Energy Conversion and Management 162 (2018) 203–217

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Simplified model for thermal comfort, IAQ and energy savings in rooms T
conditioned by displacement ventilation aided with transient personalized
ventilation
⁎
Douaa Al Assaada, Carine Habchib, Kamel Ghalia, Nesreen Ghaddara,
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, American University of Beirut, P.O. Box 11-0236, Beirut 1107-2020, Lebanon
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Lebanese University, Branch 2, Roumieh, Lebanon

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The aim of this work is to evaluate the performance of an intermittent personalized ventilation (PV) system
Displacement ventilation assisting a displacement ventilation (DV) system based on its ability in improving thermal comfort and pro-
Personalized ventilation tecting occupants from floor emitted passive contaminants. A simplified transient mathematical model was
Intermittent jet developed of heat and species transport to predict the temperature and concentration fields in the macroclimate
Thermal comfort
room air, in the thermal plume induced by the occupant and internal heat sources and within the intermittent PV
Indoor air quality, energy savings
jet facing the occupant face at a fixed distance. The model’s predictions of temperature and concentration were
experimentally validated for a PV frequency range [0.3–1 Hz] in a climatic chamber conditioned with a DV
system assisted with an intermittent PV jet. Good agreement was found between the predicted and measured
values of temperature and concentration of tracer gas in the different regions of macroclimate air, thermal
plume, and PV jet.
The validated model was used to conduct a case study where comfort and air quality were assessed and the
energy consumption of the transient PV + DV system was compared to steady PV + DV and standalone DV
systems. It was found that the intermittent PV range [0.3–1 Hz] was able to improve comfort compared to steady
PV and provide acceptable air quality. Moreover, energy analysis showed that the intermittent PV + DV (40 L/s)
was able to achieve maximum energy savings of 54.61% and 31.58% compared to a standalone DV and steady
PV respectively for equivalent comfort.

1. Introduction
Heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems constitute
an indispensable asset to the building sector since they maintain oc-
cupants’ wellbeing and productivity. By supplying conditioned clean
fresh air, occupants are provided with a comfortable thermal sur-
rounding and with good air quality resulting from the diluted pollutants
present in indoor environments. In fact, there are many pollutants in
indoor spaces that contribute to occupant dissatisfaction as well as sick
building syndromes (nausea, dizziness, etc.) [1]. These pollutants can
be emitted by human respiration or emitted from copying or printing
machines, computer, carpets and building furnishings which include
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) [2]. By diluting these passive
contaminants, the HVAC system assures good indoor air quality (IAQ)
and reduces health risks. The most common HVAC system is the con-
ventional mixing ventilation (MV) system [3] where cool recirculated
air is supplied overhead at very low temperatures and high velocities.
Air mixing creates uniform conditions which assures thermal comfort,
but reduces IAQ [4]. A superior system to the MV is the displacement
ventilation (DV) which has been known to provide thermal comfort and
IAQ.
In rooms conditioned by DV, low momentum cool fresh air is sup-
plied near the floor at slightly higher temperatures compared to MV
system to avoid occupant thermal draft and discomfort. The cool fresh
air is heated by the existing thermal sources in the space and rises
upwards due to buoyancy thus forming a stratified flow [5]. The space
is thus divided into a relatively cool and clean lower zone and a warm
and contaminated upper zone. Therefore, in general, DV system ensures
better IAQ and thermal comfort than the MV system [6–8]. Ahmed et al.
[9] developed and validated a CFD model of an office space equipped
with DV and tested different exhaust grill positions. For positions near
the ceiling, thermal comfort and good IAQ were achieved as well as
25% energy savings.
Despite its efficiency, DV has its limitations as a standalone system.

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: farah@aub.edu.lb (N. Ghaddar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.02.033
Received 10 January 2018; Received in revised form 6 February 2018; Accepted 7 February 2018
0196-8904/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Al Assaad et al. Energy Conversion and Management 162 (2018) 203–217

Nomenclature npv number of PV layers

OTC overall thermal comfort
A amplitude PMV predicted mean vote
Aa macroclimate air layer area (m2) PV personalized ventilation
Aint interfacial area between macroclimate air and source Q heat source strength (W)
plume (m2) Qc cooling capacity (W)
Aint, PV interfacial area between macroclimate air and PV jet (m2) r radial coordinate
APV PV jet layer area (m2) RPV PV jet radius (m)
Asp source plume layer area (m2) s source plume index
C average species concentration (ppm) t time (s)
Ca macroclimate air concentration of species (ppm) T period (s)
CBZ species concentration at the breathing zone (ppm) T average species temperature (°C, K)
Cex species concentration at the exhaust (ppm) Ta macroclimate air temperature (°C, K)
CFD computational fluid dynamics TPV PV jet temperature (°C)
CFr species concentration in the supplied fresh air (ppm) Tsp thermal source plume temperature (°C, K)
Cg species generation concentration (ppm) uc PV centerline velocity (m/s)
ci profile constant uPV average PV velocity (m/s)
Cp specific heat (J/kg·K) Va macroclimate air volume (m3)
CPV PV jet species concentration (ppm) VPV PV layer volume (m3)
Csp thermal source plume species concentration (ppm) Vsp source plume layer volume (m3)
d PV nozzle diameter (m) x Cartesian coordinate
D mass diffusion coefficient (m2/s) z room height (m)
di profile constant
Dt turbulent diffusion coefficient (m2/s) Greek symbols
DV displacement ventilation
f frequency (Hz) α empirical constant
HEPA high particle efficiency air εv ventilation effectiveness index
HVAC heating ventilation and air conditioning θ PV jet opening angle
i PV jet layers index ρ density (kg/m3)
IAQ indoor air quality δ Kronecker symbol
j macroclimate air layers index Δ difference
jPV macroclimate air layer containing the PV jet
k thermal conductivity of air (W/m·K) Subscripts
l number of source plumes
m wall index a air
ṁ mass flow rate of supplied air (kg/s) ave average
mave PV average flow rate (kg/s) BZ breathing zone
max maximum operator C centerline
mc circulated mass (kg/s) c circulated
mDV DV supply flow rate (kg/s) DV displacement ventilation
ment,a/PV entrained mass from the macroclimate air into the PV jet ent entrained
(kg/s) Ex exhaust
ment,a/sp entrained mass from the macroclimate air into the source Fr fresh air
plume (kg/s) g generation
ment,a/W entrained mass from the macroclimate air into the wall int interface
plume (kg/s) PV personalized ventilation
Mg species generation mass flow rate (kg/s) sp source plume
mPV PV mass flow rate (kg/s) t turbulent
mPV, supply PV supply flow rate (kg/s) v ventilation
msp source plume mass flow rate (kg/s) W wall
MV mixing ventilation wp wall plume
mwp wall plumes mass flow rate (kg/s)

For instance, the DV maximum load removal capacity is limited to a low
value of 40 W/m2 due to thermal discomfort caused at low supply
temperatures and high supply velocities [7,10]. Additionally, DV as-
sures good IAQ in the case where the heat sources were also the same as
the contaminant sources resulting in the rising thermal plumes trans-
porting the pollutants upwards while entraining clean air from the
room air. However, in cases where the heat source is not the con-
tamination source, the performance of DV deteriorated [11]. Therefore,
DV is a superior air conditioning system when small space cooling loads
(40 W/m2) are considered and when the contaminant and heat sources
are the same. However, for large cooling loads and separate sources of
heat and contamination, the DV performance is compromised [11,12].
Consequently, in order to assure acceptable air quality in such cases, DV
should supply higher amounts of fresh air to dilute contaminants
making this an energy intensive system. Therefore, in these situations,
DV needs to be assisted by another ventilation system in order to im-
prove IAQ as well as reduce energy costs.
A potential assistive system for DV is personalized ventilation (PV)

