Energy Geotechnics – Wuttke, Bauer & Sánchez (Eds)

© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-03299-6

Thermomechanical properties of a new small-scale reinforced

concrete thermo-active pile for centrifuge testing

A. Minto, A.K. Leung, D. Vitali & J.A. Knappett

University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, UK

ABSTRACT: The use of thermo-active geo-structures has been recognised to be a sustainable engineering
solution that can reduce carbon emissions from civil infrastructure. Physical modelling in a geotechnical cen-
trifuge has been increasingly used to study the behaviour of this kind of geo-structures and their interaction
with the surrounding soil under cyclic heating/cooling loads. Previous studies have been limited by the choice
of materials used to model thermo-active geo-structures (such as aluminium and conventional concrete), due
to inaccurate scaling of the thermal properties and the inability to capture the quasi-brittleness and strength
properties of reinforced concrete (RC) due to improper scaling of aggregate sizes. The paper aims to develop a
new thermally-enhanced plaster-based model concrete which can realistically reproduce both the thermal and
mechanical properties that are representative of concrete at prototype scale. The new model concrete, combined
with steel wire reinforcement (i.e. geometrically scaled reinforcing bars and stirrups), was then used to create
1:20 scaled RC thermo-active piles. Effects of temperature on their thermomechanical behaviour, including the
coefficient of thermal expansion, moment capacity and flexural stiffness, were investigated. The suitability of
using the newly-developed RC thermo-active piles for future centrifuge testing is discussed.

1 INTRODUCTION internal diameter, and hence the second moment of

Thermo-active geo-structures such as pile foundations
and diaphragm walls have been used to exploit shal-
low geothermal energy to provide heating and cooling
to buildings (Brandl, 2006). A number of field tests
(Laloui et al., 2006, Bourne-Webb et al., 2009, Murphy
and McCartney, 2015) have been conducted to investi-
gate the thermomechanical behaviour of these types of
structures and their interaction with the surrounding
soil. It was demonstrated that cyclic heating/cooling
processes introduced additional stresses and strains to
the thermo-active geo-structures. In order to improve
understanding of the soil-structure interaction in more
detail, small-scale physical model tests in a geotech-
nical centrifuge have been conducted (Stewart and
McCartney, 2014, Ng et al., 2015). By elevating the
acceleration of a physical model by N times Earth’s
gravity (i.e., N -g), the stress levels experienced by
the soil in a small-scale physical model are simi-
lar to that in a full scale prototype, enabling the
stress dependency of the soil behaviour to be correctly
captured. A major challenge of testing a thermo-
active geo-structure in the centrifuge is the selection
of appropriate model materials that model both the
mechanical and thermal properties realistically and
simultaneously.
In the centrifuge tests performed by Ng et al.,
(2015), aluminium alloy was used to model a thermo-
active pile. Scaling of the mechanical properties such
as the axial or flexural rigidity of the aluminium
pile can be achieved through careful selection of the
area, of the model pile. In terms of thermal proper-
ties, aluminium has a coefficient of thermal expansion
(CTE) of 22.2 με/◦ C (where μ is micron; and ε is
thermally-induced axial strain). In their aluminium
piles, an epoxy resin with a thickness of 1.5 mm had to
be applied on the pile shaft to protect the strain gauges.
As the CTE of epoxy is 85 με/◦ C (Rotta Loria et al.,
2015), the CTE of the overall instrumented aluminium
pile should be higher than 22.2 με/◦ C, which is thus
at least 30% higher than the CTE of unrestrained RC
(15–16 με/◦ C; Goode III et al., 2015). This makes it
difficult for this kind of aluminium pile to realistically
capture the soil-structure interaction of thermo-active
piles that are made of RC in the prototype. Numerical
studies (Yavari et al., 2014) have shown that the coef-
ficient of thermal expansion of a thermo-active pile
plays a significant role in affecting the mobilisation
and distribution of pile axial loads under a combina-
tion of mechanical and thermal loadings. Moreover,
this type of elastic aluminium pile is not able to mimic
the nonlinear quasi-brittleness feature of RC under ten-
sile and bending stresses such as when subject to lateral
loading conditions (Karihaloo and Huang, 1991).
Stewart and McCartney (2014) modelled a thermo-
active pile using RC with scaled steel reinforce-
ment and scaled aggregates in their centrifuge tests.
Although the thermal properties of prototype RC
might be properly scaled using RC as a model pile,
the use of gravel with a maximum diameter of 6 mm
(in model scale) to model coarse aggregates could pose
a scaling problem of the mechanical properties. At 24g

