An Asynchronous Algorithm for providing Energy

Efficient Coverage and Connectivity in Wireless

Sensor Networks
Nishat A. Ansari U. A. Deshpande S. P. Mohammad
Shri Ramdeobaba College of Visvesvaraya National Shri Ramdeobaba
Engineering and Management, Nagpur, India Institute of Technology, College of Engineering
Email: ansarina@rknec.edu Nagpur, India and Management, Nagpur, India

Abstract—There are two major requirements for any surveil- the problem of coverage [7], [11] and that of connectivity [4]
lance application of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) – coverage separately. The approaches where integrated coverage and
and connectivity. In the design of any algorithm for WSN, connectivity [12], [3] has been addressed, either assume that
the major constraint is limited battery life time of the sensor
nodes. Most of the existing work on combined problem of the network is synchronous or require that precise location of
coverage and connectivity either require the clocks of the nodes the nodes is available.
to be synchronized or require exact location information of the In the absence of a global clock, achieving synchronization
nodes to be known. In this paper, we present an Asynchronous is a difficult task especially in the presence of a large number of
Algorithm which is Energy Efficient and provides integrated sensor nodes as it results in the generation of a lot of packets
Coverage and Connectivity, called (AAEECC). Our algorithm
does not require clock synchronization of nodes at any stage required by algorithms for clock synchronization. Location
neither does it require exact location information of the nodes. based algorithms require equipping each sensor node with
It is low cost, fully distributed and scalable. In the following, location finding system such as GPS. Equipping a large number
we discuss the approach used. First, we build a minimum of sensor nodes with location finding system is not only costly
hopcount graph for connectivity. Second, we propose a scheduling but the performance of location based algorithms also degrades
algorithm for providing desired coverage. Third, we define a
fault tolerant connectivity maintenance algorithm (FTCM) to re- badly due to slight errors in the location information.
ensure connectivity as network may become disconnected due to We propose a low cost algorithm, called as Asynchronous
scheduling. Algorithm for Energy Efficient Coverage and Connectivity
(AAEECC), which provides a solution for integrated coverage
I. I NTRODUCTION and connectivity.
A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) consists of a large Our work has following salient features.
number of wireless sensor nodes deployed within an area • The coverage algorithm of AAEECC provides a tunable
of interest. These nodes work cooperatively in a distributed desired level of coverage suitable for many applications.
manner and monitor the area. This property makes them suitable • Using the connectivity algorithm of AAEECC, a node is
for a large number of applications such as battlefield damage able to find out as many minimum cost paths to reach
assessment, forest fire detection and habitat monitoring etc [1], to the sink as the number of upward nodes of that node
[9]. A major constraint in the design of any algorithm for (definition of an upward node is given in Section III).
a WSN is the limited battery life time of the sensor nodes. • Using this information, an algorithm called as the Fault
Replenishment of battery is often not feasible because a WSN Tolerant Connectivity Maintenance (FTCM), can find
may be deployed in remote locations. To prolong the network alternative paths in the case of crash failures of nodes.
life time, node scheduling can be used if the nodes are densely • AAEECC is fully distributed, energy efficient and scalable.
deployed. Node scheduling is used to decide which nodes will The rest of the paper is organized as follows: In Section II
be in active state and which nodes will be turned off at different we review existing works. Section III introduces the terms
points in time. Redundant nodes can be turned off to save used in the technique proposed in the paper. In section IV we
the energy. Typically, monitoring and surveillance applications describe the AAEECC algorithm. Extensive experimentation
have the requirements of coverage and connectivity [13]. These has been performed and the performance evaluation results are
applications require coverage of the area of interest so that explained in section V. Finally, concluding remarks are given
events can be detected. Coverage [10] determines how well in Section VI.
an area of interest can be monitored. Since connectivity is
required for the transmission of sensed data to the sink or base II. L ITERATURE R EVIEW
station, we need an integrated algorithm which provides both Existing work on coverage or on integrated coverage and
coverage and connectivity. Most of the existing works address connectivity can be classified in two ways. The first way is
based on the timing requirement. Synchronous algorithms
require the clocks of the sensor nodes to be synchronized
to a certain level of accuracy, while asynchronous algorithms
do not have that requirement. The second way is based on
the location requirement. Location based algorithms require
precise location of all the sensor nodes, while location free
algorithms relax that requirement.
