POST GRADUATE PROGRAM CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPT.

- ITS
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEO ENGINEERING

EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION GROUNDWATER FROM

JOURNAL AND MATERIALS the 2nd Hydrology and
Lecturer : Dr.Mahendra Andiek Maulana S.T.,M.T Groundwater Numeric Modelling
Assignment
By Mar theana Kencanawati/ID Students Number :
03111860010003
Exploration of Groundwater
There
are 1. Geologic methods
three
methods
include:

Surface exploration 2. Remote Sensing

definition are non-invasive
ways to locate/mapping
the subsurface, why we
need surface exploration
because it has low budget
rather than sub
subsurface investigations
3. Surface Geophysical Methods
(a) Electric Resistivity Method
(b) Seismic Refraction Method
(c) Seismic Reflection Method
(d) Gravimetric Method
(e) Magnetic Method
(f) Electromagnetic Method
(g) Ground Penetrating Radar
and others

Adapted from : Ir. Mohammad Sholichin MT., Ph.D

Exploration of Groundwater
Subsurface exploration

1. Test drilling
• geologic log
• drilling time log
• Water level measurement

2. Geophysical logging/borehole geophysics

• Resistivity logging
• Spontaneous potential logging
• Radiation logging
• Temperature logging
• Caliper Logging
• Fluid Conductivity logging
• Fluid velocity logging

3. Tracer tests
Usefulness of Resistivities Resistivity vary over a wide range, depending
on density, porosity, pore size and shape,
are:
water content and quality, and temperature.

valuable in determining

1. The depth and thickness

of groundwater aquifers

2. The depth to
groundwater, the depth
and thickness of clay
layers in some cases
3. The depth to bedrock,
and accordingly limit the
depth of well drilling.
In relatively porous formations,
resistivity is controlled more by
water content and quality within the
formation than by the rock
resistivity.

For aquifers composed of

unconsolidated materials, the
resistivity decreases with the
degree of saturation and the salinity
of the groundwater.

Clay minerals conduct electric

current through their matrix,
therefore, clayey formations tend
to display lower resistivity than do
permeable alluvial aquifers.
Seismic Refraction Method (1)
based on the measurement of the
travel time of seismic waves refracted
at the interfaces between subsurface
layers of different velocity.

Seismic energy is provided by a source

(hammer, weight drop or small
explosive charge) located on the
surface.
 Seismic Refraction Method (2)
A series of seismic
1. The seismic waves travel through the subsurface
receivers, geophones (right)
at a velocity dependent on the density of the
are laid out along the
soil/rock.
survey line at regular
intervals and receive the
2. When the seismic wave front encounters an reflected wave energy.
interface where seismic velocity drastically
increases, a portion of the wave critically refracts
at the interface, traveling laterally along higher
velocity layers.

3. Due to compressional stresses along the interface

boundary, a portion of the wave front returns to
the surface
Geophysical logging/ Borehole
geophysics

What is Borehole Geophysical

Logging?
1. Borehole geophysical logging is a
procedure to collect and
transmit specific information
about the geologic formations
penetrated by a well by raising
and lowering a set of probes or
sunders that contain water-tight
instruments in the well

2. The data collected can be used

to determine general formation
geology, fracture distribution,
vertical borehole flow, and
water-yielding capabilities.
 • The application of geophysical logging to
groundwater hydrology lags far behind its
comparable using in petroleum exploration.
Geophysical • The main reason is high cost. Most water

logging/
wells are shallow, small-diameter holes for
domestic water supply; logging costs would

Borehole be relatively large and unnecessary.

• But for deeper wells could cause more
geophysics expensive such as in municipal, irrigation or
injection purposes, logging can be
economically justified in terms of improved
well construction and performance.
Resistivity log
Groundwater
withdrawal
Groundwater
exploration
Subsurface
geophysical methods
Resistivity logging
Factors that influence formation resistivity:
1. Nature of water
2. Temperature of water
3. Rock structure
Rw
Rt 
m
1
F
m
R t  FR w
Rt = formation resistivity
Rw = water resistivity
θ = porosity fraction
m = cementation factor
F = formation resistivity factor
Ri
Also, F 
Rm
Multi-electrode method is most commonly
employed (minimizes the effects of drilling
fluid and well diameter)

Spacing between the electrodes, and their

arrangement, determine the radius of
investigation.