37
which Stewart and McCartney (2014) adopted in their
centrifuge tests, the prototype diameter of the gravel
was 144 mm, which was 7 times larger than the diam-
eter of coarse aggregates in prototype concrete. This
size effect would potentially lead to an over-strength
of RC (Litle and Paparoni, 1966, Belgin and Sener,
2008). This modelling method is thus limited to rela-
tively low scaling factors (or g-level) to minimise any
over-strength of RC.
In order to more realistically capture the nonlin-
ear quasi-brittleness feature and failure mechanisms
of concrete in centrifuge at higher scaling factors,
Knappett et al. (2011) developed model concretes
using plaster-based mortars. In the mortar mix, fine sil-
ica sand was used to geometrically scale the aggregate Figure 1. Particle-size distribution of silica sand and copper
found in concrete. Such model concrete was shown to powder.
have representative mechanical strengths, in terms of
unconfined compressive strength and modulus of rup- distribution of the silica sand and copper powder were
ture. The model concrete has been successfully used measured using a laser diffraction analyser. The results
for modelling various engineering structures such as are compared in Fig. 1. It can be seen that both the sand
piles (Al-Defae and Knappett, 2014) and bridge piers and copper powder were uniformly graded, and that the
(Loli et al., 2014) in the centrifuge where simultane- size of copper powder was finer than that of the sand.
ous modelling of stiffness and strength are crucial.
For modelling thermo-active RC geo-structures, this
type of model concrete requires further modification 2.2 Thermomechanical properties of the new
to ensure correct scaling of the thermomechanical model concrete
properties.
In order to investigate the effects of the copper pow-
This study aims to develop a new type of model
der content on the thermal conductivity of the model
concrete that can realistically scale the mechanical
concrete, a series of laboratory testing was carried out
and thermal properties of real concrete for future
using a hot-box apparatus developed by Jones et al.
centrifuge testing of concrete energy geo-structures
(2007). It is an apparatus that can create a temperature
for larger scaling factors. An application of the new
gradient across a slab-shaped specimen (45 mm width,
model concrete to produce RC thermo-active piles
150 mm long and 150 mm height) and also can mea-
is presented. Temperature effects on thermomechan-
sure the corresponding heat flux. At the steady state,
ical properties, including the coefficient of thermal
the thermal conductivity of the specimen can be deter-
expansion, moment capacity and flexural stiffness, of
mined by dividing the heat flux by the temperature
a model pile were tested. By comparing the model and
gradient, according to Fourier’s law.
prototype properties, the suitability of testing this type
Model concrete mixed with five different percent-
of new RC model pile in centrifuge is discussed.
ages of copper powder (by volume), 0%, 1.5%, 3%,
6% and 12% were tested. The test results depicted in
Fig. 2 show that the thermal conductivity of the model
2 NEW MODEL CONCRETE
concrete originally designed by Knappett et al. (2011)
was 0.4 W/(m·K), which was lower than the typical
2.1 Constituents of the model concrete
range of concrete (i.e., 0.9 to 1.1 W/(m·K); Kanbur
The new model concrete developed in this study et al. (2013)). When copper powder was added, there
is based on the design previously proposed by was almost a linear increase in the thermal conductiv-
Knappett et al. (2011). The original design consisted of ity with the amount of copper added. This shows that
a mixture of β-form surgical plaster (manufactured by the addition of copper powder was effective to enhance
Saint Gobain), water and fine silica sand (Congleton the thermal properties of the model concrete. In par-
HST95). The sand was used to geometrically scale and ticular, 6% and 12% copper powder contents appeared
approximate the size of aggregates found in concrete. to match the prototype range reasonably well.
Knappett et al. (2011) suggested that a water/plaster Although adding copper powder could significantly
(W/P) ratio of 0.9:1 and a sand/plaster (S/P) ratio of improve the thermal properties of the new model con-
1:1 would result in a model concrete that can realisti- crete, one concern is any detrimental effects of such
cally mimic the mechanical properties of concrete in addition on the mechanical properties. For this pur-
prototype. pose, a series of four-point bending (FPB) tests were
In order to properly scale and mimic the thermal conducted to measure the modulus of rupture (fr ) of
properties of prototype concrete, a new constituent, prismatic specimens (25 × 25 × 250 mm) when differ-
copper powder (manufactured by Phoenix Scientific), ent percentages of copper powder were added to the
was added to the design mix to enhance the thermal model concrete. The testing procedures outlined by
conductivity of the model concrete. The particle-size Knappett et al. (2011) were adopted.