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D. Al Assaad et al.
[13]. PV systems have been renowned for their ability to improve IAQ
and reduce energy costs by supplying clean fresh air directly in the
occupant’s breathing level [13–17]. Habchi et al. [18] developed and
validated a CFD model of ceiling mounted PV and desk fans and found
improved IAQ compared to conventional MV systems. In an experi-
mental study, Cermak et al. [6] combined a desk mounted PV with a DV
system and found that IAQ improved especially with regards to pollu-
tants emitted from the floor. Makhoul et al. [7] studied a steady
PV + DV system using mathematical modeling and validated the model
experimentally. However, in all literature work mentioned, the PV
module assisting DV supplied constant airflow.
In more recent applications, thermal comfort with PV has been at-
tained through regulating not only temperature and velocity of the
supplied air, but also through the control of the PV airflow pattern. In
fact, varying the airflow rate intermittently between a minimum and a
maximum at a certain frequency and background temperature was re-
ported to enhance the thermal comfort state of the occupants [19–21]
and yield energy savings [22,23]. Al-Assaad et al. [22] coupled a si-
nusoidal PV + MV system and reported optimal thermal comfort at a
PV jet frequency of 1 Hz. However, due to intermittency and flow
fluctuations, turbulence and mixing effects were enhanced, especially at
higher frequency and flow amplitudes. Therefore, an intermittent PV
may compromise IAQ due to enhanced mass transfer into the PV jet.
Nonetheless, Al-Assaad et al. [22] reported satisfactory IAQ of inter-
mittent PV + MV compared to steady PV + MV at considerable energy
savings. Therefore, intermittent PV may constitute a potential assistive
system for DV to improve air quality when contaminant sources are not
the same as the heat sources.
This work studies the performance of an intermittent PV + DV with
respect to thermal comfort and IAQ, through simplified mathematical
modeling from first principles. Moreover, since the flow field in a DV
system is mainly unidirectional, it is easier to model compared to
Fig. 1. Illustration of the modeled space conditioned by a DV system and an intermittent PV system.
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Energy Conversion and Management 162 (2018) 203–217
conventional MV system where recirculation and mixing govern the
flow behavior. Besides, simplified mathematical modeling that captures
the physics can be utilized as an effective design tool that allows a fast
system optimization. The developed mathematical model will be used
to assess the interaction between the PV jet, DV airflow and occupant
thermal plume and compute the transient, temperatures, mass flow
rates and concentrations of species within the DV-conditioned space.
The model will be validated through experiments in a climatic chamber
equipped with a DV system assisted by an intermittent PV. A case study
will be also conducted where the model will be integrated with a bio-
heat and comfort models to assess thermal comfort enhancement when
using intermittent PV system. The resulting IAQ at different jet fre-
quencies and DV flow rates will be determined. In addition, the asso-
ciated energy saving potential of the system will be assessed compared
to a steady PV + DV and standalone DV system.
2. Problem description
This study considers a typical office space room conditioned by a DV
system and a desk-mounted horizontal PV system. Fig. 1 illustrates the
considered space conditioned by the transient PV + DV systems as well
as the seated occupant. The DV system supplies cool fresh air at floor
level at high supply temperatures and low velocities. When the DV air
comes into contact with hot surfaces inside the space (walls, occupant),
its temperature rises and its density decreases which induces a rising
vertical air motion and thermal plumes’ formation. The PV cool fresh
air is supplied horizontally towards the occupant’s upper body seg-
ments. The PV supply mass flow rate mPV,supply(t) is a time dependent
sinusoidal flow having a characteristic frequency f and amplitude A. It
fluctuates between a minimum and a maximum corresponding to an
average flow rate mave. High efficiency particulate filter (HEPA) is used
to filter the 100% fresh air supply to the DV and PV system from any
D. Al Assaad et al. Energy Conversion and Management 162 (2018) 203–217

Fig. 2. Illustration of (a) the discretized space; (b) cross sectional area including the PV jet, rising plume and the different physical phenomena.

large particles before introducing it to the space [24]. Heat and mass from floor emissions.
transfer interactions are present between the different flows present in
the room: thermal plumes, DV air flow and impinging PV jet.
The space is considered to be contaminated by a polluting source 3. Mathematical formulation
located at lower room levels and emitting light contaminants to assess
the ability of the intermittent PV + DV system in protecting occupants In rooms equipped with DV systems, the cool air supplied at low
level is heated and therefore starts to rise upwards driven by buoyancy

Fig. 3. Illustration of the PV jet potential core region and velocity profile variation along the x direction.

206
D. Al Assaad et al.
Fig. 4. Illustration of: (a) the different physical phenomena involved in the space, (b) the different areas and volumes present in the space.
forces. This creates vertical temperature gradients in the macroclimate
air with the temperature increasing gradually with increasing height.
Moreover, when the rising air reaches a heat source, density differences
drive the formation of rising thermal plumes. Similarly, due to the
presence of a contaminant source in the space, a vertical species con-
centration gradient is established. Fig. 2(a) illustrates the conditioned
space containing the DV supply with the rising air and Fig. 2(b) presents
a 2-D cross sectional area of the space illustrating the heat and mass
transport modes of diffusion and convection in three different regions;
(i) the thermal plume region emanating from the heat source, (ii) the
macroclimate room air, (iii) the PV jet region, and (iv) wall plumes
region. Each region is characterized by its temperature and con-
centration of species respectively: the macroclimate air (Ta, Ca), the
thermal plume (Tsp, Csp), the PV jet (TPV, CPV), and the wall plume (Twp,
Cwp). The PV jet is projected horizontally towards the occupant
breathing level (1.1 m) at a specific temperature and concentration. It
entrains air from the macroclimate and interacts with it through heat
and species transfer. Hence, the PV jet temperature and concentration is
different from the temperature and concentration of the macroclimate
air and thermal plume. Hence, at each height in the space, two separate
regions are present: the macroclimate air and the thermal plume except
at the height where the PV jet region is present.
Due to the vertical gradients in temperature and concentration
within the macroclimate air and the rising thermal plume, the model
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Energy Conversion and Management 162 (2018) 203–217
discretizes the considered space vertically into several horizontal layers
as can be seen in Fig. 2(a). The first layers include the occupant mod-
eled by a heated cylinder of diameter 0.47 m and a height of 1.1 m
mimicking a seated person. The cylinder has a surface area of 1.8 m2
similar to the surface area of a human body. These layers are lumped
layers of macroclimate air having each a temperature Ta and a con-
centration of species Ca. The remaining layers are distributed equally
for the remaining height where each horizontal layer contains two
distinct lumped regions: the macroclimate air (Ta, Ca) and the rising
thermal plume (Tsp, Csp). In the horizontal layer corresponding to the
breathing level height of 1.1 m, a third lumped region is added which is
the PV jet (TPV, CPV). The PV jet is also discretized in the horizontal
direction into several layers as can be seen in Fig. 2(a) and (b). The last
PV jet layer is considered as the air that will be inhaled by the occupant
and is therefore defined as the occupant breathing zone. The in-
stantaneous values of temperature and concentration for the different
regions will be determined by the mathematical model. The calculated
temperatures will be used to determine the thermal comfort state of the
occupant by integrating it with a transient bio-heat and comfort models
while the computed concentrations will be used to assess IAQ.
3.1. Mass balances and integration of PV module
The temperatures and concentrations depend on the airflow fields in
D. Al Assaad et al. Energy Conversion and Management 162 (2018) 203–217

