CHAPTER1 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS II

CHAPTER 1

PARTIAL FRACTIONS

1.0 Introduction

In this chapter, we will study how to transform the rational fraction (in which, a fraction such that
the numerator and the denominator are both polynomials) into one or several fractions with a simpler
denominator by expressing the fraction as a sum of a polynomial (possibly zero). Rational fraction can be
classified as proper fraction or improper fraction.

A proper fraction is the fraction in which the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of
the denominator. For example

x 1 3
and 3
x 1
2
x 4

are proper fraction.

On the other hand, an improper fraction is the fraction in which the degree of the numerator is
equal or higher than the degree of the denominator. For example

x 4  x3  1
(1.1)
x3  x  1

How do we transform from the improper fraction in Eq. (1.1) into a proper fraction??

1. Divide the first term of the numerator by the first term of the denominator, and put that in
the answer.
2. Multiply the denominator by that answer put that below the numerator.
3. Subtract to create a new polynomial.

x 1
x  x 1 x  x 1
3 4 3

x4  x2  x
0  x3  x 2  x  1
 x3  x  1
0 x2  2 x  2

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CHAPTER1 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS II

After dividing we were left with " x 2  2 x  2 ", this is the "remainder". The remainder is what is
left over after dividing. Hence, put the remainder divided by the bottom polynomial as part of the
answer, like this:

x2  2x  2
 x  1  (1.2)
x3  x  1

1.1 Partial Fraction

Partial fraction is obtained from the proper fraction in which can be expressed into the
sum of other fractions whose denominators are lower degree than the denominator of the given
fraction by using operation of partial fraction decomposition or partial fraction expansion. For
example

4 x 1 2
  . (1.3)
1  x  2  x  1  x   2  x 
Now, we are going to study how the proper fraction in the left side of eq (1.3) obtained its partial
fraction in the right side. The method is called “Partial Fraction Decomposition”.

It is clear that, from eq (1.3) there is none of linear factors are repeated. If a linear factor such
as  ax  b  occur once as a factor of the denominator of the given fraction, then corresponding to
A
this factor associate a partial fraction , where A is a constant  0. Now, let we start
ax  b

Step 1: Write one partial fraction for each of those factors.

4 x A B
  . (1.4)
1  x  2  x  1  x   2  x 
Step 1: Multiply through by the bottom so we no longer have fractions.

4  x  A  2  x   B 1  x  . (1.5)

Step 4: Now find the constants!

Substituting the roots ("zeros") of the bottom can help:

Root for 1  x  is x  1. Then, substitute into eq (1.5)

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CHAPTER1 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS II

4  1  A  2  1   B 1  1   A  1.

Root for  2  x  is x  2. Then, substitute into eq (1.5)

4   2   A  2   2    B 1   2    B  2.

And now, the solution can be written as

4 x 1 2
  . (1.6)
1  x  2  x  1  x   2  x 
same as eq (1.3).

1.2 Denominators with Repeated

The previous section only discussed the case of none of linear factors of the denominator are repeated.
Then, this section will discuss how to obtain the partial fraction of rational fraction in which its
denominators contain a linear factor  ax  b  repeated p times. Then, corresponding to this factor, partial
fraction can be obtained by

A B C P
   ...  (1.7)
 ax  b   ax  b   ax  b 
2 3
 ax  b 
p

Example:

x 1 A B C
  
 x  1 x  2 
2
 x  1  x  2  x  2 2
Solution

Multiply both side with  x  1 x  2  , obtain

2

x  1  A  x  2   B  x  1 x  2   C  x  1
2

Root for 1  x  is x  1. Now let x  1.

 1  1  A   1  2  B   1  1   1  2   C   1  1  A  2

2

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Root for  x  2  is x  2. Now let x  1.

 2  1  A   2  2  B   2   1   2   2   C   2   1  C  3
2

Now, we let x  0 .