38

Figure 2. Effects of copper powder content on thermal con-
ductivity of model concrete. Error bars represent standard
errors (n = 3).
Figure 3. Effects of copper powder content on fr of the new
model concrete. Error bars represent standard errors (n = 6).
Fig. 3 shows the variations of copper powder con-
tent with normalised fr (by the values obtained from
0% copper powder content, fr0 ). It is clear that the
addition of copper powder up to 12% did not cause
significant changes in the mechanical properties. The
addition of copper powder could thus enhance the
thermal conductivity of the model concrete, while
simultaneously maintaining its ability to mimic the
mechanical properties of concrete.
2.3 Micro-structure of the new model concrete
In order to have a better understanding of the inter-
action between the plaster, sand grains and copper
powder as well as the uniformity of these constituents
within the mixture, the micro-structure of the new
model concrete was imaged by a scanning electron
microscope (SEM). Fig. 4(a) shows an SEM image at
a magnification of × 55. The image depicts some sil-
ica sand physically interlocked with the flake-shaped
plastic matrix. The distribution of the sand appears
uniform.
At a higher magnification of ×500 (Fig. 4(b)),
the fine copper particles can be viewed. They were
spherical in shape and physically embedded into the
fibre-like irregular structures of the plaster. This kind
of micro-structure is a key feature of the β-form plaster
39
due to the rapid evolution of the pore structure during
the hydration process (Song et al., 2009).
Fig. 4(c) shows the model concrete mix at × 300
where both the sand and copper particles are visible.
There was a gap between the irregular-shaped sand
particles and plaster, hence creating some weakened
interfaces. However, such gapping was not found for
the copper particles. It must be pointed out that no
chemical bonding was formed along the plaster, sand
and copper particles after the hydration process. These
constituents were bonded physically through weak
inter-particle van der Waal force. Such physical bond
is an important feature of the model concrete to real-
istically mimic the non-linear quasi-brittleness nature
of concrete in prototype, which cannot be captured
by existing elastic model piles made of aluminium,
and which avoids the potential over-strength of using
cement as the binder.
3 NEW MODEL RC THERMO-ACTIVE PILE
3.1 Structural analysis and design
Before producing a RC thermo-active pile, a detailed
structural analysis and design was carried out. In
future centrifuge tests, model thermo-active piles with
a square cross-section will be used to stabilise a silty
slope in a 1:20 scale model tested at 20 g. Preliminary
analysis and a literature review of previous studies
using piles to reinforce soil slopes (Al-Defae and
Knappett, 2014, Hayward et al., 2000) suggests that
a moment capacity of 250 kNm would be sufficient
for the piles to maintain the slope stability for repre-
sentative soil properties and slope angles. Based on the
targeted moment capacity, the pile reinforcement was
designed according to the design procedures outlined
in Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures (BSI,
2004). Hence, at model scale, the thermo-active pile
will have a square cross section with the side of 25 mm
and a length of 250 mm. In the following discussion,
all dimensions are expressed in model scale, unless
stated otherwise.
The arrangement of the reinforcement is detailed in
Fig. 5. It was a doubly-reinforced concrete pile, since
to allow bending in either or both horizontal direc-
tions in future centrifuge testing. All the longitudinal
reinforcement bars chosen were 1.25 mm in diameter,
while the diameter of shear reinforcement (aka stir-
rups) was 0.6 mm. The thickness of concrete cover was
2 mm. The total area of steel reinforcements (As ) was
12.93 mm2 for a cross-sectional area of 625 mm2 of the
model pile. This means that the reinforcement ratio,
As /bd (where b and d is the breath and the depth of the
model pile, respectively), is 2.1%, which falls within
a typical range found in high-strength doubly rein-
forced concrete beams under flexural loads (Rashid
and Mansur, 2005).
The model reinforcement used in this study was
a stainless steel (Grade 316), which was manufac-
tured by Ormiston Wire Ltd. It has a yield strength

