution. The results can be seen in
Table 3.
Interestingly, there was no statistical
significance between successful and
unsuccessful drag-flick techniques
(P<0.05). However, Table 3 does demon-
strate notable trends. Both ball and stick
velocity were higher in successful attempts.
In addition, the level of rotation at both the

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 FIELD HOCKEY ANALYSIS
Table 4: Strength and power levels of elite and county level female players (adapted from Reilly and Borrie, 1992)
STANDARD OF VERTICAL BROAD KNEE GRIP STRENGTH (R) GRIP STRENGTH
PLAYER JUMP (CM) JUMP (CM) EXTENSION (KG) (R) (KG) (L) (KG)
Elite 40.3 ± 6.0 200 ± 18 98.0 ± 26.6 38.2 ± 3.9 35.1 ± 5.9
County 36.6 ± 4.2 180 ± 17 89.8 ± 15.4 35.2 ± 4.3 33.0 ± 3.5
shoulder and hip joints were greater during
successful attempts, more noticeably so
at the shoulder. Although not statistically
significant, the higher results in rotation
may offer a possible explanation as to why
there were higher velocities in stick/ball
speed also. Practically, the S&C practitioner
should consider the mobility of their
players’ hips and thoracic spine, as this will
assist in joint rotation, which will improve
force transfer through the kinetic chain.
This idea is supported by Ansari et al,2 who
emphasised the requirement for creating
sequential maximum velocities from a
proximal to distal pattern. In short, force
needs to be transferred from the hips to the
shoulders, then to the hands and ultimately
stick.
Furthermore, Kerr and Ness26 suggested
that during the drag-flick, simultaneous
rotational power plays a key role in the push-
action of the shot, with particular emphasis
on the pelvis and upper trunk regions.
Bari et al5 took this one stage further and
performed regression analysis in an attempt
to predict which factors might heavily
influence ball velocity. Stick velocity was
the only significant predictor as identified
by r values of 0.85 and 0.96 on two separate
subjects. What is apparent from this is
the hockey player’s necessity to be able to
transfer force through their kinetic chain
via multiple rotational movement patterns.
If this is carried out effectively, it will most
probably result in greater stick velocities,
which will have a positive effect on ball
velocity. Suggestions by which the S&C
coach can enhance this will be discussed
later in the ‘Training for Field Hockey’
section.
STRENGTH AND POWER
There has been limited literature published
on strength and power levels in hockey
players. Of the research that the authors
found, female players were the subjects.
Jones et al25 reported changes in 1RM back
squat values throughout a 12-week off-
season training program for a total of 21
NCAA female hockey players. In the weight
room, players followed a linear periodisation
concept, performing two whole-body lifting
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sessions per week with an emphasis on free-
weight exercises (although no further details
on the prescribed exercises were provided).
Mean 1RM values were reported and began
at 70kg pre-testing rising to 77kg after the
12 week intervention,25 representing a 10%
increase in strength over a three-month
period. These figures provide the S&C coach
with a guideline on strength levels to aim
for, but perhaps only at the collegiate level.
However, Reilly and Bretherton43 identified
strength and power differences of
female players at elite and county level.
Unfortunately, 1RM back squat was not
tested, making any comparisons with
collegiate players impossible. Power was
measured by both the broad jump and
vertical jump, and strength by a knee
extension and grip tests. The results
between the two standards of players can be
seen in Table 4.
As Table 4 demonstrates, there were sizeable
improvements in strength and power levels
between the two standards. Although there
was no statistical significance reported, it
is logical to assume that as the standard
of a player improves, so too do the desired
traits of athleticism associated with the
sport. There were noticeable improvements
in vertical and horizontal power and lower
body strength from elite level players,
whereas the difference in grip strength –
although less in county players – was not as
great as in the other three tests. This may
suggest that vertical/horizontal power and
lower body strength are components that
should receive more focus at county level, to
reduce the difference between elite players.
In addition, appropriate exercise selection
in the weight room such as deadlifts, stiff leg
deadlifts and bent over rows may indirectly
enhance grip strength without training
that component directly. Focusing on
strength and power will ensure players are
robust and resilient to injury, an important
facet considering the unique positions
experienced during hockey.30 Furthermore,
the relationship between strength, power,
speed and change of direction speed is
well documented in team sports;4,9,16,39 it
 ISSUE 36 / MARCH 2015 FIELD HOCKEY ANALYSIS

is therefore an essential part of a hockey time on a proprioceptive board – highlights