Based on these classifications, we first review work where
only coverage is considered. Enhanced Differentiated Surveil-
lance (EDS) [7] is a synchronous and location based algorithm,
which works in rounds of a certain duration T . In the
beginning of each round, each sensor node i collects the
information about its sensing neighbors and establishes its
working schedule based on random reference time. In Layered
Diffusion-based Coverage Control (LDCC) [11] algorithm,
clock synchronization is based on the assumption that there
is no time drift in the individual clocks of the node. However
LDCC does not require the location information of the nodes.
In LDCC, the authors use the idea of triangular tessellation [6].
However instead of using exact location information of nodes,
LDCC uses hopcount information of the nodes and the process
of triangular tessellation is applied.
Next, we review work on the integrated coverage and
connectivity problem. Stand Guard Algorithm (StanGA) [3] is
a synchronous and location free algorithm. In this, the authors
have defined an Occupation Area (OA) based on the concept
of an order-k Voronoi diagram [2]. OA is defined as follows:
for any sensor node pi (1 ≤ i ≤ N ) OA(pi ) is a part of the
area of interest in which all the points in OA(pi ) have pi
as one of their k nearest sensor nodes. Authors have defined
an OA principle for turning off the redundant sensor nodes.
The OA principle says that for any sensor p if OA(p) is k
covered by other sensor nodes, node p can turn off. Coverage
Configuration Protocol (CCP) [12] is an asynchronous and
location based algorithm. In CCP, an intersection points based
method is used to determine that a given node’s sensing region
is covered by the sensing neighbors of that node. Based on this
information, a node decides to remain active or to inactive.
In this work, we address the combined problem of coverage
and connectivity. The proposed approach is asynchronous and
does not require exact location information of nodes. Moreover,
the approach is fault tolerant which ensures a high packet
delivery ratio for a large portion of the network lifetime.
III. P RELIMINARIES
We consider that N sensor nodes are randomly deployed in
an area of interest. All the nodes are static with circular sensing
and communication ranges and with sensing radius Rs and
communication radius Rc . Each node is identified by a unique
id. We assume that a node has the knowledge of a technique to
find out how many sensors are present within its sensing range
and within its communicating range. For example acoustic
signals and radio transmissions can be used respectively for
finding out sensing and communicating neighbors.
Definition 1 (Sensing Neighbor) A neighbor j is called as
a sensing neighbor of node i, iff neighbor j falls within the
Fig. 1. Minimum hopcount graph
sensing radius of node i. Here j ∈ N and j 6= i. We denote
sensing neighbors of node i by set {SNi }.
Definition 2 (Communicating Neighbor) A neighbor j is
called as a communicating neighbor of node i, iff neighbor j
falls within the communication radius of node i. Here j ∈ N
and j 6= i. We denote communicating neighbors of node i by
set {CNi }.
Note that set {SNi } is a subset of {CNi }.
Definition 3 (Upward Node) A node j is called as an upward
node of node i, iff node j‘s hopcount value from the sink node
is one less than that of node i. Here j ∈ N and j 6= i. We
denote the upward node of node i by set {iup }.
IV. A SYNCHRONOUS A LGORITHM FOR E NERGY E FFICIENT
C OVERAGE AND C ONNECTIVITY (AAEECC)
After deployment, each sensor node first performs neighbor
discovery and prepares a neighbor table. The fields of the
neighbor table are as follows: (i) the neighbor id, which denotes
the unique id of a neighbor (ii) the state of a neighbor, which
could be Active, Hibernating, or Wakeup (iii) the type of a
neighbor, which could be either a sensing or communicating
neighbor (iv) the residual energy of a neighbor (v) the time
stamp, which denotes the time at which an entry in the neighbor
table is updated.
