Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Vol.
132 (3rd series)
Neurocutaneous Syndromes
M.P. Islam and E.S. Roach, Editors
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved
Chapter 17
Fabry disease
RAPHAEL SCHIFFMANN*
Institute of Metabolic Disease, Baylor Research Institute, Dallas, TX, USA
INTRODUCTION
History
Dermatologists Johannes Fabry and William Anderson
first described “angiokeratoma corporis diffusum” in
1898 (Anderson, 1898; Fabry, 1898). It was recognized
early as a systemic vascular disease and later as a storage
disorder (Pompen et al., 1947) of lipids (Hornbostel and
Scriba, 1953). The accumulation of the glycolipids cera-
midetrihexoside (now called globotriaosylceramide (Gb3
or GL-3)) and galabiosylceramide in a variety of differ-
ent cell types was identified in 1963 (Sweeley and
Klionsky, 1963). In addition, blood group antigens B,
B1, and P1 also increase in certain individuals. The defect
was established several years later as insufficient activity
of the enzyme ceramidetrihexosidase which catalyzes
the hydrolytic cleavage of the terminal molecule of
galactose from Gb3 (Brady et al., 1967). The anomeric
specificity of ceramidetrihexosidase (a-galactosidase
A) was determined in 1970 (Kint, 1970). The X-linked
nature of the disease was first recognized in 1965
(Opitz et al., 1965).
Epidemiology
The disease incidence is about 1 in 117 000 live births for
males (Meikle et al., 1999), although recent newborn
screening surveys suggest that the incidence may be
much higher, up to 1:3100 (Spada et al., 2006; Inoue
et al., 2013; van der Tol et al., 2014). In Taiwan, the inci-
dence of the relatively mild IVS4 + 919G > A mutation is
1:875 male live births and 1:399 female live births (Chien
et al., 2012). Because of this recently discovered high
incidence at birth, the nonspecific nature of the compli-
cations of Fabry disease and the common occurrence of
single complications, it is likely that many undiagnosed
patients exist. The incidence of Fabry disease is higher
*Correspondence to: Raphael Schiffmann, MD, Institute of Metabolic Disease, Baylor Research Institute, 3812 Elm Street, Dallas,
TX 75226, USA. Tel: +1-214-820-4533, Fax: +1-214-820-4853, E-mail: Raphael.Schiffmann@Baylorhealth.edu
than in the general population in various at-risk popula-
tions, such as stroke in the young (Wozniak et al., 2010;
De Brabander et al., 2013), hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
of unknown cause (Sachdev et al., 2002; Chimenti et al.,
2004; Elliott et al., 2011; Terryn et al., 2013), patients with
chronic kidney disease (Nishino et al., 2012), and possibly
even in patients with common heart disease (Schiffmann
et al., 2014). Furthermore, the presence of equal numbers
of females and males in large series suggests that up to
50% of the females with Fabry disease may be asymp-
tomatic or are not identified (Mehta et al., 2004; Eng
et al., 2007).
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
Typical age of presentation, progression, life
expectancy
Fabry disease may present at any age, in children and
adults (Ries et al., 2005; Schiffmann et al., 2009). It is
a progressive disease with a decreased life expectancy.
Median survival is 50–55 years for males and 70 years
for females (MacDermot et al., 2001; Branton et al.,
2002; Vedder et al., 2007).
Hallmark signs and symptoms
CLASSIC ABNORMALITIES
Patients with the classic form of the disease (with no
residual a-galactosidase A activity). have typical dys-
morphic abnormalities, particularly in the face. These
dysmorphisms have been described quantitatively and
in detail (Ries et al., 2006b). and include periorbital full-
ness, prominent lobules of the ears, bushy eyebrows,
recessed forehead, pronounced nasal angle, generous
nose/bulbous nasal tip, prominent supraorbital ridges,
shallow midface, full lips, prominent nasal bridge, broad
alar base, coarse features, posteriorly rotated ears, and
232 R. SCHIFFMANN

Fig. 17.1. Patients with Fabry disease, with frontal view of face directly above profile view of the same patient, arranged from
youngest to oldest. X denotes cousins. (Reproduced from Ries et al., 2006b.)

