Topic 3 – Overview

“Masterliness”
Learning Outcomes
 Interpret what being ‘critical’ means
 Apply the ‘critical’ dimension into all aspects of your work
 Develop critical pieces of written work

1. Introduction
What is often common on assignment feedback forms are keywords describing a piece of work
as “descriptive”, “uncritical” or “underdeveloped” – all indicating lack of a particular critical
mindset. Criticality, however, is a skill that can be learned. Negative feedback can be avoided
and critical thinking can support not only your studies but also your everyday life at the
workplace and wider life.

(Figure 3.1: Common Feedback Phrases. Source: Williams, 2014: p.1)

This Topic, therefore, aims at helping students improve their skills, both in terms of thinking
critically and writing up critical reports. In doing so, the analysis relies on some of the concepts
of a very useful text written by Kate Williams’ (2014), entitled, ‘Getting Critical’ (2nd Edition,
Palgrave McMillan).

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 2. Main Analysis – Developing a Critical Mindset
Getting critical means relying on more than on one source of information to formulate an
understanding or argument. At the same time, you should be evaluating the reliability of sources
of evidence. But what matters most, is developing a critical mindset. Getting a critical mindset is
about taking a strategic approach to your studies, that is, understanding the language of the
guidance you are given and how you are assessed. In doing so, six strategic questions are
important prior to tackling a formative task, a summative report, even reading strategically a
course handbook:

(Figure 3.2: Six Strategic Questions. Source: Williams, 2014: p.7)

Let us use the summative report of BS4S16 as an example in relation to Figure 3.2.
 Question 1: What exactly do you have to produce? What format? Essay? Report? Any
guidance about structure, layout and style? How long? What % marks does the task
count for? What topic(s)?
 Question 2: Why are you being asked to do this? To address the module’s learning
outcomes and accumulate knowledge.

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  Question 3: Who are you writing for? It helps you write if you can visualise your
reader. Your tutor is always your audience. What do you know about what s/he wants to
see?
 Question 4: How? What guidance are you given about what to include? For example:
Use of appendices? Style of referencing? Acceptable and unacceptable practice?
 Question 5: When is the deadline for the final hand-in? How will you balance
working towards one deadline with working towards others? And life, your job etc.?
 Question 6: Where will you find the information? How much of it is easy to find
(course readers, textbooks, special collections)? How much do you have to research
yourself? And go beyond the reading list?

Answering these questions can be part of an overall planning, leading to a more organized,
detailed and critical approach to studies. For the requirements of BS4S16, for instance, you are
required to write up an assignment addressing the following Learning Outcomes:

1. Critically evaluate the development of leadership and management theories;

2. Critically appreciate the nature of leadership and management theories and their
application in a range of leadership and management settings.

To achieve this learning, the assignment asks you to achieve the following (but please note that
you should also read the detailed brief and module handbook provided as this is only a summary
to start you off):

a) Critically evaluate the application of leadership or management theories within a

contemporary organisation with which you are familiar.
(note that as part of the detailed brief you also have to look at the development of
your chosen leadership or management theory)
b) The audience is your tutor and a set of internal and examiners (for quality
assurance purposes)
c) The deadline is on the last day of the 8-week course.

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 d) It should be submitted in the VLE on Sunday by 1100 hours UTC Time.
e) The type of the assignment is a ‘Written Report’ and
f) It counts 100% towards the module’s final grade.
g) The information required on conducting the required research can be found in the
module’s textbooks, topic overviews, academic journals using appropriate online
databases, the university’s electronic library as well as processes, artefacts,
experiences and documents of an organization with which you are familiar.
h) You will need to find a way to balance family commitments, work obligations and
the requirements for producing the report.
i) You have to plan in advance the different phases of developing the script (e.g.
locating sources, making links between thoughts, workplace findings and relevant
theories and concepts, start writing-up the assignment etc).

(Table 3.1: Developing an action plan for the module’s assignment. Source: Author’s Design)

Each piece of work, moreover, needs to be organized. Usually, reports should present
introductory, main body and concluding sections. Therefore, the assignment organization could
be presented in the following manner:
a) Introduction: the terms of reference for the report in general, the theoretical area and
focus of your report and approach taken (including methodology); setting the context
(background to sector, organisation, organisational structure, culture etc.).
b) Main body of the assignment: Contextual discussion of the broader development of
leadership or management theory as appropriate to the chosen topic for critical evaluation
(but this should be focused on your chosen theory and not a rambling introduction to
leadership or management theory as a whole); critical evaluation of your chosen, focused
leadership or management theory; application of critiqued theory to evidenced practice
within the selected contemporary organisation; evaluation and explicit commentary on the
fit (or lack of fit) between your critiqued theory and practice as evidenced.
c) Conclusions: Summary of the main points to address the question

