Extraction

Exploration
Exploration for natural fuel normally starts with geologists examining the surface structure of the
earth and identifying areas where it is geologically probable that petroleum or crude oil deposits may
exist. It was discovered in the mid-1800s that ‘anticlinal slopes’ had a particularly improved chance of
containing petroleum or gas deposits. These anticlinal slopes are areas where the earth has folded up on
itself, forming the dome shape that is attribute of a great numbers of reservoirs. By surveying and
mapping the surface and sub-surface characteristics of a certain area, the geologist can extrapolate which
areas are most probable to contain a petroleum or crude oil reservoir. The geologist has many tools at his
disposal to do so, from the outcroppings of rocks on the surface or in valleys and gorges, to the geologic
data attained from the rock cuttings and samples acquired from the digging of irrigation ditches, water
wells, and different oil and gas wells. This data is all combined to allow the geologist to make inferences
as to the fluid content, porosity, permeability, age, and formation sequence of the rocks under the surface
of an area.
If the geologist has determined a place where it is geologically viable for a crude oil or petroleum
formation to exist, in addition checks can be carried out to achieve extra accurate information about the
possible reservoir area. These tests allow for the more accurate mapping of underground formations, most
especially those formations that are usually related with crude oil and petroleum reservoirs. These tests
are regularly performed with the aid of a geophysicist, one who uses technology to discover and map
underground rock formations.
The biggest breakthrough in petroleum and natural gas exploration came using basic seismology.
Seismology refers to the study of how energy, in the form of seismic waves, moves through the Earth’s
crust and interacts differently with various types of underground formations. Using seismology for
exploring onshore areas involves artificially creating seismic waves, the reflection of which are then
picked up by sensitive pieces of equipment called ‘geophones’ that are embedded in the ground. The data
picked up by these geophones is then transmitted to a seismic recording truck, which records the data for
further interpretation by geophysicists and petroleum reservoir engineers. The source of seismic waves
creates that reflect off the different layers of the Earth, to be picked up by geophones on the surface and
relayed to a seismic recording truck to be interpreted and logged. In the early days of seismic exploration,
seismic waves were created using dynamite. These carefully planned, small explosions created the
required seismic waves, which were then picked up by the geophones, generating data to be interpreted
by geophysicists, geologists, and petroleum engineers. Recently, due to environmental concerns and
improved technology, it is often no longer necessary to use explosive charges to generate the needed
seismic waves. Instead, most seismic crews use non-explosive seismic technology to generate the
required data. This non-explosive technology usually consists of a large heavy-wheeled or tracked-vehicle
carrying special equipment designed to create a large impact or series of vibrations.
The same sort of process is used in offshore seismic exploration. When exploring for crude oil or
petroleum that may exist thousands of meters below the seabed floor, which may itself be thousands of
meters below sea level, an almost identical method of seismic exploration is used. A ship is used to pick
up the seismic data and hydrophones are used to pick up seismic waves underwater. These hydrophones
are towed behind the ship in various configurations depending on the needs of the geophysicist. Instead of
using dynamite or impacts on the seabed floor to create seismic waves, the seismic ship uses a large air
gun, which releases bursts of compressed air under the water, creating seismic waves that can travel
through the Earth’s crust and generate the seismic reflections that are necessary.
 In addition to using seismology to gather data of the composition of the Earth’s crust, the
magnetic properties of underground formations can be measured to generate geological and geophysical
data. This is accomplished using magnetometers, which are devices that can measure the small
differences in the Earth’s magnetic field. Geophysicists can also measure and record the difference in the
Earth’s gravitational field to gain a better understanding of what is underground. Different underground
formations and rock types all have a slightly different effect on the gravitational field that surrounds the
Earth. By measuring these differences with very sensitive equipment, geophysicists can analyze
underground formations and develop insight into the types of formations, and whether the formations
have the potential for containing crude oil or petroleum. To gain a full understanding of subsurface
geology and the potential for natural gas deposits to exist in each area is to drill an exploratory well. This
consists of digging into the Earth’s crust to allow geologists to study the composition of the underground
rock layers in detail.

[ CITATION nat13 \l 1033 ]Drilling

Drilling indicates the whole complex of operations necessary to construct wells of circular section
applying excavation techniques.
To drill a well it is necessary to carry out simultaneously the following actions (drilling process):