Figure 4. SEM images of at (a) ×55; (b) ×500; and
(c) ×300 magnification.
of 460 MPa (Knappett et al. 2011) and a coefficient of
thermal expansion of 18.5 με/◦ C (Lee et al., 2007).
3.2 Model preparation
Formwork with a dimension identical to the model
pile (25 mm × 25 mm × 250 mm; Fig. 6) was con-
structed to cast the model piles. Before casting, all
40
Figure 5. Cross-section and reinforcement details of a 1:20
model RC thermo-active pile.
Figure 6. Overview of the formwork used to cast two model
piles.
reinforcement bars and stirrups were coated with
epoxy resin and then immersed in a pool of HST95
silica sand for 24 hours to ensure an intimate mechan-
ical frictional contact between the reinforcements and
the sand, preventing the reinforcements from slipping
inside the model concrete.
In order to allow water to be circulated inside
the new model concrete, two pairs of closed-loop
U-shaped silicon pipes were attached to the internal
surface of the stirrups (Fig. 5), which is a typi-
cal arrangement for a thermo-active pile prototype
(Loveridge and Powrie, 2013). Placing the pipes closer
to the pile perimeter aimed to minimise their thermal
interaction and the heat loss to the concrete material,
hence achieving a more uniform distribution of pile
temperature. Cecinato and Loveridge (2015) showed
that circulation pipes spaced too closely can reduce
the heat transfer efficiency to the surrounding soil.
The diameter of the silicon pipe was 3 mm, which was
the minimum internal size of the pipe required to min-
imise the thrust force caused by the change in water
flow direction at the U-turn of the pipe (see Fig. 6).
Three thermocouples were attached to both ends
and the centre of the reinforcement bar for monitoring
the temperature distribution along the pile.
When the reinforcements, silicon pipe and ther-
mocouples were fixed in position, the mix of model
concrete (including plaster, water, silica sand and cop-
per powder) was poured into the formwork. The mix
was allowed to cure for 28 days in a room maintained
at an ambient temperature of around 20◦ C.
In order to heat and cool the model pile, a heating
system (Julabo Ltd; Model F12) that can control and
maintain constant water temperature between 1 and
99◦ C was connected to the silicon pipes. Change in
pile temperature was monitored by the three thermo-
couples embedded in the model pile.
4 TESTING OF THE MODEL PILE
4.1 Test plan
Laboratory testing was undertaken to determine the
thermo-mechanical properties of the small-scale RC
thermo-active pile made by the new model concrete.
The primary aim was to ensure the design of the model
pile was mechanically and thermally representative
of the prototype RC thermo-active pile. An impor-
tant thermal property that needed to be characterised
was the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). Upon
pile temperature changes, the pile expansion (upon
heating) and contraction (upon cooling) would have
direct effect on the soil-pile contact, hence affecting
the soil-pile interaction and the mobilisation of pile
axial load (Yavari et al., 2014).
Another test series aimed to determine any tem-
perature dependency on the flexural properties, which
is a key thermo-mechanical property that governs the
pile behaviour when the piles are subjected to lateral
loading in slope stabilization applications.
In both types of tests, effects of the percentage
of copper powder addition were studied. This aimed
to determine any optimum amount of copper powder