player’s repertoire.
Unfortunately, the authors were not able to
find any literature on strength and power
levels for male hockey players, making
any comparisons for these components of
fitness inconclusive.
INJURY RISK
Murtaugh37 investigated the injury patterns
amongst female field hockey players at high
school, university and national level. A total
of 158 subjects completed an anonymous
questionnaire regarding injury history
and injury rates were then calculated per
athlete per year. The most common injury
site reported was the lower limb (51%), with
the head/face and upper limb recording
34% and 14% respectively.37 Ankle sprains
were the most prevalent injury, followed
by head/facial injuries and hand fractures.
Goalkeepers had the highest frequency
of injury (0.58 injuries per year), whereas
midfielders received the highest total
number of injuries by playing position. In
addition, 59% of the sample reported back
pain with the lower back being the most
common site of back pain.37
that imbalances in ankle strength and
endurance can contribute to potential
injury.38 With this in mind, coaches should
consider a continuum of exercises that aim
to enhance the strength and proprioception
of the ankle joint at all velocities. Unilateral
exercises such as split squats (and all
associated variations) will test a player’s
ankle stability by challenging their centre
of mass away from a traditional bilateral lift.
At the opposing end of the force-velocity
spectrum, plyometric and jump training
will strengthen the ankle joint provided a
systematic progression is programmed. For
example, low intensity plyometrics such as
ankling/alternate leg ankling will challenge
a player’s tendon stiffness at a low level
before progressing onto more advanced
exercises such as straight leg bounding and
drop jumps. The emphasis should be on

Interestingly, Naicker et al38 addressed how

poor dorsiflexion was associated with ankle
injuries in elite female field hockey players
(n = 47). This provided supporting evidence
from previous research in 2001, by Murtaugh,
that ankle injuries are a high-risk area for
field hockey players. Injury incidence was
reported at 0.98 per player or 6.32 injuries
per 1000 playing hours. In addition, 25.5%
of the subjects reported ankle injuries,
with 75% of those ankle injuries occurring
during match-play.38 Furthermore, injured
players were able to maintain balance on
a proprioceptive board for a mean time
of 10.31 seconds compared to un-injured
players who recorded a mean duration of
23.9 seconds. Finally, mean peak isokinetic
torque of the dorsiflexors in injured legs (27.4
Nm) was significantly lower than un-injured
legs (32.7 Nm). The authors concluded that
poor peak dorsiflexion torque was identified
as being an associated risk factor for ankle
injuries.38

The research suggests that the ankle is the

most common site for injury in field hockey.
The National Academy of Sports Medicine
suggest that optimal dorsiflexion ranges
are between 20-30 degrees,11 as measured
by a goniometer. Although there were no
actual ankle ranges of motion reported,
the information from Naicker et al’s study
– regarding lower peak torque and reduced