prognathism (Fig. 17.1). Other abnormalities, including
those of the extremities, have been identified (Ries
et al., 2006b). The disease manifestations often start
in childhood with episodes of extremity pain, fever of
unknown origin, and hypohidrosis that often lead to
decreased exercise tolerance (Cable et al., 1982a; Ries
et al., 2005). Episodic diarrhea and abdominal pain are
common, often associated with fatty foods (Rowe
et al., 1974; Hoffmann and Keshav, 2007). These symp-
toms often reduce quality of life and school attendance
in children but because of their relatively nonspecific
nature usually do not lead to correct diagnosis in the
absence of family history (Mehta et al., 2004; Ries
et al., 2005). More specific disease manifestations that
are usually present in late adolescence are typical vascu-
lar skin lesions termed angiokeratoma (Fig. 17.2A). and
asymptomatic corneal opacities – cornea verticillata
(Fig. 17.2B) (Weicksel, 1925; Hashimoto et al., 1965;
van Mullem and Ruiter, 1970; Macrae et al., 1985;
Yokota et al., 1995). These may lead to diagnosis by
alert dermatologists or ophthalmologists. However,
the importance of Fabry disease lies in the increased
risk of developing a progressive renal insufficiency, car-
diac abnormalities, and cerebrovascular stroke. These
 FABRY DISEASE
Fig. 17.2. (A) Angiokeratoma in fingers. (B) Cornea verticillata in a heterozygote female with Fabry disease. (Reproduced from
Schiffmann, 2009, courtesy Drs Lorena Baccaglini and Janine Smith.)
complications may initially present themselves in the sec-
ond decade of life, but more commonly in the third to
fifth decade, resulting in decreased life expectancy
(Branton et al., 2002; Mehta et al., 2004; Rolfs et al.,
2005; Hopkin et al., 2008; Kampmann et al., 2008a).
The neuropathic pain (often referred to as acropar-
esthesia) is thought to be due to a length-dependent small
fiber neuropathy (Attal and Bouhassira, 1999; Scott
et al., 1999; Zimmermann, 2001). It often begins in child-
hood and is present in the vast majority of patients
(MacDermot and MacDermot, 2001). It reaches its high-
est severity in the third and fourth decades of life and
tends to diminish thereafter as the sensory function dete-
riorates. The pain may be continuous as well as episodic
and often brought about by very low or very high envi-
ronmental temperature, strenuous exercise, or stress. It
usually begins in the feet, followed by the hands, and can
become more generalized (Zarate and Hopkin, 2008).
Joint pain is not uncommon in Fabry patients. The
small-fiber neuropathy of Fabry disease is associated
with an increased threshold of perception of cold and
warm stimuli as well as heat pain (Dutsch et al., 2002;
Luciano et al., 2002). Large fiber functions, such as
vibration and position sensation, are usually intact and
therefore peripheral nerve conduction velocity is typi-
cally normal unless compression neuropathy develops,
particularly carpal tunnel syndrome (Fig. 17.3) (Scott
et al., 1999; Luciano et al., 2002). Abnormalities suggest-
ing a peripheral nerve dysfunction were also found in the
Fabry mouse model (Rodrigues et al., 2009; Marshall
et al., 2010). Progressive sensorineural hearing loss of
early onset is very common in male and female patients
with Fabry disease, and its severity is correlated with
both the cerebrovascular and the peripheral nerve man-
ifestations of the disease (Ries et al., 2007). This abnor-
mality is often associated with disturbing tinnitus or
233
episodes of vertigo that can begin in childhood (Conti
and Sergi, 2003; Keilmann, 2003; Ramaswami et al.,
2006; Vibert et al., 2006).
The kidney disease that complicates Fabry disease
is usually associated with progressive proteinuria fre-
quently associated with a decline in glomerular filtration
rate, leading over a number of years to end-stage renal
disease requiring dialysis and kidney transplantation
(Donati et al., 1987; Branton et al., 2002; Ortiz et al.,
2008; Schiffmann et al., 2009). There is evidence that
hyperfiltration often precedes the decline in renal func-
tion, particularly in childhood (Ries et al., 2005; Vedder
et al., 2007). Tubular dysfunction consists of hyposthe-
nuria and polyuria that are nevertheless benign
(Bichet, 2008).
A patient with Fabry disease may have virtually any
cardiac complications (Linhart et al., 2000; Senechal
and Germain, 2003). These include progressive hypertro-
phic cardiomyopathy (Fig. 17.4) with diastolic dysfunc-
tion, a variety of conduction defects and arrhythmias
such as short P-R interval supraventricular and ventric-
ular tachycardia. Other complications are atrial fibrilla-
tion as well as valvular disease (insufficiency or
stenosis) and coronary vascular insufficiency of large
or, more commonly, of small vessels (Weidemann
et al., 2005; Kampmann et al., 2008b; Takenaka
et al., 2008). Electrocardiogram is abnormal in most
adults with Fabry disease and echography combined
with a Doppler heart study is very helpful in character-
izing the cardiac abnormalities of Fabry disease. Pro-
gressive bradycardia and decreased exercise capacity
are very common, requiring the placement of a pace-
maker in many patients (Nakayama et al., 1999; Lobo
et al., 2008). Ejection fraction and cardiac output
are often preserved but deteriorate in advanced cases
(Kawano et al., 2007).
234 R. SCHIFFMANN
COLD WARM VIBRATION
1.0 1.0 1.0

Status
0.8 0.8 0.8
NOT RESPONDING

Controls
PROPORTION

Fabry Patients
0.6 0.6 0.6
HAND
0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0 0.0

0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
JND UNITS JND UNITS JND UNITS

1.0 1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8 0.8

NOT RESPONDING
PROPORTION

0.6 0.6 0.6

FOOT
0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0 0.0

0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
JND UNITS JND UNITS JND UNITS
Fig. 17.3. Kaplan–Meier curves for patients and controls for the three sensory modalities in the hand and foot. Compared with
controls, there are greater differences for cold than for warm sensation, and in the foot more than in the hand. Vibration was sig-
nificantly different only for the hand. (Reproduced with permission from Luciano et al., 2002.)

posterior circulation being affected more commonly

Fig. 17.4. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy of the left ventricle
in a 47-year-old male with Fabry disease who died after
2.5 years of enzyme replacement. Old scars from previous
myocardial infarctions can be seen as well (arrow). The right
ventricular wall is of normal thickness.
It is estimated that, depending on the age range
cohort, patients with Fabry have a 5.5–12.2-fold
increased risk of stroke compared to the general popu-
lation (Sims et al., 2009). Both small and large vessel
stroke occur, with brain regions perfused by the
than anterior circulation (Moore et al., 2001a, b,
2003b). The neurologic deficits in patients reflect the
localization and extent of ischemic strokes and have
no distinctive element (Fig. 17.5). Transient ischemic
attacks are relatively common (Mitsias and Levine,
1996; Whybra et al., 2001; Mehta and Ginsberg, 2005;
Moore et al., 2007a). Asymptomatic lesions on brain
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are often present,
usually in the white matter and may be a risk factor
for vasculopathic complications in Fabry disease
patients (Moore et al., 2003a; Kaneski et al., 2006).
Large vessel embolic strokes of possible cardiac origin
may occur (Mitsias and Levine, 1996).
OTHER ABNORMALITIES
A number of endocrine abnormalities have been
described. The most common is antibody-negative hypo-
thyroidism (Hauser et al., 2005; Faggiano et al., 2006).
Asthenozoospermia, oligozoospermia and abnormal
response to ACTH have also been described (Faggiano
et al., 2006).
Other circulatory abnormalities can be found in Fabry
disease. These include anemia, elevated sedimentation
 FABRY DISEASE 235