Short normal – records app. Resistivity of

the mud-invaded zone (useful for locating
boundaries of formations)

Long-normal – records app. Resistivity

beyond the invaded zone (useful for
obtaining information on fluids in thick
permeable formations)

Lateral – actual formation resistivity Typical electrode arrangement and standardized

beyond the mud-invaded zone distance for resistivity logs.
The use of resistivity logs are :
• interpretation and identification of rock types
• identification of the position of the water
table
• determination of bed contacts and bed
thickness
• determination of aquifer parameters
• evaluation of quality of formation water
• determination of depth of casing

Can be made only in the uncased portion of drill

holes.

Must contain drilled mud or water

Spontaneous potential (SP) logging

measures differences in the

voltages of an electrode at
the land surface and an
electrode in the borehole

potentials are primarily

produced by electrochemical
cells formed by the electric
conductivity differences of
drilling mud and
groundwater where
boundaries of permeable
zones intersect a borehole.
Spontaneous potential (SP) logging
• Deflections of the SP curve occurs due to
the development of a liquid junction potential,
i.e. potential difference from across the
junction to mud filtrate into formation water.
• The potential read for shales normally varies
with depth differently. SP are measured
relative to this base line zero called the shale
line..
• If water in permeable bed is more saline than
drilling mud, SP is generally more –ve in the
permeable bed than in the adjacent clay &
vice versa.
• useful in determination of water quality
• The right hand boundary generally indicates
impermeable beds (e.g. clay, shale, and
bedrock)
• Left-hand boundary indicates sand and other
permeable layers
 Radiation
logging
• (i) Measure the natural
radioactivity
• (ii) Detect the radiation
reflected to or induced into
Generally two types: formation from an artificial
source
• Natural-gamma logging
• Gamma-gamma logging
• Neutron logging
 • all rocks emit natural gamma radiation
originating from unstable isotopes
Natural- (potassium, uranium, and thorium)
Gamma • Clay formations (shale, clay) emit more
rays than gravels and sands.
logging • Can be used to differentiate between
sand, clay and gravel (this is identifying
lithology, the primary application)
•Gamma-Gamma logging
1. Gamma rays from a source in the probe (cobalt-60 or cesium-137) are
scattered and diffused through formation.
2. Part of the scattered rays re-enter the hole and are remeasured.
3. The higher the bulk density of formation, the smaller the number of
gamma-gamma rays that reach the detector.
4. Primary applications:
5. (i) identifying lithology
6. (ii) measurement of bulk density and porosity of rocks.
Neutron logging

1. Useful in determining the porosity of formations

2. A fast neutron source is used to bombard the rock

3. When any individual neutron collides with a hydrogen ion (of a

water molecule), some of the neutron’s energy is lost and it slows
down.

4. A large number of slow neutrons, as recorded by a slow neutron

counter, indicates a large number of fluid (i.e. high porosity)

5. Results are influenced by hole size. Therefore, in large uncased

holes, information on hole diameter is required for proper
interpretation.
Temperature logging Terms (1)

1. A vertical measurement of groundwater temperature in a well by a

resistance thermometer

2. Normally Temperature will increase according to geothermal gradients

(roughly 3oC for each 100 m depth)

3. Departures from this normal gradient may provide information on

circulation (hydrologic Cycle) or geologic conditions in the well.
 TEMPERATURE LOGGING (2)
4. From temperature logging, we could apply:
(i) identify aquifers contributing water to a well.
(ii) Provide data on the source of water
(iii) identify rock types
(iv) calculate fluid viscosity and specific conductivity from fluid resistivity logs
(v) distinguish moving and stagnant water

5. From temperature logging, we could define weather we are normally cold water
which is whom may indicate recharge from ground surface ( in deep well)
6. Also from temperature logging we could define weather in normally warm water
may indicate water of deep-seated origin
7. Geothermal gradient is usually steeper in rocks with low permeability
Caliper Logging

1. Provides a record of average hole diameter of a

borehole

2. Hole diameter will be equal to drilling bit when a

hard sandstone is traversed.

3. Diameter becomes larger for shales/clays as they

become wet with mud fluid, slough off and cave
into the hole.