that could realistically scale both the mechanical and
thermal properties of the model pile simultaneously.
4.2 Test procedures
The testing method of CTE followed a modification of
the procedures outlined in AASHTO TP 60. CTE was
calculated by the change in the length of a model pile
when there is an increase in pile temperature. After
casting the model piles, they were coated with a sil-
icon conformal coating spray to ensure a waterproof
condition, as would be required in future centrifuge
tests. Then, two reference points were defined in each
model pile to determine their initial pile length. The
two reference points were fixed along the axis of the
two different longitudinal sides, which are orthogo-
nal with respect to each other. From Fig. 5, ‘side 1’
refers to the four longitudinal reinforcement bars laid
in parallel, while ‘side 2’ refers to the adjacent side,
where no longitudinal reinforcement bars were added.
By comparing the test results obtained from sides 1
and 2, any effects of heat-induced elongation of the
reinforcement bars on the overall length of the model
pile may be quantified. In total, three tests were con-
ducted, one with no copper powder added (Pile A), and
two replications with 6% copper powder content (Piles
B and C).
41
Figure 7. Typical setup of a FPB test for model pile.
The CTE tests were started by submerging each
model pile in a water bath with a controlled temper-
ature of 50◦ C for at least two hours. When a uniform
distribution of pile temperature of about 50◦ C was
reached at the steady state (as indicated by the three
thermocouples), each model pile was removed from
the water bath and any change in pile length between
the two reference points was measured immediately
using a calliper with an accuracy of 0.01 mm. The
measurements were taken as quickly as possible to
minimise heat loss from each model pile.
For the measurements of the pile moment capac-
ity, the four-point bending (FPB) testing method was
adopted (Balendran et al., 2002). Two pile tempera-
tures were considered: circulating water at ambient
temperature (20◦ C) and an elevated level of 50◦ C.
At each pile temperature, model piles cast with three
different amount of copper powder (0%, 6% and 12%
by volume) were tested. 17 FPB tests were carried out
(7 tests at 0%, 4 tests at 6% and 6 tests at 12%).
A typical set up for a FBD test is shown in Fig. 7.
The model pile was roller-supported, having a span
(L) of 210 mm. Vertical loading was applied symmet-
rically at two locations, both of which were 35 mm
away from the centre of the pile to ensure that the
loads and reactions were spaced at L/3 as per typical
FPB testing procedures (Huurman and Pronk, 2009).
By using the heating system, water was controlled at a
constant temperature of 20 or 50◦ C and was circulated
to the model pile. When all thermocouples showed
a temperature matching the targeted value set on the
heating system, test began by loading the model pile at
a rate of 0.6 mm/min. The test was complete when the
pile section exhibited large deformation and formed
prominent cracking.
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Coefficient of thermal expansion
Table 1 summarises the measured values of CTE for
the Piles A to C. It is found that the CTE of the
model pile without copper powder (i.e., Pile A) was
15.7 με/◦ C, which was close to the values (<3% dif-
ference) obtained from side 2 of Piles B and C when
Table 1. Summary of the CTE test.