the various identified regions inside the space. Therefore, the model (Ta) and the thermal plume (Tsp). In one of the layers containing the PV
needs to compute mass flow rates in the macroclimate, thermal plumes jet, there is a horizontal variation in the temperature due to the en-
(source plumes and wall plumes) and in the PV jet. trainment and diffusion of the macroclimate air into the PV jet.
To compute the mass flow rates of the rising thermal plumes msp at Therefore, a third control volume appears which is the PV jet having a
each layer, the plume model of Mundt et al. [25] is used. It was adopted temperature TPV. The model should be able to compute the tempera-
in previous studies and predicted well airflows and thermal plumes in tures of the different volumes in the space at each layer: macroclimate
indoor spaces [7,22,23,26,27]. For the model of Mundt et al. [25] to be air (Ta), thermal plumes (Tsp) and the PV jet (TPV).
applicable, the intermittent cooler PV jet is assumed to be entrained
into the plume without distorting its rising profile. Therefore, the in-
termittent PV + DV model assumes that the PV jet frequency, ampli- 3.2.1. Temperature variation within the macroclimate air
tude, temperature as well as velocity are at values that conserve the The thermal plumes and PV jet interact with the macroclimate air
rising thermal plume profile. As for the wall plumes, their corre- through conduction and entrainment. Conduction and convection also
sponding mass flow rate was determined using the model of Jaluria occur between the consecutive macroclimate air layers. The involved
et al. [28]. physics as well as the different geometrical quantities of the space can
The mass flow rate of the macroclimate air is calculated by per- be seen in Fig. 4(a), (b) and the energy balance equation is given by
forming mass balance at each layer between the wall and source plume
mass flow rates mwp, msp and the DV supply mass flow rate mDV. The ∂T
ρ ·Cp·Va (j )·⎛ a ⎞
resulting mass flow rate is referred as the circulated mass mc. When the ⎝ ∂t ⎠ j

plumes rise upwards, they entrain air from the macroclimate. While the Transient storageterm
plumes’ mass flow rates is smaller than the macroclimate air mass flow
= [max(mc (j−1,t ),0)·Cp·Ta (j−1,t )−(max(mc (j,t ),0)
rate, the circulated mass flows upwards. When the plumes’ mass flow
rates exceed the macroclimate air mass flow rate, there is downward air + max(−mc (j−1,t ),0))·Cp·Ta (j,t ) + max(−mc (j,t ),0)·Cp·Ta (j
circulation. The circulated mass mc is given by the following equation + 
1,t )]
 
4 l Net convective fluxes between consecutive air layers
mc (j ) = mDV − ∑ m wp (j,m)− ∑ msp (j,n)
⎡ ∂T ∂T ⎤
m=1 s=1 (1a) + ⎢−Aa (j−1)·k ·⎛ a ⎞ + Aa (j )·k ·⎛ a ⎞ ⎥
⎝ ∂z ⎠ j − 1,t ⎝ ∂z ⎠ j,t ⎦
where j is the layer number index, the index m refers to the wall index ⎣

Net conductive fluxes between consecutive air layers
(4 walls), and k refers to the source plume index where l is the number
of source plumes present in the room. ∂Tsp ⎞
+ [Aint (j )·k ·⎛ ⎜ ]
⎟ + δ∗
The PV nozzle and its corresponding jet can be seen in Fig. 2(a). The ⎝ ∂r ⎠ j,t

intermittent PV jet is projected horizontally from the nozzle towards the Net conductive fluxes between air & plumes
occupant. The supply PV mass flow rate mPV,supply(t) is given by
⎡ ⎛ ∂TPV ⎞ ⎤
nPV
+ δ∗ ∑ ⎢Aint ,PV (j )·k · ∂r ⎥− [ment ,a / sp (j,t )·Cp·Ta (j,t )]
mPV ,supply (t ) = mave + A·sin(2π·f ·t ) (1b) i=1
⎝ ⎠ j ,t

⎣
  PV ⎦ Entrained massin to the source plume
where t denotes time. Fig. 3 shows the impinging PV jet with an Net conductive fluxes between air & PV jet
opening angle θ and its potential core region. According to experi- − [ment ,a / W (j,t ) ·Cp·Ta (j,t )] −δ∗
nPV
∑ [ment ,a / PV (j,t ) ·Cp·Ta (jPV ,t )]
mental studies [29], the jet angle θ has a value of 24° and does not vary  
i=1 
Entrained massin to the wall plumes Total entrained mass into the PV jet
with PV jet velocities. The considered PV jet is issued from a circular
nozzle of diameter d situated at close proximity from the occupant. The + Q (j )
potential core region lies between 4d and 6d [29] and represents the ⏟
Heat source (2a)
cleanest region of the jet. In this region, the instantaneous PV velocity
decreases in the x direction and varies radially with the r coordinate where the ‘max’ operator is the maximum function introduced to si-
due to entrainment. In fact, it follows a top hat profile which becomes a multaneously account for the upward and downward macroclimate air
Gaussian profile at the end of the clean zone as seen in Fig. 3. The movement occurring below and above the stratification height respec-
instantaneous PV velocity uPV (i,t ) is given by tively. mc(j,t) is the instantaneous circulated mass at layer j, ment,a/W
(j,t), ment, a/sp (j,t) and ment, a/PV (i,t) are the entrained masses from the
α 2
r ⎞ ⎤ macroclimate air layer j into the wall, source thermal plumes and PV jet
uPV (i,t ) = uC (t )·⎡1−⎛
layers respectively, δ is the Kronecker symbol, it is equal to 1 in the
⎜ ⎟
⎢ ⎝ RPV (i) ⎠ ⎥ (1c)
⎣ ⎦
macroclimate air layer containing the PV jet and zero elsewhere, Q is
where i is the index of x coordinate relative to the PV jet and uc(t) is the the heat source generated by the presence of the occupant, Aa(j) is the
instantaneous PV jet centerline velocity equal to the PV supply velocity cross sectional area of the macroclimate air layer j, Aint(j) and Aint,PV(i)
that can be computed from Eq. (1b), RPV(i) is the increasing radius of are the interfacial areas between the macroclimate air, thermal plume
the expanding PV jet, and α is the constant that determines the profile and PV jet at layer j and i respectively, Va(j) is air volume of layer j
shape [30]. The PV mass flow rate mPV (i,t ) increases in the x direction (Fig. 4(b)), k is the thermal conductivity of air, and Cp is the specific
due to entrainment and is also time dependent. It can be calculated heat of air.
using Eq. (1c) and is given by
RPV (i)
mPV (i,t ) = ∫0 2πρuPV (i,t )·r·dr (1d) 3.2.2. Temperature variation within the PV jet
In the air layer containing the PV nozzle, the PV jet expands in the
where ρ is the density of air.
horizontal direction due to interaction with the macroclimate air
through entrainment and diffusion. Hence, the PV jet is discretized
3.2. Modeling of temperature distribution horizontally into several layers nPV (Fig. 4(a)). The adjacent PV layers
interact through convection and diffusion in the horizontal direction.
A vertical temperature gradient exists in the macroclimate air as The energy balance for the PV jet layers is given by
well as the thermal plume. Each horizontal layer is divided into two
control volumes having different temperatures: the macroclimate air