In the Active state, a node can perform all operations - sense,
send and receive messages and perform local computation. In
the Hibernating state, a low power wakeup receiver (WuRx) [8]
is on with which a node can only receieve messages and a
timer at the node is functional. WuRx is an additional hardware
unit which consumes very low power and is different from the
main receiver. While WuRx is on, the main receiver is turned
off which results in significant amount of energy saving. In
the Wakeup state, in addition to the functional timer, a sensor
node can send and receive messages.
A. The Connectivity Algorithm
For connectivity, we use the idea of establishing a minimum
hopcount graph (instead of a minimum hopcount tree). There
are three goals in establishing a minimum hopcount graph. First
every node should know its relative distance from the sink
node, in the form of its minimum hopcount. Second, every
node should know all its upward nodes. With this, a node
will be able to find multiple paths to the sink node, some
of the paths can be of the minimum cost. Third, every node Algorithm 1 Connectivity Algorithm at a node j
should know the minimum hopcount of all its communicating 1: Upon reception of a hopCountMsg(S,V) from node S, do
neighbors. The second and the third goals help in the case of 2: if this is the first hopcount message that j has received
the crash fault of one of the communicating neighbors. then
The algorithm for building the minimum hopcount graph 3: start a delay timer, TD ; V 0 ← V
is based on diffusing computation [5]. First we explain the 4: N otF arj = N otF arj ∪ S; l = S
minimum hopcount graph prepared by the algorithm on a 5: else if the delay timer is running then
sample network consisting of seven sensor nodes and a sink 6: N otF arj = N otF arj ∪ S
node as shown in Fig. 1 Two communicating neighbors are 7: if V = V 0 then l = l ∪ S
connected using an edge in the graph. A solid edge is shown 8: else if V < V 0 then
between a node and its upward node. The collection of solid 9: V0 ←V;
edges and the nodes form the minimum hopcount graph. Note 10: delete existing entries in l; l = S
that in Fig. 1, nodes F and G have two upward nodes each, 11: else discard the message
Fup = {B, D} and Gup = {C, D}. Since node F is having 12: end if
two upward nodes B and D, it can reach to the sink via B or 13: else discard the message
D The path F − G − C − A will be taken in case of fault of 14: end if
node B and node D. The fault tolerance is explained in detail 15: if the delay timer expires then
in Section IV-C 16: jup ← l; Vj ← V 0 + 1
The algorithm starts as follows. Each node maintains a 17: if {CNj − N otF arj } = 6 φ then
parameter called minimum hopcount denoted by V . Initially 18: multicast hopcount message
V is set to infinity at all the nodes. Sink node then sets its 19: OutstandingAcksj ← |CNj − N otF arj |
minimum hopcount value V as 0 and prepares a hopcount 20: else multicast acknowledgment
message denoted by HopCountM sg(S, V ) where S is the id 21: end if
of the sender node and V is its minimum hopcount value. Sink 22: end if
node then sends this hopcount message to its communicating 23: Upon reception of an acknowledgment message, do
neighbors by a single multicast. The detailed steps of the 24: if an acknowledgment is received from any element in
algorithm are given in Algorithm 1. {CNj − N otF arj } then
In the line 3 of the algorithm, the delay timer, TD is a local 25: OutstandingAcksj ← OutstandingAcksj − 1
timer maintained at each node. The value of the TD is set 26: if OutstandingAcksj = 0 then
in such a way that a node, say j, should receive hopcount 27: if j = root then algorithm terminates
messages from all those neighbors which are closer to the 28: else multicast acknowledgment
sink than itself before TD expires. Additionally, before TD 29: end if
expires, node j might also recieve hopcount messages from 30: end if
nodes which are at the same distance from the sink node as 31: else ignore and discard the acknowledgment
itself. We denote the set of such nodes by N otF arj . In Fig. 32: end if
1, N otF arD = {A, B, C}. However, node D has only one
upward node i.e. Dup = {A}.
