MAXIMA

Just before the maximum the slope is positive, at the maximum it

dy
is zero and just after the maximum it is negative. Thus,
dx
dy
decreases at a maximum and hence the rate of change of is
dx
d  dy 
negative at a maximum i.e.   < 0 at maximum.
dx  dx 

d  dy  d2y
The quantity   is the rate of change of the slope. It is written as .
dx  dx  dx 2
dy d2 y
Conditions for maxima are: (a) = 0 (b) <0
dx dx 2
MINIMA
Similarly, at a minimum the slope changes from negative to positive.
Hence with the increases of x. the slope is increasing that means
the rate of change of slope with respect to x is positive

d  dy 
hence   > 0.
dx  dx 

dy d2 y
Conditions for minima are: (a) =0 (b) >0
dx dx 2

Quite often it is known from the physical situation whether the

d2 y
quantity is a maximum or a minimum. The test on may then
dx 2
be omitted.

Example 38. Find minimum value of y = 1 + x2 – 2x

dy
= 2x – 2
dx

dy
for minima 0
dx
2x – 2 = 0
x=1

d2 y
2
dx 2

d2 y
0
dx 2
at x = 1 there is minima
for minimum value of y
yminimum = 1 + 1 – 2 = 0

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 
4. INTEGRATION
In mathematics, for each mathematical operation, there has been defined an inverse operation.
For example- Inverse operation of addition is subtruction, inverse operation of multiplication is division and
inverse operation of square is square root. Similarly there is a inverse operation for differentiation which is
known as integration
4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES OR INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

Definitions :
A function F(x) is an antiderivative of a function f(x) if F´(x) = f(x) for all x in the domain of f. The set of all
antiderivatives of f is the indefinite integral of f with respect to x, denoted by

The symbol  is an integral sign. The function f is the integrand of the integral and x is the variable of
integration.
For example f(x) = x3 then f(x) = 3x2
2 3
So the integral of 3x is x
Similarly if f(x) = x3 + 4 then f(x) = 3x2
So the integral of 3x2 is x3 + 4
there for general integral of 3x2 is x3 + c where c is a constant
One antiderivative F of a function f, the other antiderivatives of f differ from F by a constant. We indicate this
in integral notation in the following way :

 f ( x)dx  F( x)  C. .............(i)
The constant C is the constant of integration or arbitrary constant, Equation (1) is read, “The indefinite
integral of f with respect to x is F(x) + C.” When we find F(x)+ C, we say that we have integrated f and
evaluated the integral.

Example 39. Evaluate  2x dx.

an antiderivative of 2x
Solution : 2
 2x dx  x C
the arbitrary constant

The formula x2 + C generates all the antiderivatives of the function 2x. The function x2 + 1, x2 – , and
x2 + 2 are all antiderivatives of the function 2x, as you can check by differentiation.
Many of the indefinite integrals needed in scientific work are found by reversing derivative formulas.

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 
4.2 INTEGRAL FORMULAS
Indefinite Integral Reversed derivative formula

x n1 d  x n 1 
n
1.  x dx   C ,n  –1, n rational dx  n  1  = x
n
n 1

d
(x) = 1
 dx =  1dx  x  C (special case) dx

 cos( Ax  B) d  cos kx 
2.  sin( Ax  B)dx  A
C 
dx  k 
 = sin kx

sin kx d  sin kx 
3.  cos kx dx  k
C 
dx  k 
 = cos kx

Example 40. Examples based on above formulas :

x6
(a)
 x 5 dx  C Formula 1 with n = 5
6

1 1 / 2
(b)  dx =
x dx  2x1/ 2  C  2 x  C Formula 1 with n = –1/2
x

 cos 2x
(c)  sin 2x dx  2
C Formula 2 with k = 2

x 1 sin(1/ 2)x x
(d)  cos 2 dx =  cos 2 xdx  1/ 2
 C = 2 sin  C
2
Formula 3 with k = 1/2

Example 41. Right :  x cosx dx = x sin x + cos x + C

Reason : The derivative of the right-hand side is the integrand:
d
Check : (x sin x + cos x + C) = x cos x + sin x – sin x + 0 = x cos x.
dx

Wrong :  x cosx dx = x sin x + C

Reason : The derivative of the right-hand side is not the integrand:
d
Check : (x sin x + C) = x cos x + sin x + 0  x cos x.
dx


4.3 RULES FOR INTEGRATION

RULE NO. 1 : CONSTANT MULTIPLE RULE

A function is an antiderivative of a constant multiple kf of a function f if and only if it is k times an

antiderivative of f.

 k f (x)dx  k  f (x)dx ; where k is a constant

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 5x 3
Example 42.  5 x 2 dx  C
3

7 7 x 1 7
Example 43. x 2
dx =
 7 x  2 dx   C= C
1 x

t t3 / 2 2
Example 44.  dt =
 t1/ 2 dt =  C  t3 / 2  C
t 3/2 3

RULE NO. 2 : SUM AND DIFFERENCE RULE

A function is an antiderivative of a sum or difference f  g if and only if it is the sum or difference of an

antiderivative of f an antiderivative of g.