4. Applications:
(i) identification of lithology and stratigraphic correlation
(ii) Locating fractures and other rock openings
(iii) Correcting other logs for hole-diameter effects
Groundwater withdrawal
1. Groundwater exploration
2. Well construction methods
3. Well design (to get optimum quantity of
water economically from a given geological
condition to meet the requirement for a
particular scheme)
4. Well completion (placement and cementing of Courtesy: google images.com

casing, screens)
5. Well development (increase specific capacity,
obtain maximum economic well life)
 TYPES OF WELLS AND METHODS OF
CONSTRUCTION

Factors important in choosing the type of wells

1. Quantity of water required
2. Economic consideration
3. Hydro-geologic consideration
4. Depth of water table

Courtesy: google images.com

Well Construction Methods

Shallow depths; 1. Dug wells

Domestic wells; 2. Bored wells
Unconsolidated 3. Driven wells
formations 4. Jetted wells

1. Percussion (Cable tool) method

Municipal, industrial 2. Hydraulic Rotary method
Domestic wells; 3. Air Rotary method
Unconsolidated and
consolidated formations
MUNICIPAL, INDUSTRIAL
DOMESTIC WELLS

Courtesy: google images.com

 EXPLORING GROUND WATER (1)

Groundwater exploration is a typical assignment of a hydrogeologist or an engineer.

Identifying the location of its availability is a challenging assignment

Exploration of groundwater requires a basic understanding of its position in the subsurface geological setup.

Groundwater Exploration is conducted through either by direct or indirect methods.

Test drilling is the direct approach to find out the resource.

This cost a lot.

 EXPLORING GROUND WATER (2)

Every individual couldn’t perform a test drilling.

During the past two centuries, more and more
techniques had been improved to explore the
groundwater.
They are classified into surface and sub-surface
methods.

Courtesy: google images.com

SURFACE METHODS
The surface methods are capable
to operate and implement. These
requirement minimum facilities The surface methods of groundwater
exploration include the following:
such as topo-sheets, maps,
– Esoteric Methods
reports, some field measurements – Geomorphologic methods
and interpretations of data in the – Geological & structural Methods
laboratories. – Soil and Micro-Biological Methods
– Remote Sensing Techniques
– Surface Geophysical Methods
(Balsubramanian 2007)
SUBSURFACE METHODS

The subsurface methods of groundwater exploration includes both Test Drilling &
Borehole Geophysical Logging techniques.

When compared to the surface methods, the subsurface methods are very
expensive.

These are done by government from level projects where it has large scale
investigations were carried out to ascertain the results of surface surveys.
The subsurface methods are very accurate methods as the help in direct
observations of features in the form of bore-hole lithologs as core samples and also
geophysical measurements of formation properties.(Balsubramanian,2007)
Sultan Awad Sultan et.al (2009) proof in their research
include followings:

Different geophysical tools such as geoelectric, gravity, and magnetic have been applied to detect
groundwater potentiality and structural elements, which controlled a geometry of the groundwater
aquifers in the study area. Nineteen vertical electrical soundings measured using ABEM SAS 4000
equipment through Schlumberger configuration of AB/2 ranged from 1.5 to 1,000 m;

the quantitative interpretation was carried out using manual and analytical techniques.

The results of quantitative interpretation used to construct six geoelectrical crosssections indicate
that the subsurface sequence of the study area consists of seven geoelectrical units. These units are
Quaternary sand sheet and sand dunes, Quaternary aquifer, marly limestone, clay, sandy clay, clay
with sandstone intercalation, and deep Nubian sandstone aquifer
 CONCLUSION
1. Previous geological, hydrogeological and geophysical methods are employed to target
the groundwater potential zones. The interpretation of satellite images and aerial
photographs also help more in this process.

2.Groundwater exploration is a very unique. As it is a hidden resource, various indirect

methods are conducted to identify the points.

3. The success in the groundwater targeting depends on experience of understanding

the geological conditions, structural conditions and hydrogeological conditions which
favors the occurrence of groundwater.

4.The modern tools like remote sensing and aerial photography also provide a lot of
spatial data for a sudden meaningful of the domain for a better decision-making
(Balsubramanian ,2007)
REFERENCES
A. Balsubramanian 2007. Methods of Groundwater Exploration, Technical
Reports Centre For Advanced Studies In Earth Science ,University Of Mysore,
Ir. Mohammad Sholichin MT., Ph.D, Investigasi dan Interpretasi data Pendugaan
Airtanah, www.water.lecture.ub.ac.id
Sultan Awad Sultan & Hatem M. Mekhemer & Fernando M. Santos, 2009
Groundwater exploration and evaluation by using geophysical interpretation
(case study: Al Qantara East, North Western Sinai, Egypt) Arabian Journal of
Geosciences · August 2009 DOI: 10.1007/s12517-008-0028-7