208
D. Al Assaad et al. Energy Conversion and Management 162 (2018) 203–217

∂T ∂C
ρ · Cp· VPV (i)· ⎛ PV ⎞ = [mPV (i−1,t )· Cp· TPV (i−1,t )−mPV (i,t )· Cp· TPV (i,t )] ρ ·Va (j )·⎛ a ⎞
⎝ ∂t ⎠i 
   ⎝ ∂t ⎠ j
Transient storageterm
Net convective fluxes between consecutive PV layers

Transient storageterm
+ ⎡ ⎛ ∂TPV ⎞ ∂T
+ APV (i)· k · ⎛ PV ⎞ ⎤
⎢−APV (i−1)· k · ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ⎠i,t ⎥ = [max(mc (j−1,t ),0)·Ca (j−1,t )−(max(mc (j,t ),0)
⎣ i − 1,t ⎦

Net conductive fluxes between consecutive PV layers + max(−mc (j−1,t ),0))·Ca (j,t ) + max(−mc (j,t ),0)·Ca (j + 1,t )]
  
+ ⎡A ⎛ ∂TPV ⎞ ⎤ + [ment ,a / PV (i,t )· Cp· Ta (jPV ,t )] Net convective fluxes between consecutive air layers
⎢ int ,PV (i)· k · ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ⎥ 
⎣ i,t ⎦
 Entrained mass into the PV jet ⎡ ∂C ∂C ⎤
Net conductive fluxes between air & PV jet + ⎢−Aa (j−1) D ·ρ ⎛ a ⎞ + Aa (j ) D ·ρ ⎛ a ⎞ ⎥
⎝ ∂z ⎠ j − 1,t ⎝ ∂z ⎠ j,t
(2b) ⎣
   ⎦
Net Brownian diffusion between consecutive air layers
where mPV (i,t) is the PV instantaneous mass flow rate at each PV layer i
calculated using equation (1d), APV(i) is the PV cross sectional area at ⎡ ∂Csp ⎞ ⎤
+ ⎢Aint (j )(D + Dt )·ρ ⎛ + δ∗
∂r ⎠ j,t ⎥
⎜ ⎟

the interface between layer i − 1 and layer i and VPV(i) is the PV layer i ⎣ ⎝ ⎦

volume (Fig. 4(b)). Net Turbulent diffusion between air plumes

⎡ ⎛ ∂CPV ⎞ ⎤
nPV
3.2.3. Temperature variation within the thermal plume + δ∗ ∑ ⎢Aint ,PV (jPV )(D + Dt )·ρ ∂r ⎥
i=1
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ jPV ,t ⎦
The rising thermal plume interacts with its adjacent layers through   
Net Turbulent diffusion between air & PV jet
convection and diffusion in the vertical direction. Moreover, the plume
exchanges heat with the adjacent macroclimate air layers through en- − [ment ,a / sp (j,t )·Ca (j,t )] −− [ment ,a / W (j,t ) ·Ca (j,t )]
    
trainment and diffusion. The plume also interacts with the PV jet Entrained mass in to the source plume Entrained mass in to the wall plumes
through entrainment of the last PV jet layer (See Fig. 4). The plume nPV
−δ∗ ∑ [ment ,a / PV (j,t ) ·Cp·Ta (jPV ,t )] + Mg (1)·Cg (1)
energy balance is given by 
i=1    
Total entrained mass in to the PV jet Species generation (3a)
∂Tsp ⎞
ρ ·Cp·Vsp (j )·⎛ ⎜ = [msp (j−1,t )·Cp·Tsp (j−1,t )−msp (j,t )·Cp·Tsp (j,t )]
⎟ where Mg is the mass flow rate of species generated by the pollution
⎝ ∂t ⎠ 
j Net convective fluxes between consecutive plume layers source located at floor level (layer 1) with a generation concentration
Transient storage term Cg, D is the molecular diffusion coefficient of species into the air and it
⎡ ∂Tsp ⎞ ∂Tsp ⎞ ⎤ has a value of 1.39 × 10−5 m2/s, and Dt is the turbulent diffusion
+ ⎢−Asp (j−1)·k ·⎛ + Asp (j )·k ·⎛ coefficient. Its value was computed using the correlations of Chen et al.
∂z ⎠ j,t ⎥
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

⎝ ∂z ⎠ j − 1,t ⎝
⎣
 ⎦ [32] that relate this coefficient to the jet velocity and characteristic
Net conductive fluxes between consecutive plume layers length. These correlation were adopted in the study of Kanaan et al.

+ ⎡Aint (j )·k ·( ∂Tsp )j,t ⎤ [26] and gave good results.

⎢
⎣ ∂r ⎥
⎦

Net conductive fluxes between air source plume 3.3.2. Species distribution within the PV jet
To determine the species distribution inside the PV jet, a profile of
+ [ment ,a / sp (j,t )·Cp·Ta (j,t )] + δ∗
  species concentration is needed. The instantaneous concentration of the
Entrained mass from the air into the plume
species in the PV jet CPV(i,t) also follows a similar profile to the velocity
+ [mPV (nPV ,t )·Cp·TPV (nPV ,t )] and is given by
 
Entrained mass from the PV jet into the plume (2c)
CPV (i,t ) = ci−di [(r / RPV (i))−α ]2 (4a)
where msp(j,t) is the instantaneous source plume mass flow rate at where ci, di, are constants determined by the boundary conditions: At
plume layer j, mPV(i,t) is the PV mass flow rate at the last PV layer nPV. the jet periphery, CPV (j, t) is equal to Ca (jPV, t), the species con-
Asp(j) is the cross sectional area of the plume at the interface between centration in the macroclimate air layer jPV containing the PV jet. At the
layer j-1 and layer j. Vsp is the plume layer volume calculated at each jet centerline, CPV(j, t) is equal to the PV supply species concentration.
layer i. The PV jet interacts with the macroclimate air through vertical
turbulent diffusion and entrainment. Inside the PV jet, horizontal
3.3. Modeling of species distribution Brownian diffusion and convection take place between the PV jet
layers. The mass balance equation for the PV jet at layer j can be written
Similar to temperature, a vertical concentration gradient exists in and is given by the following:
the macroclimate air as well as in the thermal plume and PV jet due to ∂C
entrainment and diffusion of species (Brownian and turbulent diffusion) ρ·VPV (i )·⎛ PV ⎞ =  PV (i−1,t )· CPV (i−
[m 1, )−mPV (i,t )·CPV (
t  i,t
)]
∂t ⎠i
⎝ Net convective fluxes between consecutive PV layers
[31]. Each horizontal layer is divided into two control volumes having Transient storage term
different concentrations: the macroclimate air (Ca) and the thermal
+ ⎡ ⎛ ∂CPV ⎞ ⎛ ∂CPV ⎞ ⎤
plume (Csp). A third control volume appears in the layer containing the ⎢−APV (i−1)·D·ρ·⎝ ∂x ⎠i − 1,t + APV (i)·D·ρ·⎝ ∂x ⎠i,t ⎥
⎣
 ⎦
PV nozzle which is the PV jet having a concentration CPV that varies
Net Brownian diffusive fluxes between consecutive PV layers
horizontally.
+ ⎡ ⎛ ∂TPV ⎞ ⎤
⎢Aint,PV (i )·(D + Dt (t ))PV ·ρ·⎝ ∂r ⎠i,t ⎥
⎣
   ⎦
3.3.1. Species distribution within the macroclimate air Net conductive fluxes between air PV jet
The surrounding room air interacts with the thermal plumes + [ment ,a / PV (i,t )·Ca (jPV ,t )]
through entrainment, and lateral turbulent diffusion, and with the 
Entrained mass into the PV jet (4b)
previous and next air layers through convection and vertical Brownian
diffusion. In the layer containing the PV jet, there is interaction be-
tween the impinging jet and the surrounding air through entrainment 3.3.3. Species distribution within the thermal plumes
and turbulent diffusion (Fig. 4). The species conservation equation is The species concentration variation within the plume is influenced
given by by its interaction with the transient PV jet and the surrounding air. The