Pile Side Copper powder (%) CTE (με /◦ C)

A 1 0 15.7
B 1 6 16.5
2 15.3
C 1 6 16.0
2 15.5

6% of copper powder was added. This is because the

CTE of copper (i.e., 17.5 με/◦ C; (Davis, 2001)) was
not very significantly different than that of the plaster
(13.9 με/◦ C; (Hyer, 2009)) and quartzite (i.e. sand par-
ticles), which ranged from 7.0 to 13.5 με/◦ C. (Johnson
and Parsons, 1944). This suggests that the addition of
copper powder did not introduce significant effects on
the CTE.
It can also be seen in Table 1 that the CTE obtained
from side 1 (where reinforcement bars were present)
was slightly higher than that on side 2, by not more than
8%. This was somewhat expected because the CTE
of plaster (i.e., 13.9 με/◦ C) did not differ much from
that of the steel reinforcement used (i.e., 18.5 με/◦ C).
By taking the average measured values obtained from
sides 1 and 2, the CTE of Pile B (15.9 με/◦ C) was
close to that of Pile C (15.8 με/◦ C). These average
values match well with the typical range of CTE of
unreinforced concrete (i.e., 9.4 to 14.4 με/◦ C; depend-
ing on the aggregate mineralogy; Choi and Chen,
2005). Goode III et al., (2015) reported that the
measured CTE of their RC pile (which was made
of conventional concrete) under unrestrained con-
dition (i.e., free to expand upon pile heating) was
15–16 με/◦ C, which was also very close to the aver-
age value of the model RC thermo-active pile created
in this study.
5.2 Temperature effects on moment capacity and
flexural stiffness
In this study, pile failure was defined at the onset of
the first observable flexural cracking on the surface
of the model pile. The rationale of defining this fail-
ure criterion is that as flexural cracking develops, the
model pile would no longer be serviceable as an energy
geo-structure. This is because the embedded pipes,
which have limited flexural resistance, would be split,
causing leakage of the circulating water.
Fig. 8(a) shows the effects of copper powder
percentage on normalised ultimate bending moment
(Mult ) at different pile temperatures. At both tempera-
tures, there were not very substantial changes in Mult
as the amount of copper powder increases from 0 to
6%, given the presence of sample variability. When the
percentage of copper powder increased further to 12%,
significant drops of Mult were found. The drop under
the elevated pile temperature at 50◦ C was much more
substantial (up to 86%). Interestingly, such a drop was
not observed in plain model concrete, where fr was
almost unaffected by the percentage of copper powder
Figure 8. Effect of copper powder on (a) moment capacity,
(b) flexural stiffness of model piles at 20◦ C and 50◦ C. Error
bars represent standard error.
added (Fig. 3(b)). This implies that the presence of the
silicon pipes and the water being circulated in model
pile played a significant role on the thermo-mechanical
responses. The CTE of silicon is ∼2.3 με/◦ C (Vasiliev,
2008), while that of water ranges from 200 με/◦ C at
20◦ C to 450 με/◦ C at 50◦ C (Kell, 1975). This sug-
gests that the thermal expansion of the water has a
greater influence than the expansion of the silicon
pipes. When the copper powder content is higher, the
thermal expansion of the copper particles, silicon pipe
and the circulating water might have created more
weakened interfaces, hence reducing the Mult of the
model pile.
Flexural stiffness (EI, where E and I are theYoung’s
modulus and the moment of inertia of the un-cracked
section of a model RC, respectively) can be obtained
by determining the gradient of the linear portion of a
moment-curvature plot. The linear portion is defined
as the range of Mult from zero to a value where the
first crack was observed in the model piles. Effects of
copper powder and pile temperature on normalised EI
are shown in Fig. 8(b). At pile temperature of 20◦ C, the
copper powder percentage has negligible effects on the
EI. In contrast, at an elevated level of 50◦ C, an increase
in copper powder percentage causes a significant drop
of EI.
Based on the test results presented in this paper,
it appears that 6% was an optimum percentage of
copper powder that could provide a model RC thermo-
active pile with a reasonably close CTE (Table 1)
and thermal conductivity (Fig. 2) when compared to