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 FIELD HOCKEY ANALYSIS
‘There are maintaining a stiff ankle joint while trying
to minimise ground contact time.
a number of
Training for field hockey
physiological
The research that exists has demonstrated
components that there are a number of physiological
components that require attention in order
that require to enhance performance in field hockey.
There is also a surprising lack of information
attention – available in most other sports – regarding
the effect of sprint speed, strength and lower
in order to body power. RSA and aerobic capacity would
appear to be of paramount importance to
performance and have been the subject
enhance of numerous studies in field hockey. The
number of repeated sprints has been shown
performance to range from 8-17 throughout a competition
scenario;48 however, the correlation between
in field RSA and aerobic capacity has been shown
to be non-significant,7 indicating that the
hockey’ training of one may not positively affect the
other.
Although aerobic capacity is essential for
field hockey, the intermittent nature of
the game may determine that drills which
focus on RSA or high-speed running
may be more appropriate in attaining
‘match fitness’ when compared to older
methodologies of longer distance running.
Agility has also appeared in the research
as an area of importance.34 Developing this
physical quality is complex as true agility
requires an external stimulus to react to,
which involves perceptual decision making
processes.17,19,32,45,56,57,58,59 However, change of
direction speed (CODS) focuses on drills
where the athlete knows what to perform,
but simply trains to perform the task as
efficiently as possible. The design of these
drills can be at the discretion of the coach
– as long as it replicates the movement
patterns and time frames during the sport.
Finally, although there is a lack of literature
relating to strength and power in field
hockey, the relationship between strength/
power and agility in other field/court sports
is well documented.4,16,39 It would be logical to
assume that optimising these components
of fitness are equally as important in
ensuring players are robust enough to
withstand injuries, especially in light of the
information provided in the injury analysis
section of this review.
Considering the information in the
biomechanical analysis and lack of
literature relating to strength and power for
field hockey; if force needs to be transferred
from the hips to the shoulders (as identified
previously),2,26 this provides supporting
22 P R O F E SS I O N A L S T R E N GT H & C O N D I T I O N I N G / W W W. U K S CA . O R G . U K
ISSUE 36 / MARCH 2015
rationale for medicine ball ballistic-based
exercises such as rotational wall slams and
wood-chops which will complement the
need for rotational power as suggested by
Kerr and Ness.26 Traditional Olympic lifts
(clean and snatch) do provide a pathway
for force transference with the combined
action of triple extension and shrug in
a high-velocity pattern. However, they
do not require sequential rotation of the
pelvis and shoulder as per the drag-flick
technique. Therefore, challenging frontal
and transverse plane stability would appear
to provide a rationale for modifying these
lifts to be finished in the split stance during
the catch component, potentially offering a
greater application to the drag-flick.
Recently, more literature has been published
surrounding the effects of small sided
games on performance (although it should
be noted that the authors were unable to
find any directly relating to field hockey).
Hill-Haas et al20 published a review on the
physiology of small-sided games in soccer,
acknowledging multiple studies that have
investigated this type of conditioning. The
meta-analysis portrayed a trend in %HRmax
when the drill design is manipulated (eg: 1
vs 1, 2 vs 2, 3 vs 3, etc). Smaller sided games
demonstrated higher %HRmax with 88-89% for
1 vs 1 games, 84-87% for 2 vs 2 and 81-82% for 3
vs 3.20 Further to this, there were differences
in %HRmax when pitch dimensions were
manipulated. When 1 vs 1 and 2 vs 2 played
on a 15 x 10m pitch, HRmax was recorded at
88% and 84.2% respectively. However, when
pitch dimensions were altered to 20 x 15m,
HRmax rose to 89% and 87.4% respectively.20
Although not specific to field hockey, this
literature does suggest that by manipulating
training variables, we can alter the desired
physiological effects on athletes, dependant
on the training objective.
By using smaller sided games such as 2 vs
2 or 3 vs 3, we increase the physiological
demand placed on players’ aerobic capacity,
and can do this further by enhancing
pitch dimensions. Working at a higher
%HRmax will most likely result in a larger
number of repeated sprints. However, by
adding the competitive element of playing
against others, this will stimulate reactive
agility and change of direction speed also.
Therefore, if the goal is to simply challenge
players to a higher level of HRmax, then
small sided games will work as an effective
type of conditioning, and will most likely
benefit a player’s agility capabilities also.
If the goal is to enhance RSA, then specific
RSA protocols (as discussed earlier) will
isolate this component of performance most
effectively.
 ISSUE 36 / MARCH 2015 FIELD HOCKEY ANALYSIS

Table 5: Proposed physical testing battery and benchmarks for elite field hockey players (guidelines are offered to the
reader primarily based from existing literature relating to field hockey or comparable sports where research is lacking)

COMPONENT OF FITNESS PROPOSED TEST BENCHMARK DATA TO AIM FOR

Males Females

Aerobic capacity (mean Interval shuttle run test Female results only available from Lemmink &
number of shuttles reached) (ISRT) Visscher31 and reported a mean of 65 shuttles
reached

Repeated sprint ability 6 x 30m 26-27 29-30

(total time in seconds)

Acceleration/CODS 32m shuttle run test Male/female results from study by Lemmink et
(time in seconds) al31 were grouped together but fastest time was
8.29

Lower body strength (Kg) 1RM Back squat 165 (2 x BW) 77

Taken from Wisloff et al (no information on

55
(elite soccer players) mean BW reported)

Lower body power (cm) CMJ/Broad jump 62/254 40/200

Taken from Burr et al8

(ice hockey players)

Testing for field hockey of 26.79 and 26.83 seconds respectively

AEROBIC CAPACITY
The gold standard test for measuring
aerobic capacity is the treadmill VO2
max test. Reilly and Borrie42 reported
VO2max scores between 45-59 mL/
kg/min and, although dated, this
information was supported by the
results of Hinrichs et al,21 who conveyed
a mean VO2max score of 46.6 mL/kg/
min and 55.8 mL/kg/min in female and
male elite hockey players respectively.
However, if accesses to these gold
standard measurements are not
obtainable, field-based measurements
of aerobic fitness should be
implemented. Lemmink and Visscher30
identified that the ISRT (previously
discussed) had a strong relationship
with VO2max (r = 0.74). A test that uses
20m shuttles and incorporates an active
recovery will be easy to administer,
thus may be the most pertinent option
for measuring aerobic capacity in the
field.
REPEAT SPRINT ABILITY
This component of fitness would appear
to be of paramount importance to field
hockey. There are specific criteria
relating to RSA,47,48 and the chosen test
should replicate a game scenario as
best as possible. Spencer et al47 used
the 6 x 30m repeated sprint test which
proved to be reliable (as measured by
total sprint time) reporting mean times
and only 0.7% TE on two separate
occasions.
ACCELERATION/CHANGE OF DIRECTION
SPEED
Using electronic timing gates at
different interval points (such as 10,
20, 30m) allows both acceleration
and top speed to be assessed, while
simultaneously offering the S&C
coach split interval times. Lemmink
et al31 assessed the reliability of two
field hockey specific sprint tests. One
consisted of sprinting with a hockey
stick; the second consisted of dribbling
a hockey ball during the same
procedure. Players were instructed to
sprint 6m out to a line and sprint back.
Following this, they were instructed
to sprint out 10m and then sprint
back culminating in a 32m sprint test.
Mean times for the regular sprint were
reported at 8.33 seconds whilst the
dribble test reported a mean result of
9.83 seconds.31
It is likely that these methods may not
be a reflection of maximal acceleration,
linear speed or CODS as athletes will
not be able to use their arms to their
full capacity. However, the advantage
these tests have is that they better
reflect the nature of how players may
have to move during training or match
scenario. In addition, the nature of three
180° turns in the above methods brings
an additional CODS element to this