Fig. 17.5. Magnetic resonance image (MRI) of the brain of a 20-year-old man with a history of repeated strokes since age of
14 years, despite 3 years of enzyme replacement. (A) T1-weighted image. (B) T2-weighted image. (C) Fluid-attenuated inversion
recovery image (FLAIR). Old lacunar infarcts are seen, including internal capsule (arrow), right thalamus, and a more recent lacu-
nar infarct in the proximal right optic radiations (arrowhead). On the FLAIR image, a small amount of gliosis surrounds most of
these lesions. (Reproduced from Schiffmann, 2009.)

rate, C-reactive protein, serum myeloperxidase (see also
below)., and decreased a2-antiplasmin and plasminogen
(Kleinert et al., 2005; Lacomis et al., 2005; Kaneski et al.,
2006; Moore et al., 2007b). These findings define Fabry
disease also as an inflammatory disorder. Any of these
aberrations may serve as a biomarker in verifying the
effect of therapy, alone or in combination.
Lower extremity edema commonly occurs in hemizy-
gous males with Fabry disease. Abnormal lymphatic
vessels have been described in one patient but it is likely
that other vascular insufficiencies and cardiac disease
contribute to this abnormality (Lozano et al., 1988;
Chabas et al., 1994; Kampmann et al., 2005). Cardiac
insufficiency is rarely associated with pedal edema but
renal insufficiency is likely a contributing factor in
some cases.
EFFECT OF SEX ON CLINICAL DISEASE
Fabry disease can be considered an X-linked disorder
with a high degree of intermediate penetrance in
females. That term refers to the fact that only about
70% of females with GLA mutations have manifesta-
tions of Fabry disease while close to 100% of males
have complications of the disease (Dobyns, 2006).
Clinical symptoms are in part related to random
X chromosome inactivation (Maier et al., 2006).
Females are affected because of absent cross-correction
between cells with normal a-galactosidase A activity
(mutated X chromosome is inactivated) and enzyme-
deficient cells (nonmutated X chromosome is inacti-
vated) (Romeo and Migeon, 1970). Because of random
X chromosome inactivation heterozygous females
are essentially a “mosaic” of normal and mutant cells
in varying proportions in various organ systems
(Germain, 2010). The expression of the disease in female
patients depends on the particular GLA mutation and
especially on the pattern of X chromosome inactivation
in each organ (Wang et al., 2007; Dobrovolny et al.,
2005). Therefore, females can develop any of the
complications that are seen in males, including strokes,
cardiac disease and progressive renal insufficiency
(Wang et al., 2007; Gupta et al., 2005; Ortiz et al.,
2008; Laaksonen et al., 2008; Martin et al., 2007; Eng
et al., 2007; Wilcox et al., 2008; Whybra et al., 2001).
However, in general, the clinical abnormalities are more
variable, less severe and of later onset compared to
males with similar GLA mutations. Since large series
of patients with Fabry disease usually have a roughly
equal number of male and female patients, it is likely
that a substantial number of female patients are not
diagnosed or identified, but also that many females
remain largely asymptomatic.
DISEASE MODIFIERS
The clinical signs and symptoms described above can
occur in any sequence and combination in any given
patient with Fabry disease. A patient may have a number
of complications in different organ systems, or just a
few or even a single abnormality limited to one organ
system. The clinical expression of Fabry disease is
primarily modified by the residual a-galactosidase
A activity (Desnick et al., 2001; Branton et al., 2002).
For example, patients with some residual enzyme activ-
ity are often described as having a milder variant of
Fabry disease with predominantly cardiac abnormalities,
while having little or no kidney dysfunction and no pain-
ful acroparesthesia (Desnick et al., 2001). The onset of
chronic renal insufficiency is significantly delayed in
patients with more than 1% residual enzyme activity
which results from having a GLA mutation consisting
236 R. SCHIFFMANN
of a single amino acid change that is chemically conser-
vative (Branton et al., 2002).
In addition to a-galactosidase A residual enzyme
activity, it is very likely that there are many other genetic
and nongenetic modifiers. Genotypes of polymorphisms
G-174C of interleukin-6, G894T of endothelial nitric
oxide synthase, factor V G1691A mutation (factor
V Leiden), and the A-13G and G79A of protein Z all were
associated significantly with the presence of presumably
ischemic cerebral lesions on brain MRI (Altarescu
et al., 2005). When the mouse model for Fabry disease
was crossed with the mouse model for factor
V Leiden mutation, the resulting double mutant had
significantly increased vascular thrombi compared to
either mouse model alone (Shen et al., 2006). Similarly,
a-galactosidase A deficiency accelerated atherosclerosis
in mice with apolipoprotein E deficiency (Bodary
et al., 2005).
Fabry trait as a genetic risk factor
Patients with milder mutations and higher residual
a-galactosidase A activity may have cardiac or renal
manifestations only. The clinical expression in these
patients of Fabry-related complications probably depends
on the presence of other coexisting genetic, epigenetic and
environmental modifiers (see also above). Furthermore,
the clinical abnormalities described above are nonspecific
in that they are clinically indistinguishable from similar
complications of other etiologies that occur in the general
population. For example, strokes in patients with Fabry
disease may be of the small vessel or large vessel type
and have similar neurologic and neuroimaging character-
istics to hypertensive or embolic strokes (see Fig. 17.5)
(Moore et al., 2007a). These features make GLA muta-
tions a modifiable genetic risk factor, particularly for
heart and kidney disease (Schiffmann et al., 2014).
Imaging
Patients with the classic form of the disease often have
presumably ischemic white matter lesions on brain MRI
that can be focal, multifocal and even confluent (Moore
et al., 2003a). Rather specific are symmetric lesions in
the posterior thalamus and pulvinar that have increased
signal intensity on T1-weighted MRI image (Fig. 17.6)
(Moore et al., 2003b; Takanashi et al., 2003; Burlina
et al., 2008). These likely represent subtle dystrophic cal-
cifications and end-organ damage associated with
regional hyperperfusion (Moore et al., 2003b). Dystro-
phic calcifications can be observed in the gray–white
matter junction, basal ganglia and cerebellum using
MRI or computed tomography (CT) scan (Moore
et al., 2003b). Fabry patients with strokes have typical
findings on brain MRI that are no different from those
found in ischemic strokes in patients who do not have
Fabry disease (Mitsias and Levine, 1996). Elongation
and distension of the vertebrobasilar artery (dolichoecta-
sia) is commonly found in patients with Fabry disease
(Garzuly et al., 2005; Fellgiebel et al., 2011), particularly
in males (Uceyler et al., 2014).
Renal parapelvic cysts are rather typical in Fabry
patients and can be diagnosed using ultrasound, CT or
MRI (Glass et al., 2004; Ries et al., 2004). They do not
seem to be associated with renal dysfunction and the
mechanism of their development is not known. Cardiac
hypertrophy with low T1 values (Sado et al., 2013;
Thompson et al., 2013) or with late contrast enhancement
on MRI are often seen in Fabry disease (Niemann
et al., 2011).
Variants
(see also below)
Besides the classic form of the disease, patients
with significant residual a-galactosidase A activity, up
to 25% of normal values, often have a later onset, less
severe form of the disease (von Scheidt et al., 1991;
Branton et al., 2002; van der Tol et al., 2014). Often only
one organ, most often the heart, is affected, which
makes the diagnosis of Fabry disease particularly
difficult.
Differential diagnoses to consider
The use of chloroquine or amiodarone can cause a cor-
neal abnormality identical to the cornea verticillata of
Fabry disease (D’Amico and Kenyon, 1981; Whitley
et al., 1983; Inagaki et al., 1993). Exposure to silicon dust
leads to a clinical and pathologic nephropathy that is
very similar to the one seen in Fabry disease (Banks
et al., 1983).
Cutaneous lesions identical to angiokeratomas occur
in mannosidosis, fucosidosis, sialidosis, b-galactosidase
deficiency, Schindler disease, and other disorders
(Beratis et al., 1989; Gasparini et al., 1992; George and
Graham-Brown, 1994; Calzavara-Pinton et al., 1995;
Kawachi et al., 1998; Kodama et al., 2001; Suzuki
et al., 2004). Isolated angiokeratomas without storage
material have been described as well (Fimiani et al.,
1997). One patient with Hodgkin lymphoma has devel-
oped angiokeratoma corporis diffusum that was thought
to constitute a paraneoplastic manifestation (Han
et al., 2013).
PATHOLOGY
The pathologic abnormalities can be divided into
disease-specific and secondary changes that are not
disease-specific but reflect organ abnormalities and
 FABRY DISEASE 237