42
the properties of a prototype thermo-active pile. At
6% copper powder content, the effects of temper-
ature on the mechanical properties, including both
Mult and EI may be practically negligible (see Fig.
8). This is consistent with the BS EN 1992-1-2:2004
Clauses 3.2.2 and 3.2.3, which respectively state that
any temperature effects on the mechanical properties
of concrete and steel are negligible when the tempera-
ture is below 100◦ C.A study reported by Li and Purkiss
(2005) also shows that theYoung’s modulus of concrete
is reasonably constant for temperatures between 20
and 60◦ C.
6 CONCLUSION
A new type of model concrete that is highly suitable
for realistically modelling thermo-active energy geo-
structures in centrifuge testing is developed. The new
model concrete is a mixture of plaster, silica sand,
water and copper powder, which results in a material
that has both mechanical and thermal properties scaled
simultaneously. The test results showed that adding 6%
or 12% copper powder content to the new model con-
crete could increase the thermal conductivity to a value
close to those found in prototype concrete. Such an
addition was shown not to cause significant changes
in modulus of rupture.
This study also demonstrated an application of this
type of new model concrete to create 1:20 model rein-
forced concrete (RC) thermo-active piles. The effects
of copper powder content (ranging from 0% to 12%)
on the thermomechanical behaviour of the model RC
pile were quantified. It was found that copper powder
content of 6% is an optimum amount that would pro-
vide the model pile with a highly representative value
of the coefficient of thermal expansion as compared
to prototype. At this percentage of addition, effects of
pile temperature between 20 and 50◦ C on pile bending
moment capacity and flexural stiffness are practically
negligible. This correctly models the thermomechani-
cal behaviour of prototype RC piles. Such a model RC
thermo-active pile was also capable of mimicking the
nonlinear quasi-brittle nature of real concrete, which is
a key feature that is not achievable using elastic model
piles.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the stu-
dentships and the research cost supported by the
Energy Technology Partnership (ETP), Scottish Road
Research Board (SRRB) from Transport Scotland and
the EPSRC Doctoral Training Award.
REFERENCES
American Association of State Highway and Transporta-
tion Officials 2007. Provisional Test Method for the
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Hydraulic Cement
Concrete. Washington DC, AASHTO.
43
Al-Defae, A. H. & Knappett, J. A. 2014. Centrifuge Mod-
eling of the Seismic Performance of Pile-Reinforced
Slopes. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 140.
Balendran, R., Zhou, F., Nadeem, A. & Leung, A. 2002.
Influence of steel fibres on strength and ductility of nor-
mal and lightweight high strength concrete. Building and
environment, 37, 1361–1367.
Belgin, C. M. & Sener, S. 2008. Size effect on failure
of overreinforced concrete beams. Engineering Fracture
Mechanics, 75, 2308–2319.
Bourne-Webb, P. J.,Amatya, B., Soga, K.,Amis, T., Davidson,
C. & Payne, P. 2009. Energy pile test at Lambeth College,
London: geotechnical and thermodynamic aspects of pile
response to heat cycles. Geotechnique, 59, 237–248.
Brandling, H. 2006. Energy foundations and other thermo-
active ground structures. Geotechnique, 56, 81–122.
British Standards Institution. 2004. Eurocode 2: Design of
Concrete Structures. London, BSI.
BS EN 1992-1-2:2004: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete struc-
tures. Part 1.2: General rules – Structural fire design.
British Standards Institution, London, 2004.
Cecinato, F. & Loveridge, F. A. 2015. Influences on the ther-
mal efficiency of energy piles. Energy, 82, 1021–1033.
Choi, J. H., & Chen, R. H. L. 2005. Design of continu-
ously reinforced concrete pavements using glass fiber
reinforced polymer rebars. Publication No. FHWA-HRT-
05-081. Washington, D.C.
Davis, J. R. 2001. Copper and copper alloys, ASM interna-
tional.
Goode III, J. & McCartney, J. 2015. Centrifuge modeling
of end-restraint effects in energy foundations. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE,