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main physical phenomena that affect the species concentration are the ∂Csp ⎞
ρ·Vsp (j )·⎛
⎜ ⎟= [msp (j−1,t )·Csp (j−1,t )−msp (j,t )·Csp (j,t )]
lateral diffusion with the surrounding air due to concentration gra- ⎝ ∂t ⎠ j 
   Net convective fluxes between consecutive plume layers
dients, convection due to the driving plumes’ momentum and entrain- Transient storage term
ment of mass from the surrounding air and the entrainment of the PV ∂Csp ⎞ ∂Csp ⎞ ⎤
⎡
jet in the layer containing the PV module (Fig. 4). A parabolic con- + +⎢−Asp (j−1)·D·ρ·⎛ ⎜ + Asp (j )·D·ρ·⎛
⎟
⎥
⎜ ⎟

⎝ ∂z ⎠ j − 1,t ⎝ ∂z ⎠ j,t ⎦
centration profile was adopted as was done in previous studies [26,27] ⎣
Net conductive fluxes between consecutive plume layers
and was found as a convenient modeling approach. The species mass
balance equations in the thermal plume at any layer j and time t is given +
⎡ ⎛ ∂Csp ⎞ ⎤
⎢Aint (j )·(D + Dt )·ρ· ∂r ⎜
⎥ ⎟

in Eq. (5a) ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ j,t ⎦

  
Net conductive fluxes between air & source plume

+ [ment ,a / sp (j,t )·Ca (j,t )]

  
Entrained mass from the air into the plume

+ δ∗ [m
 PV (nPV ,t
)·CPV (nPV ,t
 )]
Entrained mass from the PV jet into the plume (5a)

Fig. 5. Flowchart of the different steps applied for converging the model.