The condition {CNj − N otF arj } 6= φ in line 17 signifies decides whether to be in the active state or the hibernating
that there are some neighbors of node j which are farther away state. For this, the following self-hibernating eligibility criterion
from the sink than node j. In this case, node j multicasts is proposed. “A sensor node i is eligible to hibernate if it
a hopcount message to all such nodes. It sets a counter for has at least α active sensing neighbors”. Here α is a non-
outstanding acknowledgments called OutstandingAcksj = zero, positive integer and its value depends on the coverage
|CNj − N otF arj |. requirement of an application. For a high coverage requirement
The use of the delay timer TD ensures that a node j high value of α is required.
multicasts the hopcount message only once. A node j sends 1) The Node Scheduling Algorithm: Once the minimum
an acknowledgement message only once since it delays the hopcount graph is built, every node invokes the node scheduling
acknowledgment until OutstandingAcksj becomes zero. Both algorithm. Initially all the nodes are in the active state and every
the messages are small in length. The total overhead of building node first executes the eligibility criterion. All the information
the hopcount graph is two broadcasts per node. The overhead required to execute the eligibility criterion is available in the
and the delay in building the minimum hopcount graph is neighbor table.
incurred only once at the time of the deployment of the sensor If a node i finds itself eligible, it starts a back-off timer,
network. TRBi , and waits till TRBi expires. If TRBi expires, node i
multicasts a hibernating message to its neighbors and turns
B. Sensor Network Coverage state as hibernating. If node i receives a hibernating message
The coverage of the sensor network is based on node from some other sensing neighbor j before TRBi expires, it
scheduling. With node scheduling, a node autonomously may no longer be eligible as node j went into hibernating state,
 resuming messages. These messages are very short and consist
of message type, sender id and energy level only. By carefully
setting the value of the hibernating timer, the frequency of
these messages can be reduced.
2) The selection of upper limit M of random back-off timer,
TRB : The value of M should be sufficiently large such that
∀i, ∀j where i 6= j and i and j are sensing neighbors
of each other, i and j are likely to choose distinct values
between 0 and M − 1. Distinct values ensure nodes i and
j do not go into the hibernating state simultaneously and a
coverage holes is not created. At the same time, the value
of M should be small enough so that the convergence of
scheduling algorithm does not take too long. We have chosen
the value of M as a function of the maximum number of
sensing neighbors of any node in the sensor network. It is
given by: M = 2 ∗ M ax[SNi ] ∀i, i ∈ N . To enable
the computation of the value of M , the number of sensing
neighbors of a node is piggybacked with the acknowledgment
Fig. 2. State transition diagram due to node scheduling
message in the connectivity algorithm.
3) Selection of the hibernating timer, TH : A low value of
the hibernating timer, TH , results in more control overhead in
due to which number of active sensing neighbors of node i is
the form of resuming and hibernating messages. This might
reduced. Hence, it executes the eligibility criterion again.
lead to the reduction on the network lifetime. On the other
The back-off timer is required so that if multiple nodes hand, a high value of the hibernating timer might result in
become eligible simultaneously, then all such nodes should not quick depletion of the energy of the active nodes before the
go into the hibernating state simultaneously. If multiple nodes hibernating nodes resume. Therefore a value which balances
go to the hibernating state simultaneously, there will be an the control overhead and the fairness in energy consumption is
increase in the coverage gap and the coverage requirement of required. Through extensive experimentation, we have found
the application may not be fulfilled. The back-off timer consists that a high lifetime is achieved with the value of TH is 80
of integer values ranging from 0 to M − 1, the selection of the time units.
value of M is discussed in section IV-B2. A node randomly
chooses an integer value, say x, between 0 and M − 1 both C. Maintaining Connectivity with Node Scheduling
inclusive and listens for x units of time before it goes into the Due to the node scheduling technique described earlier, some
hibernating state. nodes might go to the hibernating state. This might result into
On receiving a hibernating message from node j, nodes in the disconnection of the originally connected network. To
CNj simply update the state of node j in their neighbor table ensure that the active nodes are able to transmit the sensed
as hibernating if their respective back-off timers are off. A data to the sink node, we need to re-establish connectivity. We
node remains in the hibernating state for TH time units, where propose a low cost and fault tolerant connectivity maintenance
TH denotes the hibernating timer. After that, it wakes up, sets (FTCM) technique that dynamically wakes up the hibernating
its state as active and broadcasts the resuming message. upward nodes on-demand. For this, we introduce another state
Upon reception of the resuming message from node j, active of the sensor nodes called the wakeup state.