Fig. 17.6. Comparison of computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings in the posterior thalamus.
(A–C) T1-weighted images through the thalamus in three patients with mild (A), moderate (B), and marked (C) hyperintensity,
respectively. (D–F) Corresponding CT scans demonstrate increased attenuation, indicating calcification is present only in the mod-
erate and marked cases. (G–I) Corresponding gradient-echo T2*-weighted images demonstrate that susceptibility-induced signal
intensity loss is seen in the pulvinar in only the moderate and marked cases. (Numbers in upper right are patient identifiers.) (Repro-
duced with permission from Moore et al., 2003b, © American Society of Neuroradiology.)

dysfunction. Angiokeratoma consists of marked dilata-
tion of the capillaries of the dermal papillae overlying
keratotic epidermis (Massi et al., 2000). The most visu-
ally striking and historically important are lysosomal
inclusions or lipid deposits that are seen in almost all
cell types (Fig. 17.7). They are prominent in vascular cells,
both endothelial and smooth muscle cells, cardiac cells
including endocardial cells, cardiomyocytes and cardiac
valves, kidney epithelial cells (tubular and glomerular
cells and podocytes), brain (Fig. 17.8), and nerve cells,
including dorsal root ganglia and some central nervous
system neurons (Duncan, 1970; Gadoth and Sandbank,
1983; Nistal et al., 1983; Elleder, 2003).
The secondary pathologic changes are organ-specific
but not necessarily disease-specific. Blood vessels may
be thickened with a rather characteristic arteriosclerotic
change that is different from typical atherosclerosis
plaque (Case 2, 1984). True cardiac hypertrophy is
often present with secondary fibrosis, and valves are
often thickened (Schiffmann et al., 2005). The renal
glomeruli undergo progressive change that starts with
mesangial widening, followed by focal fibrosis ending
with a completely fibrotic and obsolescent glomerulus
(Chatterjee et al., 1984; Alroy et al., 2002). Tubular
and interstitial fibrosis occurs as well. The brain may
have rarefied and gliotic lesions secondary to ischemia,
but spontaneous neuronal death and cerebral cortical
atrophy have not been described (Tagliavini et al.,
1982; Kaye et al., 1988; Schiffmann et al., 2005; Okeda
and Nisihara, 2008).
MOLECULAR BASIS/PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
The a-galactosidase A gene (GLA – MIM no. 300644) is
located on Xq22.1 (Bishop et al., 1988). It is 12 kb long
with seven exons. GLA encodes for a 429 amino acid pre-
cursor protein that is processed to a 370 amino acid gly-
coprotein functioning as a homodimer (Garman and
Garboczi, 2004). Based on the Human Gene Mutation
Database at the Institute of Medical Genetics in Cardiff
(http://www.hgmd.cf.ac.uk/ac/index.php), there are cur-
rently 596 mutations described. Of those, 416 are
238 R. SCHIFFMANN

Fig. 17.7. Ultrastructure of the heart. (A) Large aggregates of concentric lamellated cytoplasmic inclusions displace cardiac
myofibrils to the periphery of the cell. Interstitial fibrosis and increased numbers of mitochondria are secondary features of
the cardiomyopathy. (B) Higher magnification of the lamellar inclusions and the accumulated mitochondria. The latter exhibit
tubulovesicular cristae and cell size variation. (C) The myelinoid inclusions sometimes consisted of parallel stacked lamellae
with a zebra-like pattern. (D) Inclusions were only rarely present in endothelial cells of adjacent interstitial capillaries (arrows).
(Reproduced from Schiffmann, 2009.)