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Equally important, is the allocation of weight to different elements as follows:

Element Weight %

Presentation, structure, style and referencing 10

Contextual discussion of the broader development of leadership or management 10
theory as appropriate to the chosen topic for critical evaluation;
Critical evaluation of literature 30
Critical discussion of practice within organisation 30

Commentary on the fit between theory and practice 20

(Table 3.2: Allocation of weight to elements – Source: Module Leader’s design)

2.1 Reading important documents strategically

As you have most possibly noticed, each module starts with a set of documents that you have to
read as soon as you register. These documents include the module handbook, the University’s
marking breakdown, study and referencing guides, a module description and more. A thorough
examination and understanding of these documents is extremely important as they will influence
the implementation of your strategic plan for developing a critical mindset. Let us look for
example at the University of South Wales marking criteria for post-graduate assessments below.
Focus on the quality

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 (Figure 3.3: The University of South Wales Marking Breakdown. Source: USW).

(Note: this print-screen serves as an example only. Open the University’s actual document so you are able to read
properly. As with all other documents, the USW Marking breakdown can be found in the module’s VLE page).

Then, look at the grading break down below:

(Figure 3.4: The University of South Wales Marking Breakdown. Source: USW).

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As indicated above, reflecting, developing, creating, analysing, questioning, originating,
critically evaluating, critiquing and embracing complexity are all inseparable requirements of
being a post-graduate student. It is called ‘masterliness’, which includes showing the knowledge
and skills that are equivalent to the master.

2.2 The Stairway to Critical Thinking

A helpful way to define critical thinking is through an understanding of its qualities. In 2013, the
Open University (cited in Williams, 2012, p. 11) developed the so called ‘stairway’ to critical
thinking. As presented in figure 3.5 below, the ‘stairway’ includes 8 steps. You are encouraged
to go through the 8-step stairway and think what you will have to do for the module’s summative
assignment.

(Figure 3.5: The Stairway to Criticality. Source: Open University (2013), Stairway to Critical Thinking, Open
University).

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Step 1: Process - during this step, you have to take in information. Read, listen, watch, reflect on
your experience. Try to take in anything and everything that may relate to leadership,
management and learning in your field, varying from your theoretical reading to the information
located in company annual reports to newspaper announcement and experiences accumulated at
your workplace. In terms of the theory, it is often a good idea to start off with a textbook to give
you a basic understanding. After a period of reflection and reading, decide on your theoretical
area e.g. Scientific Management or Authentic Leadership (note the need to focus). After this
time, focus your research. Remember, you should quickly move on to peer reviewed journals in
relation to your theoretical understanding of both seminal and contemporary work.

Step 2: Understand - at this point try to comprehend key points, assumptions, arguments and
evidence presented. Remember to use paraphrasing which will show your understanding of the
theoretical material which you are reading. At this stage, you could also activate your data-
filtering in terms of source credibility. In other words, not all data-sources are accurate. Use peer
reviewed journals for theory. In relation to practice, a newspaper article, for example, maybe
communicating government statistics and facts whereby another article may be presenting a
writer’s subjective opinions.

Step 3: Analyse – at this stage, try to examine how key components relate to each other and/or
fit together.

Prior to STEP 4, you are kindly advised to read and complete ‘Critical Exercise 1 – Desk
Drawer’ in the VLE.

Step 4: Compare (and/or contrast) – in this step, you are required to explore the similarities and
differences between the ideas you are reading about. While comparing different views,

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contradictory arguments and/or agreements among theorists, you can ask questions like ‘where Is
there agreement?’ Are there differences in approaches; in nuances; in styles? Are there
differences in facts and figures? By the same token, while contrasting, you can ask questions like
what are the differences? Why do they exist? Are they crucial to the debate? Can we characterise
both sides to help understand them better? Does emphasising the distinctiveness teach us
something?

Prior to STEP 5, you are kindly advised to read and complete ‘Critical Exercise 2 –
Comparing and Contrasting Management Theory’ in the VLE.

In doing so, please be reminded that you should provide citations. Use the Harvard
referencing system in line with University Guidelines. Write the analysis in your own words
and only use quotations sparingly. Correcting your grammar and spelling are essential.
You are strongly advised to proof read your work prior to uploading it in the VLE. A
description will only get you a pass mark. A critical evaluation, on the other hand, is
masterly (therefore, do compare and contrast).

Step 5: Synthesise – at this point, you are expected to bring together different sources to
construct an argument or idea. Make connections between the different sources to help you shape
and support your ideas.