210
D. Al Assaad et al.
3.4. Coupling with bio-heat and comfort models
In the considered space, the occupant comes into contact with the
rising DV airflow while the occupant breathing zone is subjected to the
intermittent PV flow. Therefore, the temperature of the head segment of
the occupant varies with time due to the PV jet while the lower body
remains in uniform conditions due to the steady DV flow. This tem-
perature distribution affects the thermal comfort of the occupant. To
assess these effects, the current model should be coupled with an ade-
quate thermal comfort model.
The model should be able to detect the transient temperature var-
iations of the skin and predict the thermal comfort state of the occu-
pant. The predicted mean vote (PMV) comfort model of Fanger et al.
[33] cannot be applied in this work since it predicts thermal comfort
strictly in steady state conditions. Therefore, more advanced thermal
comfort modeling is required. Consequently, the transient bio-heat
model of Othmani et al. [34] was used in this study to determine the
comfort state of occupants under transient conditions. This model di-
vided the human body into several segments (head, chest, abdomen,
lower and upper arms, hands, back, thighs, calves and feet). It takes as
input the computed macroclimate air and thermal plume temperatures
from the developed intermittent PV + DV model. The convective heat
transfer coefficient of each body segment, metabolic rates as well as
clothing properties are also taken as input. After convergence, the bio-
heat model outputs the skin temperatures, core temperatures and their
rate of change. The obtained outputs can be used as input into an ap-
propriate comfort model to predict the thermal comfort and sensation
state of the occupant under the considered environmental conditions.
The empirical comfort model of Zhang et al. [35–37] which is based on
human subject experiments was used. The comfort model of Zhang
et al. [35–37] evaluates the thermal sensations state on a scale ranging
from −4 (very cold) to +4 (very hot) and evaluates thermal comfort
Fig. 6. Experimental setup in climatic chamber conditioned by a DV + intermittent PV system with different temperature and particle concentration measurements.
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Energy Conversion and Management 162 (2018) 203–217
based on a scale ranging from −4 (very uncomfortable) to +4 (very
comfortable).
3.5. Air quality assessment
In order to assess the efficiency of intermittent PV + DV system in
protecting occupants from passive contaminants and evaluate the en-
hanced mixing effect due to the turbulence of the intermittent PV jet, a
tracer gas was used [38]. Several indices were used to evaluate IAQ in
indoor spaces equipped with personalized ventilators such as the ven-
tilation effectiveness index εv [22]. This index is computed at the
breathing height of the seated occupant according to the following
equation:
Cex −CBZ
εv =
Cex −CFr (6a)
where Cex is the concentration of tracer gas at the return grill, CBZ is the
concentration at the breathing zone and CFr is the average concentra-
tion in the fresh air supply. The higher the ventilation effectiveness, the
better the IAQ and vice versa.
3.6. Solution methodology
In order to solve for the plumes, air and PV mass flow rates, tem-
peratures as well as concentrations of species, several inputs are re-
quired for the developed model. The model takes as input the space
geometry, air properties, DV supply flow rate and temperature, the PV
average supply flow rate, amplitude, frequency and supply tempera-
ture. Other inputs include the concentrations of species in the supplied
DV, PV fresh air and generated by the pollution source. The outdoor
weather conditions are also needed to calculate the indoor wall tem-
peratures and heat fluxes [7]. In the current model, vertical
D. Al Assaad et al.
temperature and concentration gradients are present. Hence, the space
is discretized into n layers in the vertical direction. These layers include
the macroclimate air and the thermal plumes. In the layer containing
the PV, the jet is discretized in the horizontal direction into nPV layers.
Each layer (air, plume and PV jet) is dependent on the preceding and
following layers through the energy and species mass balance equa-
tions. Therefore, to solve for the different variables in the space, an
iterative method is needed. This method connects between the thermal
space model, and energy balances as well as the mass flow rates that
depend on the gradient of temperature which was updated at each
iteration until convergence.
The flowchart of the solution methodology as well as the coupling
between the current model and the bio-heat and comfort models is
shown in Fig. 5. The solution is initialized at time t = 0 by assuming the
macroclimate air and wall temperatures as well as the temperature
gradient in the space. The energy balance equations are solved for each
control volume and the temperatures and mass flow rates are updated
accordingly. These steps are repeated until the residuals of temperature
are lower than 10−6 and convergence is reached. Once the temperature
fields in the space are converged, the model solves for the concentra-
tions of species in the different control volumes at the current time step.
Convergence for the concentration of species is attained when the
corresponding residuals are also lower than 10−6. After converging the
temperatures and concentrations at the current time step, the model
advances in time and solves for the next time step until the desired
simulation time is reached.
The instantaneous temperatures outputs of the model (Ta (t), Tsp (t),
TPV (t)) are considered as inputs to the bio-heat model which computes
the segmental skin temperature variations (Fig. 5). The outputs of the
bio-heat model can then be used to assess thermal sensation and com-
fort using the comfort model of Zhang et al. [35–37]. The instantaneous
concentration outputs of the model (Ca (t), Csp (t), CPV (t)) are used to
evaluate IAQ especially in the occupant breathing zone.
4. Experimental methodology
The robustness of the model the intermittent PV + DV model in
predicting temperature and species concentrations in the macroclimate,
rising thermal plumes and PV jet was validated by conducting experi-
ments of the combined system in a climatic chamber.
The experimental room had dimensions of 2.5 m × 2.75 m × 2.8 m
and is conditioned by a DV system assisted by a PV system supplying air
intermittently towards the occupant as shown in Fig. 6. The DV supply
and exhaust diffusers have dimensions of 0.582 m (width) × 0.24 m
(height) and 0.44 m (width) × 0.19 m (height) respectively. The PV
nozzle has a diameter of 10 cm and is placed at a distance of 40 cm
away from the occupant. The PV nozzle is equipped with flow
straighteners to reduce swirl effect of the PV fan [39,40]. It supplies a
sinusoidal flow towards the occupant modeled by a heated cylinder
placed in the middle of the room. The cylinder has a diameter of 0.47 m
and a height of 1.1 m and a surface area of 1.8 m2 similar to the surface
area of a human body. The cylinder is equipped with an electrical
heater source such that cylinder generates 100 W. The PV sinusoidal
airflow is achieved by controlling the PV fan using LabVIEW control
software. Through controlling the voltage supplied to the fan, the PV
can therefore supply sinusoidal fresh air at any characteristic frequency.
To test the ability of the intermittent PV in delivering fresh air to the
occupant, CO2 is used as a tracer gas [38]. Four CO2 polluting sources
are placed at close proximity to the floor at a height of 0.15 m. Each
source supplies a flow rate of 0.5 L/min of CO2 [41]. This is to ensure
uniform CO2 concentration at the considered height. The clean fresh air
supplied by the DV diffuser is withdrawn from the outside air where
CO2 concentrations were measured. Typical concentrations of
450 ± 10 ppm were found. The PV diffuser supplies fresh air with-
drawn from an adjacent chamber and has also typical CO2 concentra-
tions of 450 ± 10 ppm.
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Energy Conversion and Management 162 (2018) 203–217
Temperature measurements in the space were done using thermo-
couples placed in different locations as shown in Fig. 6. The thermo-
couples were OMEGA T-type thermocouples having a measurement
accuracy of ± 0.1 °C and connected to an OMEGA data logger. They
were placed at different heights from the floor on a measuring stand to
validate average temperatures in the air layer and in the rising thermal
plume. Additional sensors were also placed between the PV jet and the
occupant to measure the average PV jet temperature.
To measure CO2 concentrations, sensors were placed on a mea-
suring rod at different heights as seen also in Fig. 6 and used to measure
the average species concentration in the macroclimate air and thermal
plume. The sensors used were the FIGARO CDM7160 CO2 sensor
module having a detection range of 300–5000 ppm and connected to
OMEGA data logger.
It is noteworthy that the model predicts instantaneous values of
temperature and concentration. However, due to the limitation of the
sensors’ response time, average values of temperature and concentra-
tion were collected from the data logger. Therefore, the instantaneous
values of concentration and temperatures were averaged and compared
with the experimental results as given in Eqs. (7a) and (7b) respectively
1 T
T =
T
∫0 T (t )·dt
(7a)
1 T
C =
T
∫0 C (t )·dt
(7b)
where T and C are the average temperature and concentration, T(t) and
C(t) are the instantaneous temperature and concentration outputs from
the model and T is the period (s).
4.1. Experimental protocol
At first, the lights (100 W), the DV and intermittent PV, and cylinder
heating source (100 W) inside the climatic chamber are turned on. The
walls in the room are nearly adiabatic since they have a small U-value
of 0.3 W/m2·K. The DV flow rate and supply temperatures are set to
60 L/s and 19 °C. The PV inlet temperature was set to 22 °C and an
average supply flow rate of 3.5 L/s. The intermittent PV system is
characterized by its operating frequency. In fact, with increasing fre-
quency, the turbulence of the intermittent PV system is higher than the
turbulence of the steady PV. Therefore, to validate the ability of the
model in predicting the effect of frequency on IAQ, the frequency of the
intermittent PV system was varied according to typical frequencies
found indoors: 0.3 Hz, 0.5 Hz and 1 Hz [21,22].
The generation source was set to emit the desired CO2 flow rate.
After several hours of running the experiment, the temperatures and
concentrations in the space are stabilized. The average values were
adequately measured using the thermocouples and CO2 sensors re-
spectively. Each experiment was repeated five times to ensure repeat-