missense/nonsense type mutations, 83 small deletions,
19 large deletions, 32 splice defects, three complex rear-
rangements, and one large insertion. The cause of this
large number of different mutations in the GLA gene
is not known. One might speculate that having the Fabry
trait presents a selective advantage such as resistance to
certain types of bacterial infections, in particular those
that express the Escherichia coli shiga-like toxin vero-
toxin (Cilmi et al., 2006). Patients with the classic, most
severe form of Fabry disease almost always have a muta-
tion that causes a total absence of a-galactosidase
A activity, while patients with missense mutations often
have some residual enzyme activity ranging from 2% to
25% (Desnick et al., 2001).
The mechanism by which a-galactosidase A defi-
ciency and glycolipid accumulation cause such a wide
variety of complications is not well understood.
Based on the pathology of Fabry disease, the chronic
accumulation of a-D-galactosyl moieties, particularly
of Gb3, appears to be a chronic toxicity state. There is
no evidence of massive cell death although it is likely that
there is increased turnover of some cell types such as
vascular endothelial cells (Alroy et al., 2002). However,
these findings do not describe the molecular cascades
that lead to widespread cellular dysfunction in Fabry
disease.
Over 150 years ago, Virchow described a triad of
abnormalities (abnormal blood flow, abnormal vessel
wall, and abnormal blood constituents) associated with
thromboembolism formation (thrombogenesis) (Chung
and Lip, 2003; Lowe, 2003; Bennett et al., 2009). The
first two abnormalities are the most studied in Fabry dis-
ease. We previously demonstrated that patients with
Fabry disease have abnormal functional vessel reactivity
 FABRY DISEASE
Fig. 17.8. Intracerebral blood vessels with Luxol fast blue
(LFB)-stained deposits within vacuolated smooth muscle/
adventitial cells. LFB-period acid Schiff (PAS),
100 oil.
(Reproduced from Schiffmann et al., 2006b, with permission
from Springer Science and Business Media.)
secondary to endothelial dysfunction, together with
cerebral hyperperfusion demonstrated using both the
“gold standard” positron emission tomography (PET)
and MR arterial spin labeling techniques (Altarescu
et al., 2001; Moore et al., 2001b, 2004). Fabry patients
also demonstrated delayed cerebral vasoreactivity, an
elevated central nervous system (CNS) average diffu-
sion constant and low serum ascorbate levels (Moore
et al., 2002a, c, 2004). Furthermore, patients with Fabry
disease have a dilated vasculopathy (arteriopathy and
dolichoectasia) that is reflected in enlarged lumina of
major intracranial vessels, particularly in the posterior
circulation and the basilar artery (Fellgiebel et al.,
2009). Vessel wall intimal medial thickness is also
increased in association with smooth cell hypertrophy
and presumed disturbed vessel mechanics (Rombach
et al., 2012). This dilated vasculopathy may allow eddy
formation and flow stagnation, resulting in an increased
risk of artery-to-artery thromboembolism with develop-
ment of clinical stroke. Small fiber neuropathy may also
lead to changes in vascular reactivity and increased risk
of ischemia (Stemper and Hilz, 2003).
Less attention has been paid to the role of blood con-
stituents in the pathogenesis of the vasculopathy of
Fabry disease. A likely prothrombotic state and an
increased production of reactive oxygen species were
found (DeGraba et al., 2000; Moore et al., 2001a; Shen
et al., 2008). In the initial NIH randomized controlled
trial, we found elevated 3-nitrotyrosine staining in der-
mal and cerebral blood vessel; this reduced significantly
with enzyme replacement therapy (ERT), suggesting
reduction in the potentially toxic effect of ROS second-
ary to peroxynitrite formation (Moore et al., 2001b).
239
Evidence of activation of vascular endothelial cells
and leukocytes, as well as a suggestion of abnormalities
of fibrinolysis and angiogenesis factors, was observed in
patients with Fabry disease (DeGraba et al., 2000;
Kaneski et al., 2006; Gelderman et al., 2007; Moore
et al., 2007b). However, direct functional measurement
of the blood clotting system has not been examined sys-
tematically and, in particular, platelet function has not
been studied. Chronic kidney insufficiency, which is
common in patients with Fabry disease, is associated
with high residual platelet functional reactivity despite
dual antiplatelet therapy with both aspirin and clopido-
grel (Muller et al., 2012; Aksu et al., 2013; Morel et al.,
2013). Therefore, it is likely that patients with Fabry
disease have dysfunctional platelets contributing to a
hypercoagulable state (thrombophilia), increasing the
risk of acute ischemic stroke. The findings by the Dutch
Fabry group of a significant elevation of platelet activa-
tion markers – platelet factor 4 and b-thromboglobulin –
in male and female patients also suggests the existence
of platelet function abnormality in this disease (Vedder
et al., 2009).
In addition to Gb3, the deacylated form of this glyco-
sphingolipid or lyso-Gb3 (globotriaosylsphingosine) was
recently found to be elevated in patients with Fabry
disease, particularly in blood circulation, where it is over
50-fold higher than normal (Aerts et al., 2008).
The plasma concentration of lyso-Gb3 was in the nM
range, while it was in the mM for Gb3. Lyso-Gb3 was