nodes in set {SNj } update the state of node j in their neighbor The data and acknowledgment packets used in the
table as active and execute the eligibility criterion. Active FTCM algorithm (Algorithm 2) have the following format
nodes in set {CNj − SNj } and hibernating neighbors simply (initiator, sender, receiver). The complete algorithm is given
update the state of node j as active when they receive the in Algorithm 2. FTCM algorithm gracefully handles faults by
resuming message. A resuming node does not invoke the opting for an alternate path and makes its best effort to ensure
eligibility criterion immediately and invokes it only after it that every packet eventually reaches the sink node. As an
gets a resuming message from some other node. As nodes example, in Fig. 1, assume that both the upward nodes B
resume, the number of active nodes increases and those nodes and D of the node F are depleted. In this case, node F has
which were already active, now find themselves eligible to the option to choose either node E or node G. Assume that
hibernate. The simulation results of our work confirm that this the residual energy of node E is higher than that of node G.
procedure of rotating the responsibility of sensing between the Therefore node F chooses node E and forwards the data packet
nodes conserves energy, results in fair energy consumption and to it. Since all the upward nodes of node E are also depleted
prolongs network lifetime. The state transition diagram of the and there are no other neighbors of node E , it sends back the
nodes due to the node scheduling algorithm is given in Fig. 2. N ACK to node F . Node F then sets hopcountE = ∞ and
The only overhead in this algorithm is due to hibernating and forwards the packet to node G and then the packet eventually
arrives at the sink using the path F − G − C − A as shown
by the arrows.

Algorithm 2 Fault Tolerant Connectivity Maintenance (FTCM)

Algorithm at a node k
1: Upon reception of a data packet (i, j, k) from node j, do
2: if k = sink then exit
3: else
A
4: prepare a set kup which contains all those nodes n
such that n ∈ kup and hopcountn 6= ∞ and n 6= i and
n 6= j and staten = active Fig. 3. Coverage ratio
H
5: prepare a set kup which contains all those nodes n
such that n ∈ kup and hopcountn 6= ∞ and n 6= i
and n 6= j and staten = hibernating
6: prepare a set kCN which contains all those nodes n
such that n ∈ CNk and hopcountn 6= ∞ and n 6= i
and n 6= j
A
7: if kup 6= φ then
A
8: choose a node p, p ∈ Kup such that node p has
the maximum residual energy
9: forward the data packet (i, k, p) to node p
H
10: else if kup 6= φ then
H
11: choose a node p, p ∈ Kup such that p has maximum
Fig. 4. Lifetime
residual energy
12: forward the data packet (i, k, p) to node p
13: else if kCN 6= φ then use 802.11 as the MAC layer protocol. The ratio of energy
14: choose a neighbor p, p ∈ kCN such that p is having consumption by the WuRx and the transceiver is 0.001:1. The
the least hopcount value value of hibernating timer is set to 80 time units in all the
15: if multiple neighbors are present with the least experiments described below. For each simulation scenario, 100
hopcount value then runs with different randomly chosen deployments are performed
16: choose the neighbor p having the maximum and the results are averaged. We use the following metrics for
residual energy evaluating the performance of AAEECC.
17: end if 1) Coverage Ratio: It is the ratio of the area covered by
18: forward the data packet (i, k, p) to neighbor p the active sensors to the total area of interest.
19: else if k = i then drop the packet 2) Lifetime of Network: The lifetime is defined as the time
20: else send a N ACK(i, k, j) to node j by which the coverage ratio drops to 0.5 (50% of the
21: end if area is covered).
22: end if
3) Data Packet Delivery Ratio (DPDR): It is the ratio of
23: Upon reception of a N ACK(i, p, k, ) from node p, do
the number of packets successfully delivered to the total
24: hopcountp = ∞
A A
number of packets generated by all the sensor nodes.
25: if p ∈ kup then remove p from kup . Goto step 7
H H A. Coverage ratio over simulation time
26: else if p ∈ kup then remove p from kup . Goto step 10
27: else if p ∈ kCN then remove p from kCN . Goto step 13 Fig. 3 shows the coverage ratio for different values of α.