ability and accuracy.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Validation of mathematical model
The validation of the mathematical model’s predicted temperatures
and species concentration was done for a typical load of 40 W/m2 and
typical supply conditions (DV: 60 L/s, 19 °C, PV: 3.5 L/s, 22 °C) at three
typical frequencies (0.3 Hz, 0.5 Hz and 1 Hz) for the intermittent PV
[21,22].
The mathematical model computes instantaneous values of tem-
perature and concentration. However, during experiments, average
values were measured due to the limitation of the thermocouples’ and
CO2 sensors’ sampling time. Therefore, the temperature and con-
centration outputs of the mathematical model were averaged (Eqs. (7a),
(8a)) and compared with the average measured values of the
D. Al Assaad et al.
experiment. A comparison of predicted and measured values of tem-
perature and concentration can be seen in Figs. 7 and 8 respectively.
The comparison is done at three PV frequencies (0.3 Hz, 0.5 Hz and
1 Hz) for the macroclimate air and thermal plume, for different room
heights.
The macroclimate air temperature and concentration do not vary
substantially with frequency since the volume of the macroclimate air
layers are significant compared to the volume of the PV jet and thermal
plume. In fact, the amplitude of variation of the temperature and
concentration was 0.1 °C and 0.8 ppm respectively which is negligible.
Therefore, the macroclimate air validation was illustrated for one fre-
quency only. Moreover, the amplitude of variation of the plume tem-
perature and concentration is maximum at the PV level and decreases
with increasing height farther away from the personalized ventilator.
Figs. 7 and 8 show the variation of the average temperature and
concentration with height for the macroclimate air and the thermal
plume for the three different frequencies (0.3 Hz, 0.5 Hz, 1 Hz). It is
shown in Fig. 7(a) that the macroclimate air temperature increases with
height. This is due to the presence of different heat sources (walls,
occupant, plumes, etc.) in the space which exchange heat with the
cooler DV air through entrainment and diffusion. On the other hand,
the plume temperature shows a decreasing trend with height
(Fig. 7(b)). In addition, when increasing PV frequency from 0.3 Hz to
1 Hz, the plume temperature decreases. This is due to the increase in the
rate of supply of cool air with higher frequencies. For example, at a
height of 1.2 m, when increasing PV frequency from 0.3 Hz to 1 Hz, the
plume temperature decreases from 28 °C to 26.6 °C. Good agreement
was found between experimental and predicted values with a maximum
relative error of 7.44% observed in the macroclimate air.
According to Fig. 8(a), the CO2 concentration in the macroclimate
air is very high near the floor (around 1050 ppm) due to the presence of
CO2 sources. It decreased gradually with increasing height due to air
entrainment by the wall plumes. At a height of 1.1 m, the species
concentration decreases suddenly by 6.7%, due the presence of the
rising plume as well as the PV jet. Above this height, the concentration
slightly decreases until reaching a height of 1.46 m (stratification
height) where a peak in concentration is observed due to species
Fig. 7. Experimental and predicted values of temperature variation with height for: (a) the macroclimate air, (b) the thermal plume at 0.3 Hz, 0.5 Hz and 1 Hz.
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Energy Conversion and Management 162 (2018) 203–217
accumulation at that level. On the other hand, the concentration in-
creases in the plume reaching a maximum at the stratification height
and slightly decreases above it. Fig. 8(b) also illustrates the effect of PV
frequency on the variation of CO2 concentration in the thermal plume.
With increasing frequency, the turbulence of the PV jet increases and
the PV jet entrains more pollutants. Results show that when increasing
frequency from 0.3 Hz to 1 Hz, the CO2 concentration in the plume
increases due to a more polluted PV jet. In fact, when frequency in-
creases from 0.3 Hz to 1 Hz at the breathing height (1.1 m), the mean
ventilation efficiency εv decreases from 37.43% to 21.51%. Good
agreement was found between experimental and predicted values with
a maximum relative error of 7% observed in the thermal plume for a
frequency of 1 Hz.
It is worthy to note that at the highest frequency of 1 Hz, the model
predictions deviated the most from the experimental results. This is due
to the increased turbulence that compromises the accuracy of the model
and its ability in predicting the temperature and concentration fields in
the space and especially in the thermal plumes.
5.2. Case study
The intermittent PV jet was characterized by its operating average
flow rate and frequency which affect thermal comfort as well as IAQ.
For this reason, a case study was conducted in a typical office space to
evaluate their effect on thermal comfort, IAQ as well as energy savings.
According to Makhoul et al. [7], the maximum steady PV flow rate that
conserves the plume profile is 7 L/s. Therefore in this study, a maximum
flow rate of 7 L/s was considered for the intermittent PV flow with a
minimum flow rate of 1 L/s [22]. This corresponded to an average flow
rate of 4 L/s close to the recommended ASHRAE flow rate per occupant
[42]. For this average flow rate (4 L/s), the case study was conducted
based on different values of PV frequency. The performance of the in-
termittent PV + DV was compared to standalone DV system and steady
PV + DV to compute energy savings for comparable thermal comfort
and IAQ.
This study takes into consideration a typical office space with inner
dimensions: 3.4 m × 3.4 m × 2.8 m conditioned by a DV system and
D. Al Assaad et al.
Fig. 8. Experimental and predicted values of CO2 concentration variation with height for: (a) the macroclimate air, (b) the thermal plume at 0.3 Hz, 0.5 Hz and 1 Hz.
assisted by an intermittent PV system as seen in Fig. 1. The PV nozzle
has an outlet diameter of 10 cm, and a distance of 40 cm separating it
from the occupant [21,22]. The HVAC system removes a typical indoor
load of 40 W/m2 [31] due to the presence of an occupant in the office
(100 W), lighting load (100 W) and walls load (200 W). The room walls
are exposed to outdoor air at 30 °C and have a resistance of 0.044 m2.K/
W. The DV system supplies a typical flow rate of 60 L/s at a supply
temperature of 19 °C [7] while the PV inlet temperature is set to 22 °C
[21,22]. To represent light contaminants emitted from the floor, To-
luene is used as a tracer gas. Toluene is a common light weight con-
taminant emitted from floor furnishings or paints in indoor spaces [1].
According to Wargocki et al. [1], the emission rates for toluene indoors
is equal to 25.4 µg/m2·h and the maximum allowed concentration in the
breathing zone of the occupant is 100 ppm [43,44].
To find the PV frequency range that assures a compromise between
thermal comfort and IAQ as well as a reduction in energy costs, the PV
was operated for a frequency range of [0.3–1 Hz] corresponding to
typical frequency ranges used indoors [21]. Furthermore, the DV flow
rate was varied according to typical flow rates found indoors (40 L/s,
50 L/s, 60 L/s). For each case, the bio-heat model was run until steady
periodic states were achieved to compute the overall thermal comfort
(OTC) state of the occupant. Moreover, the ventilation effectiveness εv
was calculated for each simulated frequency to assess IAQ.
5.2.1. Effect of intermittent PV on thermal comfort and IAQ
The model was first simulated without integration of the PV jet to
find the standalone DV reference case that assures acceptable comfor-
table conditions and a toluene concentration lower than the maximum
allowed concentration of 100 ppm [43,44]. After integrating with the
bio-heat model and obtaining converged values, it was found that the
DV provided an OTC of 0.35 (just comfortable) for a supply flow rate of
95 L/s and a supply temperature of 19 °C. Moreover, this flow rate
(95 L/s) provided acceptable IAQ since toluene concentrations at the
breathing level were lower than the allowed limit (100 ppm). This case
of standalone DV (95 L/s, 19 °C) is used later on as a reference case
(Reference case 1) to find the energy savings procured by intermittent
PV + DV.
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The obtained standalone-DV supply flow rate is quite high and en-
ergy intensive. For this reason, a steady PV that assures similar comfort
conditions and higher IAQ at lower energy expenses can assist the
standalone-DV. Consequently, the steady PV + DV model was simu-
lated for a PV flow rate and supply temperature of 4 L/s and 22 °C and
several DV flow rates. It was found that coupling the steady PV (4 L/s,
22 °C) with a DV supplying 60 L/s of fresh air at 19 °C provided similar
comfort conditions and good IAQ. The values of OTC and εv were
computed. In this case, the OTC reached a value of 0.35 (just comfor-
table) on the scale of Zhang et al. [35–37]. Moreover, the PV was able
to provide occupants with protection against passive contaminants. In
fact, a high value of ventilation effectiveness (67%) was found corre-
sponding to a toluene concentration of 36 ppm in the occupant
breathing zone. This value is smaller than the maximum allowed value
of 100 ppm [43,44]. This steady PV + DV case is used later on as a
reference case (Reference case 2) to find the energy savings achieved by
intermittent PV + DV.
To assess the performance of the intermittent PV compared to
steady PV and standalone DV in terms of comfort, IAQ and energy
savings, the intermittent PV model was simulated for different fre-
quencies and DV flow rates. When using intermittent PV flow, it is
possible to provide the same acceptable comfort levels obtained in the
steady PV system, by operating the DV at smaller supply flow rates.
With smaller supply flow rates, the toluene concentration at the exhaust
increases while the maximum allowed concentration in the breathing
zone remains fixed at 100 ppm (to satisfy the OSHA standards [43]).
This increases the acceptable allowed ventilation effectiveness εv and
tightens the range of operable frequencies. If the intermittent PV was
operated at frequencies belonging to this range, this system can achieve
considerable energy savings while still assuring comfort and acceptable
IAQ. For this reason, the intermittent PV + DV model was simulated for
a frequency range of [0.3–1 Hz] and DV flow rates of 40 L/s, 50 L/s and
60 L/s such that the stratification height remained above breathing
level (1.1 m). Fig. 9 illustrates the OTC and minimum εv (corresponding
to the maximum concentration) plotted on the same graph for: a steady
PV (4 L/s, 22 °C) + DV (60 L/s, 19 °C) and an intermittent PV (4 L/s,
22 °C) + DV at: (a) 60 L/s, 19 °C, (b) 50 L/s, 19 °C and (c) 40 L/s, 19 °C.
D. Al Assaad et al. Energy Conversion and Management 162 (2018) 203–217