found to be a potent inhibitor of a-galactosidase
A and a-galactosidase B (N-acetylgalactosaminidase)
and promoted smooth muscle cell proliferation
in vitro at concentrations similar to the ones present in
the plasma of Fabry patients (Aerts et al., 2008). This
suggests a potential role of lyso-Gb3 in the increased
intima–media thickness seen in patients with Fabry dis-
ease. However, no correlation was noted between
plasma lyso-Gb3 with regard to age, the clinical severity
score, or the cardiac mass in hemizygous male patients.
Curiously, there was a correlation between plasma lyso-
Gb3 levels and cardiac mass in female heterozygotes.
Lyso-Gb3 levels were normal in patients with mutations
leading to some residual activity and mainly cardiac
manifestations, and they were also markedly elevated
in the Fabry knockout mouse model. This animal model
develops few Fabry-related phenotypic abnormalities
such as small-fiber neuropathy and benign hypertrophic
cardiomyopathy. Therefore, it remains to be seen
whether lyso-Gb3 plays an important role in the patho-
genesis of Fabry disease. Thus far it seems that lyso-
Gb3 is helpful mainly in identifying patients with GLA
mutations who have the classic form of Fabry disease
(Niemann et al., 2014). Based on an extensive phenotyp-
ical characterization of the Fabry mouse model in
240 R. SCHIFFMANN
comparison to wild-type control of identical genetic
background, increased activity of androgen receptor
(AR) signaling in Fabry disease was found (Shen et al.,
2015). Blockade of AR signaling, either through castra-
tion or AR-antagonist, prevented and reversed cardiac
and kidney hypertrophic phenotype (Shen et al., 2015).
ANIMAL MODELS
A knockout mouse model was developed a number of
years ago (Ohshima et al., 1997, 1999). Although the
mouse model only develops small-fiber peripheral neu-
ropathy and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, it does store
Gb3 and has been useful alone or when crossed with
other models to study the pathogenesis of the disease
and its therapy (see also above) (Ishii et al., 2004;
Bodary et al., 2005; Shen et al., 2006; Park et al.,
2008; Nguyen Dinh Cat et al., 2012; Kang et al., 2014).
These included crossing the Fabry mouse with an apoli-
poprotein E deficient mouse showing that having both
genetic defects accelerates atherosclerosis (Bodary
et al., 2005), or introducing the factor V Leiden mutation
into the Fabry mouse to show a synergistic interaction
between a-galactosidase A and the clotting system to
increase tissue fibrin deposition (Shen et al., 2006). More
recently, a transgenic model with higher level of Gb3
synthesis and deposition was created with apparently a
useful renal phenotype (Taguchi et al., 2013).
GENETICS AND DIAGNOSIS
A presumed diagnosis of Fabry disease must be con-
firmed by the finding of low a-galactosidase A activity
on peripheral blood white cells or cultured skin fibro-
blasts (Desnick et al., 2001). The latter usually have
higher enzyme activity than peripheral white blood cells
(Romeo et al., 1975). Generally, levels below 25% of nor-
mal should be considered diagnostic, and activity below
35% should lead to suspicion of Fabry disease (Desnick
et al., 2001; Kitagawa et al., 2008). The enzyme assay
is useful in males, but females often have mildly
reduced or normal enzyme activity because of random
X chromosome inactivation. Therefore, the finding of
a mutated GLA is critical for confirmation of the diag-
nosis of Fabry disease in females (Wilcox et al., 2008).
Increased urinary sediment Gb3 measured in 24 h collec-
tion was thought to be useful in diagnosing Fabry dis-
ease, particularly in females who almost always have
elevated levels (Cable et al., 1982b; Gupta et al., 2005).
However, when whole urine is used, up to 40% of
affected subjects may be missed (Fuller et al., 2005;
Auray-Blais et al., 2008; Kitagawa et al., 2008). Further-
more, urinary Gb3 may be elevated in patients with
non-Fabry-related common heart disease (Schiffmann
et al., 2014).
TREATMENT AND MANAGEMENT
Specific therapy
ERT is the first specific therapy for Fabry disease. It has
been available since 2001, so it is a little early to reach any
definitive conclusions as to whether this therapy can
modify the natural history of Fabry disease. Two forms
of a-galactosidase A for ERT are approved currently
by regulatory authorities. These are agalsidase alfa
(Replagal, Shire Human Genetic Therapies, Cambridge,
MA, 0.2 mg/kg per infusion) and agalsidase beta
(Fabrazyme, Genzyme Corporation, Cambridge, MA,
1 mg/kg per infusion). Both are approved in Europe
and many other countries (Eng et al., 2001;
Schiffmann et al., 2001), but in the US the Food and Drug
Adminstration (FDA) approved only agalsidase beta
(Eng et al., 2001). Both forms of the enzyme are usually
administered every 2 weeks. No clear difference in clin-
ical effect was demonstrated between the two enzyme
preparations in a randomized controlled prospective
study using either an identical dose or the approved dose
(Vedder et al., 2008). The latter study was not random-
ized and has a number of flaws (Mehta et al., 2008).
One can describe the effect of ERT by looking at spe-
cific organ systems. Accumulating evidence suggests
that ERT slows the decline of renal glomerular function
(Schiffmann et al., 2006c, 2007; Banikazemi et al., 2007;
Germain et al., 2007; Tahir et al., 2007). It may be