 to overcome the resistance of the rock, crushing it into small particles measuring just a few mm;
 to remove the rock particles, while still acting on fresh material;
 to maintain the stability of the walls of the hole;
 to prevent the fluids contained in the drilled formations from entering the well.
This can be achieved by using rotary drilling rigs which are the ones operating today in the field of oil
and gas exploration and production. The drilling rigs are complexes of mobile equipment which can be
moved (onshore and offshore) from one drill site to another, drilling a series of wells. In rotary drilling
the rock is bored using a cutting tool called the drill bit, which is rotated and simultaneously forced
against the rock at the bottom of the hole by a drill string consisting of hollow steel pipes screwed
together.
The cuttings produced by the bit are transported up to the surface by a drilling fluid, usually a liquid (mud
or water), or else a gas or foam, circulated in the pipes down to the bit and up to the surface. The rotation
is transmitted to the bit from the surface by a device called the rotary table or, in the modern rigs, by a top
drive motor with the rotary table as backup; additional rotation can be added by downhole motors located
directly above the bit. After having drilled a certain length of hole, in order to guarantee its stability, it
must be cased with steel pipes, called casings, joined together by threaded sleeves. The space between the
casing and the hole is then filled with cement slurry to ensure a hydraulic and mechanical seal. The final
depth of the well is accomplished by drilling holes of decreasing diameter, successively protected by
casings, likewise of decreasing diameter, producing a structure made up of concentric tubular elements.
The planning of a well is a fundamental part of the drilling process – it is the basis for making all the
important technical choices, for assessing the costs and organizing the actual construction of the well in
the most efficient and effective way.
The well planning starts the moment when the interpretation of the seismic data and the reconstruction of
the geology of the area reveal the presence of a structure favorable to the accumulation of crude oil and
petroleum.
These data also enable an estimate to be made of:

 depth of the productive levels; stratigraphic and lithological sequences; problems that could
emerge in an operational phase.
Geologists prepare a document containing estimates and proposals for drilling the well based on the
information in their possession obtained from:

 geological surface campaigns; regional geological studies; studies conducted on seismic maps;
profiles of wells already completed in the area.
This document is the introduction to the drawing up of the proper drilling program to give the data
necessary for well location, drilling objectives, foreseen of the final depth, forecasts of the litho-
stratigraphic profile, possible drilling problems that could be encountered, etc.
The casing levels, the diameters and weight of the strings, the pressures and temperatures concerned, and
the volumes of drilling mud to be used, are all aspects participating in determining the choice of rig type,
blowout prevention systems (BOP, choke manifold, hydraulic circuit) and wellheads. The choice of rig is
closely bound up with the depth it is wished to reach and with the weight of the strings concerned.
According to the weights of the strings to be handled, rigs are used that have different characteristics, and
what is of basic importance is the strength of the whole assembly, (travelling block, crown block, hook
and derrick floor) from which the string hangs while being lowered into the well., In offshore activity,
the choice of the rig is determined, not only by the weight of the strings, but also by the depth of the water
in the area. Drilling rigs installed on offshore vessels or platforms are built to reach the maximum
possible depths and have all the material and equipment necessary for drilling on board. The composition
of the wellhead depends on the pressures that can be reached during the various working phases – both
drilling and production – and on the diameters of the strings to be lowered into the well.
To ensure the full efficiency of the rig with respect to of safety and of the environment call for a
continuous optimizing of operations, which are achieved through the monitoring and processing of all
available data, both geological and drilling. Every drilling rig, and in particular those that have to drill
complex, deep and wells, uses mud logging units, which permit – through appropriate sensors and the
activity of specialized personnel – the acquisition, processing and interpretation of a vast range of
information of interest both to the geologist and to the drilling engineer. Mud logging units are equipped
with sensors, positioned in appropriate parts of the rig, permitting the automatic, continuous acquisition of
the most significant parameters, and advanced information systems, based also on expert systems, as the
means of managing operations in real time, with the consequent reduction of time and costs.
Oil Extraction and Recovery
In the primary recovery stage, “reservoir drive” comes from natural mechanisms. Reservoir drive simply
refers to the factors that move oil out of a well to the surface once drilling has occurred. Natural reservoir
drives include natural gas expansion, gravity drainage of oil from upper parts of a well to lower parts, and
displacement of oil by water. For today’s wells, primary recovery accounts for 5-15% of the total amount
of petroleum contained within a given deposit.
As wells are extracted and age, their natural pressures fall. Once the pressure is too low to force oil to the
surface, extraction moves into secondary recovery. Secondary recovery depends on mechanical methods
to increase pressure in the well. This takes the form of injecting liquids or other material such as natural
gas, carbon dioxide, or air into the well to increase pressure. Pumps are also used in secondary extraction.
Pumpjacks are alternatively called pumping units, horse head pumps, beam pumps, and thirsty bird
pumps. They are composed of a walking beam that is balanced atop a triangular apparatus. One end of the
beam is attached to a motor-driven crank and the other end is attached to a pushrod that extends into the
oil well. Recovery through water injection is usually about 30% of a well’s total output. The total
recovery from a well after primary and secondary stages is usually between 35 and 45% of the total
contained. Note that this is not a fraction of the total amount that will be extracted. Rather, it is a fraction
of the total amount in the well. The amount of petroleum extracted from a well is usually 50 to 60% of the
total deposit.
In the final stage of extraction, methods intended to increase liquidity of the oil are applied. At this stage,
heat and chemicals are now being used. Some of the principle methods used in tertiary extraction are
called thermally enhanced oil recovery or TEOR. In these methods, heat is applied to make the oil flow
better. Steam is the most common method of heating oil but burning is used as well. Chemicals called
surfactants are also used in tertiary extraction. They decrease surface tension of oil, which helps it flow.
Surface tension can be thought of in this case as the attraction of hydrocarbons for one another. By
decreasing intermolecular attractions, surfactants help to decrease the viscosity of oil. Surfactants are
often used in combination with TEOR. Sometimes, oil-eating bacteria are also used in tertiary recovery.
Bacteria that eat petroleum often have appetites only for hydrocarbons of a certain length. If bacteria are
used that break larger hydrocarbons into smaller ones, then they will assist in making the oil less viscous
since larger molecules tend toward the solid end of the spectrum. The use of oil-eating bacteria can be
more economical than other recovery methods and more environmentally friendly. This technique is
currently incentivized in places like Texas to increase its use. Tertiary recovery accounts for only 5 to
15% of the total deposit of the petroleum well.
http://www.petroleum.co.uk/location-and-extraction
Well Abandonment
When drilling has been completed, the well is productive hydrocarbons, a start is made on all those
operations that will ensure its economically advantageous working, whereas if, on the contrary, it should
prove to be barren or in any case not economically exploitable, it will be shut down.
Well shutdown entails the restoring of the initial conditions of the section of the well not lined and
possibly also the lined part, if separation of the permeable levels of different pressure is not assured. The
purpose of these measures is to prevent the transfer of fluids from one level to the other.
The final shutdown of a well must satisfy not only the requirements set out in the engineering best
practices fixed by the operator, but must also respond to all the requisites of law aimed at safeguarding
the environment and the safety of the people living in the vicinity of abandoned wells.
Extraction Wastes
Oil Exploration and Production Waste Discharges
Most of drilling wastes discharge in offshore and onshore is essentially similar. Offshore petroleum
drilling waste comprises drilling fluids and drill solid cuttings. Drilling fluids consist of remnants of drill
mud. Meanwhile drilling cuttings materials consists of the crushed rock cuttings from borehole and
returned to the surface with drilling fluid. According to Elnenay (2016), drilling muds comprise base fluid
and various solid and liquid additives to allow for a good drilling performance. The major components of
drill muds are a liquid (such as water, oil, or another organic fluid) and a weighting material (typically
bentonite and barite, BaSO4). Several additives are also used to improve the technical performance of the
mud. Among these are viscosifiers (e.g. polyacrylates, and other organic polymers), emulsifiers (e.g.
alkylacrylate sulphonate and polyethylene oxide), pH and shale control agents, and deflocculants. Some
of these additives introduce potentially toxic compounds into the fluids, which must be considered when
the resulting wastes are managed.
Drilling fluids: Instead of drilling mud, produced water from oily wastewater treatment in oil and gas
refining process also included in drilling fluid discharges. This produced water sometimes contains the
injection of water and condensation water. Nowadays, in onshore oily wastewater treatment technology
has been used successfully in the ASEAN oilfield, but the produced water is more difficult to treat than
that from water flooding and polymer flooding. Moreover, has stated that the produced water is more
difficult to treat than water flooding since the water produced from Alkaline Surfactant-Flooding (ASP)
flooding has chemical complex substances and stable emulsion system. Besides, some other different
additives composition was used green starch, low viscosity polyanionic cellulose (PAC-LV), xanthan
gum (XC-Polymer), partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (PHPA), potassium chloride (Merck, 99.5%),
sodium chloride (Merck, 99.5%), barite, caustic soda, and clouding glycol.
Drilling solids: Khondaker (2000) found that drilling solids includes inert solids such as barites, active
solids such as bentonite, attipulgite and carbonates, thinners such as lignosulfonates, lignites, tannins,
surfactants used as emulsifiers, viscosifiers such as starches and CMC bacteriacides, polyacrylamide
flocculants and inorganic salts such as CaCl2 and KCl. Other than that, clays, shales, anhydrites, empty
bags, pallets and other miscellaneous disposable items are also comprised in solid waste discharges.
According to Sadiq [10], one of the most important additives to drilling fluids is barite. It is naturally
occurring barium sulphate ore which is a high-density material used to control down hole pressure during
the exploration and development phases of offshore well drilling. Besides, Bakke (2013) stated barite also
used as a weighting agent in drilling muds as it is a primary source of toxic heavy metals in drilling waste
discharges. There is a statistical analysis where researcher found some correlation between cadmium (Cd)
and mercury (Hg) concentrations, and the concentrations of some other trace metals in the barite.

References
Lodungi, J. F., Alfred, D., Khirulthzam, F., Adnan, F., & Tellichandran, S. (2017). A Review in Oil
Exploration and Production Waste Discharges According to Legislative and Waste Management
Practices Perspective in Malaysia. Internation Journal of Waste Resources, Volume 7: Issue 1.
natgas. (2013, September 20). Exploration of Natural Gas. Retrieved from naturalgas.org:
http://naturalgas.org/naturalgas/exploration/
Serintel. (2017). Introduction to Oil&Gas Well Drilling. Retrieved from Oil & Gas Portal:
http://www.oil-gasportal.com/drilling/introduction-to-oilgas-well-drilling/