Fig. 9. Illustration of minimum εv and OTC for steady PV + DV (60 L/s) and intermittent PV + DV system for a DV flow rate of: (a) 60 L/s; (b) 50 L/s and (c) 40 L/s.

Table 1 and to higher rates of temperature change. When operating under si-
The total energy savings obtained compared to Reference case 1 and 2. milar conditions of DV supply flow rate (60 L/s), the intermittent PV
provided better comfort than a steady PV + DV system (see Fig. 9(a)).
Reference case 1 Reference case 2
For example, for a DV flow rate of 60 L/s (Fig. 9(a)), the OTC was 0.36
Steady PV (4 L/s, 22 °C) + DV (60 L/s, 33.66% _ for steady PV and when increasing frequency from 0.3 Hz to 1 Hz for
19 °C) intermittent flow, OTC increased from 0.38 (just comfortable) to 0.98
Intermittent PV (4 L/s, 22 °C, 44.10% 15.70% (comfortable). However, when decreasing the DV flow rate at a fixed
0.35 Hz) + DV (50 L/s, 19 °C)
Intermittent PV (4 L/s, 22 °C, 54.61% 31.58%
frequency, the thermal comfort state of the occupant decreased due to
0.43 Hz) + DV (40 L/s, 19 °C) warmer thermal sensation. For example, the OTC decreased from 0.38
(just comfortable) to 0.18 (neutral) for a frequency of 0.3 Hz when
decreasing DV supply from 60 L/s to 40 L/s.
It can be deduced from Fig. 9 that when increasing frequency from With increasing frequency, the thermal comfort state of the occu-
0.3 Hz to 1 Hz, the comfort state of the occupant improved con- pant improved. However, with increased frequency, the turbulence and
siderably. This trend was observed for all DV flow rates. The improved mixing effects of the intermittent PV flow increased. Hence, entrain-
comfort in transient flows is due to the enhanced convection currents ment and turbulent diffusion between the PV jet and the macroclimate
near the head that lead to a decrease in the head segment temperature air increase which deteriorated εv. Results show (Fig. 9) that when

215
D. Al Assaad et al.
increasing frequency from 0.3 Hz to 1 Hz, εv decreased. This trend was
observed for all DV flow rates. When operating under similar conditions
of DV supply flow rate (60 L/s), the intermittent PV provided less
protection against floor emitted toluene than a steady PV + DV system
(See Fig. 9(a)). For example, for a DV flow rate of 60 L/s, εv was 67% for
steady while εv decreased from 56.1% to 17.3% when increasing fre-
quency from 0.3 Hz to 1 Hz for intermittent flow. When decreasing the
DV supply flow rate at a fixed frequency, the stratification height de-
creases and the air becomes more polluted with toluene which de-
creases εv. For instance, it decreased from 56% to 47.5% for a frequency
of 0.3 Hz when decreasing DV supply from 60 L/s to 40 L/s.
It is noteworthy that the low values of ventilation effectiveness were
expected to be found since the case of floor emissions is the most critical
source location. This is in agreement with the study of Cermak et al.
[33] who observed low values of effectiveness when operating a steady
PV + DV system with passive contaminants emitted from the floor.
The range of operable frequencies of intermittent PV was selected
based on the following criteria: The minimum PV frequency should
assure equivalent comfort to the reference steady PV case while the
maximum PV frequency should ensure that the maximum toluene
concentration in the breathing zone is lower than 100 ppm. For inter-
mittent PV assisting a DV system supplying 60 L/s at 19 °C, all simu-
lated frequencies satisfy the mentioned criteria: the maximum con-
centration does not exceed 100 ppm and higher comfort than the steady
PV was found. (Fig. 9(a)). In the case of a DV flow rate of 50 L/s, the
intermittent PV can be operated at a frequency range of [0.35–0.84 Hz]
(Fig. 9(b)). For frequencies higher than 0.84 Hz, the minimum venti-
lation effectiveness drops below acceptable limits of 16.7%. This means
that the maximum concentration in the breathing zone exceeded
100 ppm. On the other hand, for frequencies below 0.35 Hz, the comfort
level is lower than the standalone DV reference case 1 and steady PV
reference case 2. At a DV flow rate of 40 L/s, it is observed that the
intermittent PV can be operated at a frequency range of [0.43–0.58 Hz]
(Fig. 9(c)). As expected, this range is tighter than the one obtained for a
DV flow rate of 50 L/s.
5.2.2. Energy savings
When varying the DV flow rate in the intermittent PV + DV system
operation, considerable energy savings can be achieved compared to
Reference cases 1 and 2 for equivalent thermal comfort conditions. To
compute energy savings, the cooling capacity of each system was cal-
culated for similar chiller and for outside air conditions of 30 °C and
relative humidity of 50% as seen in Eq. (8a):
QC = ṁ ·Cp·ΔT
(8a)
where Qc is the cooling capacity (W), ṁ is the supplied flow rate and ΔT
is the temperature difference between the outside air and the supplied
air. The PV fan power for steady and intermittent operation was also
taken into consideration [17].
When comparing Reference case 2 to Reference case 1, energy
savings of 33.66% were found. Similar savings of 39.75% were ob-
tained by Makhoul et al. [45]. For equivalent comfort compared to
Reference case 1 (standalone DV, 95 L/s), the intermittent PV + DV
system achieved energy savings of 44.1%. For equivalent comfort
compared to the reference case 2 (steady PV + DV (60 L/s)), energy
savings of 15.7% were achieved. At a DV flow rate of 40 L/s, higher
energy savings of 54.61% were found for equivalent comfort compared
to reference case 1 (standalone DV, 95 L/s). In addition, energy savings
of 31.58% were obtained for equivalent comfort compared to the Re-
ference case 2 (steady PV + DV (60 L/s)). The obtained energy savings
for each case are summarized in Table 1.
6. Conclusion
An experimentally validated transient mathematical model of an
intermittent DV + PV system was developed. The model was integrated
216
Energy Conversion and Management 162 (2018) 203–217
with a transient bio-heat model to find the optimal operating frequency
that can provide a compromise between thermal comfort and good IAQ
with minimal energy consumption. This was achieved by varying the
operating PV frequency based on typical values found indoors and then
computing the overall thermal comfort (OTC) and ventilation effec-
tiveness (εv). By examining these two indices, it was found that for a DV
flow rate of 60 L/s and average PV flow of 4 L/s, the entire frequency
range [0.3–1 Hz] improved comfort compared to steady PV and gave
acceptable IAQ. An energy analysis was also performed and consider-
able energy savings were found with the intermittent PV system:
• The intermittent PV system assisting DV at 50 L/s recorded energy
savings of 44.1% compared to standalone DV (95 L/s) and 15.7%
compared to steady PV (DV: 60 L/s) for comparable OTC.
• The intermittent PV with a DV supply of 40 L/s recorded 54.61%
energy savings compared to standalone DV (95 L/s) and attained
31.57% energy savings compared to steady PV (DV: 60 L/s) for
comparable OTC.
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