particularly effective if initiated before kidney reserve
is exhausted and glomerular filtration rate becomes
significantly decreased (Banikazemi et al., 2007). In
patients who have significant decline in kidney function
despite ERT, weekly enzyme infusions may further
slow the decline in the glomerular filtration rate
(Schiffmann et al., 2007). The extent of proteinuria is
an important factor in predicting the rate of decline in
renal function and the response to ERT (Banikazemi
et al., 2007).
We attempted to evaluate the effect of ERT on
neuropathic pain. In the initial NIH sponsored 6 month
randomized controlled study we found a significant
reduction in pain scores, using the Brief Pain Inventory,
in patients on ERT compared with placebo (Schiffmann
et al., 2001). When the patients on placebo crossed over
to receive agalsidase alfa, they exhibited a similar benefit
(Schiffmann et al., 2003). When followed over a longer
period of time, however, there was no further reduction
in pain scores. For these studies, patients were selected
for severe neuropathic pain, and neuropathic pain med-
ication was stopped 1 week prior to pain scoring (Case 2,
1984). The clinical impression since then confirms these
initial findings in adults (Guffon and Fouilhoux, 2004;
Eto et al., 2005; Hoffmann et al., 2005) and children
(Ries et al., 2006a). However, neuropathic pain is often
 FABRY DISEASE
not completely eliminated and patients commonly need
to continue with their pain medication, albeit at a
lower dose.
ERT with agalsidase alfa had no significant effect on
warm and cold sensation over the 6 month randomized
controlled trial (Schiffmann et al., 2001). Over the 3 years
of open label treatment, however, there was a significant
but modest reduction in the cold and warmth detection
thresholds in the foot in both groups, and for warmth
perception in the thigh (Schiffmann et al., 2003). There
was also a trend toward reduction of cold detection
thresholds in the hand. This effect took about 18 months
to develop, and sensory function seemed to stabilize
thereafter. Similar results, particularly regarding heat
pain thresholds, were obtained by a group treating
patients with agalsidase beta (Hilz et al., 2004).
These authors also described an improvement in
vibration detection thresholds. The functional improve-
ment in cold perception of about 10% was not associated
with an increase in epidermal innervation density
(Schiffmann et al., 2006a).
We studied sweat function using the quantitative
sudomotor sweat test (QSART) (Low and Opfer-
Gehrking, 1999). As we did not have this technique at
our disposal at the start of our initial randomized con-
trolled study, the study of sweat function was started
at the 3 year time point for this patient cohort. Sweat
function was found to improve 24–72 hours after enzyme
infusion compared with preinfusion values, while the
QSART response normalized in four anhidrotic patients
(Schiffmann et al., 2003). To date, however, many
patients have remained anhidrotic despite years of ERT.
ERT reduced left ventricular mass in one small
randomized controlled trial and in some noncontrolled
studies, but there is so far no evidence that it can funda-
mentally change Fabry cardiac disease (Weidemann
et al., 2003; Spinelli et al., 2004; Hughes et al., 2008).
It is possible that once irreversible changes such as
fibrosis occur, ERT is no longer effective. The clinical
impression is that the cardiac abnormalities, including
progressive bradycardia and conduction abnormalities,
as well as valvular and coronary artery disease, continue
to progress in many patients (Beer et al., 2006;
Kalliokoski et al., 2006; Mougenot et al., 2008).
There has been no evidence so far for reduction of
stroke risk with ERT in Fabry disease, although we
found an improvement in the pattern of blood flow using
H215O and PET (Moore et al., 2001b). The decrease in
resting hyperperfusion was confirmed using transcra-
nial Doppler and spin tagging MRI (Moore et al.,
2002b, 2004). Improved acetazolamide response sug-
gested a role for vascular endothelial cells in the CNS
aspects of Fabry disease (Moore et al., 2002a). In pedi-
atric patients we found increased circulating vascular
241
endothelial microparticles that decreased to the normal
range after 6 weeks of ERT, but the level of endothelial
microparticles was below normal at the 12 months time
point (see Fig. 17.7) (Gelderman et al., 2007). The signif-
icance of this finding is unclear at present (see
also below).
Despite significant improvement in the function of
the cerebral vasculature, four of 25 patients in our orig-
inal study, followed for 4.5 years on ERT, developed
nondebilitating strokes, and one patient had a transient
ischemic attack (Schiffmann et al., 2006c). One stroke
involved a large vessel (vertebral artery occlusion).
and the others were small-vessel strokes. Based on our
experience and that of others, strokes also continue to
occur in patients on agalsidase beta (Wilcox et al.,
2004; Buechner et al., 2008), and there is no indication
of a marked reduction in stroke risk in the first few years
following initiation of ERT in adulthood. A pediatric
patient of ours continued to have strokes on ERT for
a number of years (see Fig. 17.3) (Ries et al., 2006a).
More recently, a number of meta-analytic studies
showed little or no effect of ERT on Fabry disease
(Alegra et al., 2012; El Dib et al., 2013; Rombach et al.,