Step 6: Evaluate (critique) - Weighing up the ideas. Assess each idea in terms of its relevance to
your needs; the evidence on which it is based and how it relates to other relevant ideas. Without
siding with one or another, try to give equal weight to theories even when one is far more
appealing to you. This will help maintain a degree of objectivity.

Step 7: Apply – at this stage, transfer the understanding you have gained from your critical
evaluation in your assignment. You are expected to come up with a blend of theoretical ideas in
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relation to your topic (including contradictory views), your own critical understanding, and
examples of your own workplace experience as practitioner, leader or manager.

Step 8: Justify – in the final step, use critical thinking to develop arguments, draw conclusions,
make inferences and identify implications. For many, this is the most important part of a study/
project. However, this part cannot materialize unless you follow each and every step in the
stairway.

3 Summary - How to get Critical

Critical qualities will grow out of a methodical and thoughtful approach to your work (Williams,
2012, p. 11). First, you need to understand what you need to do. Find out what your tutors are
looking for and understand how to achieve it (the best way to do so is to read the assignment
brief in a thorough manner – over and over again).

Then, establish firm foundations through research and reading. Choose your reading. Start off
with a general text for an overview (see reading list on module overview or look for general texts
on leadership & management. Then read chapters on your topic; peer reviewed journal articles;
abstracts, introductions and conclusions. Use the University of South Wales “Findit” portal to
access Business Source Premier and Emerald databases for peer reviewed journals (you can
connect to Findit via the VLE – it is the first entry in library resources). Additionally, you
can use Google Scholar. Remember to make notes on what you read and keep the references.
Record each source using the USW HARVARD referencing system (again you should find this
and keep it to hand for all of your work). Note the key points which are relevant to your work.
You may find it helpful to print off the text so you can and mark it in a way which is meaningful
to you (pencil rather than highlighter). Use bullet points and explain what you have read using
your own words using simple sentences (this helps to avoid plagiarism). Note direct quotations
that have a “wow factor” and leave space in your notes so you can add things later (but
remember that they should be only used sparingly in your work). Check back on the text to make
sure you haven’t missed anything.

In the end, you should be able to show familiarity with debates and knowledge of the latest
literature. Your ability to be selective without appearing ‘patchy’ is a characteristic of showing
criticality in your writing. You should be able to explain in writing without becoming
descriptive: critical/ balanced/ rigorous/ and evaluative. The recipe for this is as follows:

Read

Reference

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 Reflect and,

Write

It is important to have in mind the ‘3Cs’ – Compare – Contrast and Critique. In your attempt to
note similarities, differences, and weigh one’s theory against another writer’s concept, you can
use words such as the following:

Useful words to present an idea Useful words to compare and idea Words to contrast an idea

 Puts forward  Similar to  Argues against

 Argues that  Agrees with  Contradicts
 Suggests  Acknowledges  Differs, different view
 Discusses  Is related to  Is contrary to
 Says  Supports  Contrasts, contrasting
 States  Sustains  As opposed to
 Proposes  Coincides with  Alternatively
 Contends  Pursues  Varies from
 Describes  Linked to  Contests
 Views  Correlates  Opposite
 Describes
 Presents

Table 3.3: A list of ‘compare and contrast’ words. Source: Monica Gibson-Sweet, Module Material

In addition, each argument you write will gain increased accuracy and credibility through
constructive ‘critique’. This is achieved through providing commentary about the relative
strengths and weaknesses of different arguments. To sharpen up your comparing, contrasting and
critique skills, you may read an example of critical evaluative writing’. The example is titled
‘Sample of Critically Evaluative Writing’ and is posted in the VLE (immediately under the
‘Week 3 – Overview’).

4. References and Suggested Readings

Godfrey J (2009). Reading and making notes. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Godfrey J (2011). Writing for university. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

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Godwin J (2009). Planning your essay. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Open University (2013), Stairway to Critical Thinking, Open University, Milton Keynes.

RMIT (2013). Essay planning: read and take notes. Available at

http://emedia.rmit.edu.au/learninglab/content/read-and-take-notes [Accessed 25 October 2013]

University of Cambridge (no date). Research skills programme: How to read 10 books in an
hour. Available at: www.reading.ac.uk/web/FILES/sta/10_books_an_hour.pdf [Accessed 25
October 2013].

Wallace M and Wray A (2016) Critical Reading and Writing for Postgraduates, Sage Ltd.

Williams K (2013). Planning your dissertation. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Williams K and Reid M (2011). Time management. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Williams K, Woolliams M and Spiro J (2012). Reflective writing. Basingstoke: Palgrave

Macmillan.

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