 [f (x)  g(x)] dx   f (x)dx   g(x)dx

Example 45. Term–by–term integration

Evaluate :  (x2 – 2x + 5) dx.

Solution. If we recognize that (x3 /3) – x2 + 5x is an antiderivative of x2 – 2x + 5, we can evaluate the integral as

If we do not recognize the antiderivative right away, we can generate it term by term with the sum and
difference Rule:
2 x3
 (x  2x  5)dx = x 2 dx –
  2xdx +  5dx =
+ C1 – x2 + C2 + 5x + C3.
3
This formula is more complicated than it needs to be. If we combine C1,C2 and C3 into a single constant
C = C1 + C2 + C3, the formula simplifies to
x3
– x2 + 5x + C
3
and still gives all the antiderivatives there are. For this reason we recommend that you go right to the final
form even if you elect to integrate term by term. Write

x3
 ( x 2  2x  5)dx =  x 2 dx –  2xdx +  5dx = – x2 + 5x + C.
3
Find the simplest antiderivative you can for each part add the constant at the end.
Example 46. Find a body velocity from its acceleration and initial velocity. The acceleration of gravity near the
surface of the earth is 9.8 m/sec2. This means that the velocity v of a body falling freely in a vacuum
dv
changes at the rate of = 9.8 m/sec2. If the body is dropped from rest, what will its velocity be t
dt
seconds after it is released?

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 Solution. In mathematical terms, we want to solve the initial value problem that consists of
dv
The differential condition : = 9.8
dt
The initial condition: v = 0 when t = 0 ( abbreviated as v (0) = 0 )
We first solve the differential equation by integrating both sides with respect to t:
dv
= 9.8 The differential equation
dt
dv
 dt dt =  9.8dt Integrate with respect to t.
v + C1 = 9.8t + C2 Integrals evaluated
v = 9.8t + C. Constants combined as one
This last equation tells us that the body’s velocity t seconds into the fall is 9.8t + C m/sec.
For value of C : What value? We find out from the initial condition :
v = 9.8t + C
0 = 9.8(0) + C v( 0) = 0
C = 0.
Conclusion : The body’s velocity t seconds into the fall is
v = 9.8t + 0 = 9.8t m/sec.
The indefinite integral F(x) + C of the function f(x) gives the general solution y = F(x) + C of the differential
equation dy/dx = f(x). The general solution gives all the solutions of the equation ( there are infinitely many,
one for each value of C). We solve the differential equation by finding its general solution. We then solve the
initial value problem by finding the particular solution that satisfies the initial condition y(xo) = yo ( y has the
value yo when x = xo.).

4.4 DEFINITE INTEGRATION OR INTEGRATION WITH LIMITS

b
b
 f ( x ) dx  g ( x )
a
a  g (b)  g (a)

where g(x) is the antiderivative of f(x) i.e. g´(x) = f(x)

4 4
Example 47.  3dx = 3 dx  3x 41 = 3[4 – (–1)] = (3) (5) = 15
1  1

/2 
 sin xdx   cos x  0 / 2 =  cos   cos(0) = –0 + 1 = 1
0 2

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 
4.5 APPLICATION OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL : CALCULATION OF AREA OF A CURVE

From graph shown in figure if we divide whole area in infinitely small strips
of dx width.
We take a strip at x position of dx width.
Small area of this strip dA = f(x) dx
b

So, the total area between the curve and x–axis = sum of area of all strips =  f (x)dx
a

Let f(x)  0 be continuous on [a,b]. The area of the region between the graph of f and the x-axis is
b
A=  f (x) dx
a

Example 48. Find area under the curve of y = x from x = 0 to x = a

a a
x2 a2
Answer :  ydx = 
0
2 2
0


5. VECTOR
In physics we deal with two type of physical quantity one is scalar and other is vector. Each scalar quantities
has magnitude.
Magnitude of a physical quantity means product of numerical value and unit of that physical quantity.
For example mass = 4 kg
Magnitude of mass = 4 kg
and unit of mass = kg
Example of scalar quantities : mass, speed, distance etc.
Scalar quantities can be added, subtracted and multiplied by simple laws of algebra.

5.1 DEFINITION OF VECTOR

If a physical quantity in addition to magnitude -
(a) has a specified direction.
   
(b) It should obey commutative law of additions A  B  B  A
(c) obeys the law of parallelogram of addition, then and then only it is said to be a vector. If any of the
above conditions is not satisfied the physical quantity cannot be a vector.
If a physical quantity is a vector it has a direction, but the converse may or may not be true, i.e. if
a physical quantity has a direction, it may or may not a be vector. e.g. time, pressure, surface
tension or current etc. have directions but are not vectors because they do not obey parallelogram
law of addition.

The magnitude of a vector ( A ) is the absolute value of a vector and is indicated by

| A | or A.
Example of vector quantity : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.

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