2014). The Canadian Fabry disease initiative confirmed
that strokes continue on ERT. They found no significant
difference in clinical outcome between the two approved
enzyme preparations. Part of the difficulty in assessing
the net effect of ERT is that it is virtually impossible to
separate its effect from the impact of other standard of
care medical therapies (Sirrs et al., 2014). Recent publi-
cations describing the long-term outcome of patients
with Fabry disease on ERT confirmed its modest effect
when initiated in adults (Alegra et al., 2012; El Dib et al.,
2013; Anderson et al., 2014; Rombach et al., 2014; Sirrs
et al., 2014).
The lack of an observed clinical effect of ERT, par-
ticularly on stroke, can be explained in a number of
ways: First, there may be a small therapeutic effect that
cannot be detected in the relatively small number of
patients studied. Second, it is also possible that the
infused a-galactosidase A does not have access to the
entire thickness of cerebral vessels and therefore leaves
untreated a significant component of the vessel wall
(Murray et al., 2007). Third, the intermittent nature of
ERT may be insufficient to prevent the chronic toxic pro-
cess that is described in this review. In support of this
hypothesis is the fact that low levels of enzyme activity
in patients with mild mutations are sufficient to delay the
onset of chronic insufficiency by at least one decade
(Branton et al., 2002). The additional effect of weekly
enzyme infusions further supports the need for contin-
uous activity of a-galctosidase A in the cell (Schiffmann
et al., 2007). Finally, the possibility of pre-existing
irreversible structural changes in the vasculature may
242 R. SCHIFFMANN
limit the effect of ERT when initiated in adulthood. It is
unfortunate that we do not know whether earlier treat-
ment will be more efficacious than later. A randomized
controlled trial of early ERT versus delayed ERT in chil-
dren with Fabry disease is probably the only way to
answer that question with reliability.
ERT has been studied in children, but exclusively thus
far in open-label clinical trials. It has been determined as
safe and associated with reduced skin and urinary Gb3,
reduced neuropathic pain, fewer gastrointestinal symp-
toms, increased heart rate variability, stable renal function
and cardiac structure and function (Ries et al., 2006a;
Ramaswami, 2008; Wraith et al., 2008). However, one
patient in our study continued to have strokes for a num-
ber of years on ERT (Ries et al., 2006a). As stated above,
these studies cannot tell us when to initiate ERT in
children in order to obtain maximal preventive effect.
Nonspecific therapy
Since Fabry disease causes medical complications that
are nonspecific in nature and indistinguishable from
similar complications occurring in the general popula-
tion, it is expected that they will be responsive to stan-
dard medical and surgical care. This is indeed the case.
Effective antiplatelet agents such as clopidogrel (or
other ADP receptor inhibitors) or aspirin/long acting
dipyridamole should be used to prevent strokes in all
patients with Fabry disease, and in particular those with
a family history of stroke. This is important since, as
noted above, ERT on its own does not seem to apprecia-
bly reduce the incidence of stroke.
The kidney dysfunction in Fabry disease responds
well to angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors
(ACEI) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB). They
seem especially useful when used in conjunction with
ERT with the goal of reducing proteinuria to less than
500 mg/24 h (Warnock et al., 2012). Normalization of
blood pressure is very important to preserve kidney
function and prevent other vascular events. Renal trans-
plantation is as effective in Fabry disease patients who
reached end-stage renal disease as in any other disorder
(Ojo et al., 2000). Patients are increasingly transplanted
early with kidneys from both live donors and cadavers
(Ojo et al., 2000).
Neuropathic pain often is treated with relatively
low doses of antiepileptic medications such as carbamaz-
epine, neurontin, and lamotrigine (Tremont-Lukats et al.,
2000; Ries et al., 2003; Horowitz, 2007). Nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs are less effective and narcotics
are effective but usually avoided (Gordon et al., 1995).
Pancreatic enzymes are useful in the prevention of post-
prandial diarrhea in patients (personal observations).
UPCOMING TREATMENT OPTIONS
Other specific therapeutic approaches are being devel-
oped. Of particular interest are pharmacologic chaper-
ones (Fan and Ishii, 2007). These are small molecules
that are active-site inhibitors which, at low doses, can
promote the normal folding and trafficking of mis-
folded wild-type and mutated proteins. Preliminary
results of a phase 2 multicenter study showed that the
drug AT1001 (migalastat hydrochloride) is safe and well
tolerated (Schiffmann et al., 2008; Giugliani et al., 2013;
Young-Gqamana et al., 2013). Significant increase in
enzyme levels in peripheral white blood cells and kidney
tissue was found which paralleled a decrease in urinary
Gb3. Two phase 3 studies have been completed and
results will be reported in the near future. Substrate
reduction (Marshall et al., 2010) and gene therapy
(Pacienza et al., 2012) studies are planned for Fabry
disease.
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