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 FIELD HOCKEY ANALYSIS
‘The gold standard field-based measurement for measuring
lower body strength is the 1RM back squat’
test. In addition, Lemmink et al30 reported
intra-class correlation (ICC) values of 0.81
and 0.85 for both the sprint and dribble tests
reported above, indicating an acceptable
level of reliability. With this in mind, these
tests may prove to be a very viable option
for assessing both acceleration and CODS.
LOWER BODY STRENGTH
Strength is one of the key physical
components for any field sport, and helps to
contribute to the robustness of the athlete.
Due to the repetitive nature of field hockey,
increased strength levels will assist in
reducing potential injuries due to a higher
capacity to withstand repetitive loading.
Jones et al25 reported a mean 1RM back
squat of 70kg for 21 NCAA collegiate female
players, with an increase to 77kg after a 12
week off-season program.
The authors were unable to find any
additional literature surrounding the 1RM
back squat in field hockey. However, Astorino
et al3 reported maximal lower body strength,
again in collegiate players as measured by
a 1RM leg press. Mean pre-season scores
were 220kg with an approximate loss of 14%
strength when re-tested in the post-season.
It must be noted that this loss of strength
was not a statistically significant loss of
strength, however minimising strength loss
24 P R O F E SS I O N A L S T R E N GT H & C O N D I T I O N I N G / W W W. U K S CA . O R G . U K
ISSUE 36 / MARCH 2015
should be one of the goals of the S&C coach.
The gold standard field-based measurement
for measuring lower body strength is the
1RM back squat. Elite players are most
likely incorporated into programmes
that encourage the use of free-weights as
opposed to resistance machines. However,
the age and experience of the players must
be taken into account and if baseline tests
are being conducted on players with little or
no experience in the weight room, then the
leg press may offer coaches an alternative
method for obtaining lower body strength
results.
LOWER BODY POWER
Both the counter-movement jump (CMJ)12,42
and broad jump42 have been used to assess
vertical and horizontal power in national
and county level players. The simplicity and
requirement for less technical competency
(when compared to a power clean) makes
squad comparisons easy and more time-
efficient when obtaining results.
What is worthy of note here is that although
improvements in jump height cannot be
directly correlated to enhanced hockey
performance, greater levels of lower body
power will have relevance to particular
sporting actions that have been shown to
 ISSUE 36 / MARCH 2015 FIELD HOCKEY ANALYSIS

occur in this sport, such as acceleration would appear to hold the greatest level of
and changing direction where maximal importance in performing at the highest
explosive power is important.12 level.

The literature on enhancing strength and

Conclusion
Conditioning for field hockey is a multi-
faceted process that requires attention on a
number of physical components to optimise
performance. RSA and aerobic capacity
power for hockey is sparse, but it would
seem logical to train these areas, making
the hockey athlete more robust to allow
for the demands of RSA and resistance to
fatigue during matches and competition
scenarios.

AUTHORS’ BIOGRAPHIES
CHRIS BISHOP, MSC, ASCC.
Chris is a lecturer in strength and conditioning at the London Sport Institute, Middlesex University.

JON BRAZIER, MSC, ASCC, PGCE.

Jon is the programme leader for the BSc in personal training with strength and conditioning course and the head
strength and conditioning coach for the Athlete Support Programme at City and Islington College, London.

JON CREE, MSC, ASCC.

Jon Cree is the programme leader for BSc strength and conditioning coach programme at the London Sport Institute,
Middlesex University. He is also the lead strength and conditioning coach for England C football team.

ANTHONY TURNER, MSC, ASCC, CSCS*D.

Anthony is the programme leader for the MSc in strength and conditioning at the School of Science & Technology,
London Sport Institute, Middlesex University and head of athletic development for British Fencing.

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