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001333.
Hayward, T., Lees, A., Powrie, W., Richards, D. & Smethurst,
J. 2000. Centrifuge modelling of a cutting slope stabilised
by discrete piles, Transport Research Laboratory.
Huurman, M. & Pronk, A. 2009. Theoretical analysis of the 4
point bending test.AdvancedTesting and Characterization
of Bituminous Materials, A. Loizos, MN Partl, T. Scarpas,
and IL Al-Qadi, eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton, 749–759.
Hyer, M. W. 2009. Stress analysis of fiber-reinforced
composite materials, DEStech Publications, Inc.
Johnson, W. H. & Parsons, W. H. 1944. Thermal expansion
of concrete aggregate materials, US Government Printing
Office.
Jones, M. R., Zheng, L., McCarthy, A., Dhir, R. K., &
Yerramala A. 2007. Increasing the use of foamed concrete
incorporating recycled and secondary aggregates. WRAP
Project Report:AGG79-001.
Kanbur, B. B., Atayilmaz, S. O., Demir, H., Koca, A. &
Gemici, Z. 2013. Investigating the thermal conductivity
of different concrete and reinforced concrete models with
numerical and experimental methods. Recent Advances in
Mechanical Engineering Applications, Recent Advances
in Mechanical Engineering Series, 95–101.
Karihaloo, B. L. & Huang, X. 1991. Tensile response of
quasi-brittle materials. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 137,
461–487.
Kell, G. S. 1975. Density, thermal expansivity, and com-
pressibility of liquid water from 0. deg. to 150. deg..
Correlations and tables for atmospheric pressure and satu-
ration reviewed and expressed on 1968 temperature scale.
Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data, 20, 97–105.
Laloui, L., Nuth, M. & Vulliet, L. 2006. Experimental
and numerical investigations of the behaviour of a heat
exchanger pile. International Journal for Numerical and
Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 30, 763–781.
Lee, H.-Y., Lee, S.-H., Kim, J.-B. & Lee, J.-H. 2007. Creep–
fatigue damage for a structure with dissimilar metal welds
of modified 9Cr–1Mo steel and 316L stainless steel.
International Journal of Fatigue, 29, 1868–1879.
Li, L.Y. & Purkiss, J. 2005. Stress–strain constitutive equa-
tions of concrete material at elevated temperatures. Fire
Safety Journal, 40(7), 669–686.
Litle, A. W. & Paparoni, M. 1966. Size Effect in Small-
Scale Models of Reinforced Concrete Beams. Journal
Proceedings, 63.
Loli, M., Knappett, J. A., Brown, M. J., Anastasopou-
los, I. & Gazetas, G. 2014. Centrifuge modeling of
rocking-isolated inelastic RC bridge piers. Earthquake
Engineering & Structural Dynamics, 43, 2341–2359.
Loveridge, F.A. & Powrie, W., 2013, April. Pile heat exchang-
ers: thermal behaviour and interactions. Proceedings of
the Institute of Civil Engineers: Geotechnical Engineering
(Vol. 166, No. 2, pp. 178–196).
Murphy, K. D. & McCartney, J. S. 2015. Seasonal Response of
Energy Foundations During Building Operation. Geotech-
nical and Geological Engineering, 33, 343–356.
Ng, C. W. W., Shi C., Gunawan, A., Laloui, L. & Liu, H. L.
2015. Centrifuge modelling of heating effects on energy
44
pile performance in saturated sand. Canadian Geotechni-
cal Journal, 52, 1045–1057.
Rashid, M. & Mansur, M. 2005. Reinforced high-strength
concrete beams in flexure. ACI Structural Journal, 102,
462–471.
Rotta Loria, A. F., Gunawan, A., Shi, C., Laloui, L., &
Ng, C. W. W. 2015. Numerical modelling of energy piles
in saturated sand subjected to thermo-mechanical loads.
Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment, 1, 1–15.
Song, K.-M., Mitchell, J. & Gladden, L. F. 2009. Observ-
ing microstructural evolution during plaster hydration.
Diffusion Fundamentals, 10, 22.1–22.3.
Stewart, M. A. & McCartney, J. S. 2014. Centrifuge Modeling
of Soil-Structure Interaction in Energy Foundations. Jour-
nal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
ASCE, 140.
Vasiliev, L. 2008. Micro and miniature heat pipes–Electronic
component coolers. Applied Thermal Engineering, 28,
266–273.
Yavari, N., Tang, A. M., Pereira, J.-M. & Hassen, G. 2014.
A simple method for numerical modelling of energy
pile’s mechanical behaviour. Geotechnique Letters, 4,
119–124.