28: end if The number of nodes deployed is 500. The network fulfills
the coverage requirement of an application for a long period
of time. After that, the coverage ratio starts dropping rapidly.
V. E XPERIMENTATION AND P ERFORMANCE E VALUATION
When we observe Fig. 3 carefully, we find that for higher values
We have implemented a discrete event based simulator to of α, the coverage ratio starts dropping earlier as compared
evaluate the performance of AAEECC. We have deployed to that for lower values of α. In order to fulfill the higher
sensor nodes randomly in an area of 100 x 100 meter2 . The coverage requirement (with higher values of α), the network
number of sensor nodes is different for each experiment, a keeps more number of nodes active, which results in earlier
typical value is 500. The sink node is placed at the center depletion of nodes.
of the area. The sensing radius of each sensor node is set to
10 meter and communication radius is set to 20 meter. After B. Lifetime of the Network
each deployment, it is ensured that every sensor node is in Fig. 4 shows the effect of the initial number of deployed
the communication range of at least one sensor node. We nodes (N ) on the lifetime of the network for different values of

Fig. 5. Data Packet Delivery Ratio
α. As the value of N increases, the lifetime of the network also
increases. This shows that AAEECC is scalable. The density
of nodes increases with increase in the value of N . Due to
increase in the density, the number of sensing neighbors of
a node increases. Thus, the nodes get more opportunities to
hibernate. It is also observed that for any given value of N , the
obtained lifetime in case of α = 5 is always higher than that
of α = 7, which in turn is higher than the lifetime obtained
for α = 9. This is because, for low values of α, the number of
active nodes selected by the node scheduling algorithm is less.
Less number of active nodes results in more energy savings
and an increased lifetime.
C. Data Packet Delivery Ratio
In this experiment, we wish to study the effect of the FTCM
algorithm. We measure the data packet delivery ratio first
without using the FTCM algorithm and then with using it.
When FTCM is not used, it is assumed that an active node
is able to send its data only to an active upward node. If an
active node does not have any active upward node, then the
packet is dropped.
Data packet delivery ratio in the two situations is shown
in Fig. 5 for α = 5 and for α = 9. The value of N is 500.
Without the FTCM algorithm, the data packet delivery ratio
for α = 5 is 0.72, on an average, for a long duration and
then it starts dropping. When α is set to 9, we achieved a
ratio of 0.90 on an average. This means that increasing the
value of α, increases the packet delivery ratio. This is because
the number of active nodes selected by the node scheduling
algorithm increases as the value of α increases resulting in
increased packet delivery ratio. Although increasing the value
of α resulted in increased packet delivery ratio, the network
is still disconnected. While using the FTCM algorithm, we
achieve a ratio of 1 for both values of α for the same time
duration. This is because FTCM makes use of the nodes which
are in the hibernating state for packet delivery. This shows that
the FTCM algorithm re-ensures connectivity.
As simulation time elapses, the data packet delivery ratio
starts dropping and a significant drop can be seen if the FTCM
algorithm is not used. This is because with passing time, nodes
start failing due to depletion of energy. Even in this case, using
the FTCM algorithm, we achieve a ratio of 0.99 on an average
for a significant duration of the network lifetime. This proves
that the connectivity maintenance algorithm is fault tolerant.
VI. C ONCLUSION
In this paper, we dealt with the problem of coverage and
connectivity in wireless sensor networks. An integrated solution
to coverage and connectivity is an important requirement for
most of the surveillance applications using wireless sensor
networks. The proposed algorithm (AAEECC) has low cost,
is scalable, provides a tunable desired level of coverage and
it also ensures connectivity. The algorithm neither requires
node synchronization nor the exact location information of
nodes. These features make AAEECC suitable for practical
implementation. Through simulation experiments and result
analysis, we demonstrate that AAEECC is scalable. It conserves
energy and thereby increases the lifetime of network. It
ensures connectivity and meets the coverage requirement of
the applications. It is also shown through simulation that
using the Fault Tolerant Connectivity Maintenance algorithm of
AAEECC, we achieve a higher packet delivery ratio for a long
period of the network lifetime as compared to the situation
when FTCM is not used.
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