 0 1  A  0  2  B   0   1   0   2   C   0   1
2

Then, substitute the obtained values of A and C

1  2  4   B 1 2   3 1  B  2

x 1 2 2 3
    .
 x  1 x  2
2
 x  1  x  2  x  2 2

1.3 Quadratic Factors

In some cases, there will be a quadratic factor ax 2  bx  c   present once as a factor of the
denominator of the given fraction, then the corresponding to this factor associate a partial fraction

Ax  B
(1.8)
ax  bx  c
2

where A and B are constant  0.

 
Note: ax 2  bx  c is assumed cannot be factored into two real linear factors with integer coefficient.

Example:

x 3 A Bx  C
  2
 x  1  x  1  x  1  x  1
2

Solution


Multiply both side with  x  1 x 2  1 , obtain 
x  3  A  x 2  1   Bx  C  x  1

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CHAPTER1 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS II

Root for  x  1 is x  1. so, let x  1.

1  3  A 12  1   B(1)  C 1  1  A  1

To find C, we can eliminate B by letting x  0 . Hence

0  3  A  02  1   B  0   C   0  1  3  A  C

C2

Now, to find the value of B, we let x  1

 
1  3  A  1  1   B  1  C   1  1  4  2 A  2B  2C
2

B 1

x 3 1 x2
   2 .
 x  1  x  1  x  1  x  1
2

It is significant to realize that, there is situation in which quadratic factor  ax 2  bx  c  present p

times as a factor of the denominator of the given fraction, such as  ax 2  bx  c  . Hence partial
p

fraction can be written as

Ax  B Cx  D Ex  F Gx  H
   ...  (1.9)
ax  bx  c  ax 2  bx  c   ax 2  bx  c 
2 2 3
 ax 2  bx  c 
P

where A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H are constant and  0 .

Example:

x 3 A Bx  C Dx  E
  2 
 x  1  x 2
 1
2
 x  1  x  1  x 2  12

Solution

 
Multiply both side with  x  1 x 2  1 , obtain
2

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CHAPTER1 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS II

x  3  A  x 2  1   Bx  C  x  1  x 2  1   Dx  E  x  1
2

Root for  x  1 is x  1. so, let x  1.

1  3  A 12  1   B(1)  C 1  1 12  1   D 1  E  1  1 

2 1
A
2

Next, we let x  0 , obtain

0  3  A  02  1   B(0)  C  0  1  02  1   D  0   E   0  1
2

5
3  A  C  E  E   C ………………………… (a)
2

Now, we let x  1 , obtain

   
1  3  A  1  1   B(1)  C  1  1  1  1   D  1  E   1  1
2 2 2

 2B  2C  D  E  1 …………………………………… (b)

Now, we let x  2 , obtain

2  3  A  22  1   B(2)  C  2  1  2 2  1   D  2   E   2  1
2

23
 10 B  5C  2 D  E  ……………………………… (c)
2

let x  2 , obtain

   
2  3  A  2   1   B(2)  C  2  1  2   1   D  2   E   2  1
2 2 2

5
 10 B  5C  2 D  E  …………………………………… (d)
2

Subtract eq (c) with eq (d), hence (c) - (d), obtain

 10C  2E  9 …………………………..……………….. (e)

Substitute (a) into (e), obtain

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CHAPTER1 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS II

5  1
10C  2   C   9  C .
2  2

Now we can obtain the value of E. From eq. (a),

5 1
E   E  2.
2 2

Next, we need to find the values of B and D. Add eq. (d) with (c) will obtain

10B  2D  7 …………………….……… (f)

Substitute the values of C and E into eq. (b), obtain

2B  D  2  D  2  2 B …………… (g)

Hence, substitute eq, (g) into (f) will obtain

1
10 B  2  2  2 B   7  B  .
2

Now, let we find D

1
D  2  2    1.
2

We already found all the values of A, B, C, D and E. Therefore, the partial fraction can be written
as

x 3 1 1 x 1 x2
   .
 x  1  x 2  1
2
2  x  1 2  x  1  x 2  12
2

Prepared by: Sharena Mohamad Isa