Scanning Electron Microscopy

(SEM)
 Outline
• What can we use a SEM for?
• How do we get an image?
• Electron beam-sample interactions
• Signals that can be used to characterize the
microstructure
– Secondary electrons
– Backscattered electrons
– X-rays
• Components of the SEM
• Some comments on resolution
• Summary
 What is SEM
Column
TV Screens
Sample
Chamber
The SEM is
designed for direct
studying of the
surfaces of solid
objects

Cost: $0.8-2.4M

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a microscope that uses

electrons rather than light to form an image. There are many
advantages to using the SEM instead of a OM.
 Advantages of Using SEM over OM
Magnification Depth of Field Resolution
OM 4x – 1000x 15.5mm – 0.19mm ~ 0.2mm
SEM 10x – 3000000x 4mm – 0.4mm 1-10nm

The SEM has a large depth of field, which allows a large amount of
the sample to be in focus at one time and produces an image that is
a good representation of the three-dimensional sample. The SEM
also produces images of high resolution, which means that closely
features can be examined at a high magnification.

The combination of higher magnification, larger depth of field,

greater resolution and compositional and crystallographic
information makes the SEM one of the most heavily used
instruments in research areas and industries, especially in
semiconductor industry.
 Scanning Electron Microscope

• Instead of using the full-field image, a point-to-point

measurement strategy is used.
• High energy electron beam is used to excite the
specimen and the signals are collected and analyzed so
that an image can be constructed.
• The signals carry topological, chemical and
crystallographic information, respectively, of the
samples surface.
 Main Applications
• Topography
The surface features of an object and its texture
(hardness, reflectivity… etc.)
• Morphology
The shape and size of the particles making up the
object (strength, defects in IC and chips...etc.)
• Composition
The elements and compounds that the object is
composed of and the relative amounts of them
(melting point, reactivity, hardness...etc.)
• Crystallographic Information
How the grains are arranged in the object
(conductivity, electrical properties, strength...etc.)
The instrument in brief
How an Electron Beam is Produced?

• Electron guns are used to produce a

fine, controlled beam of electrons
which are then focused at the
specimen surface.
• The electron guns may either be
thermionic gun or field-emission gun
Electron beam Source

W or LaB6 Filament
Thermionic or Field Emission Gun
Thermionic Emission Gun
• A tungsten filament
heated by DC to
approximately 2700K or
LaB6 rod heated to around
2000K
• A vacuum of 10-3 Pa (10-4 -
Pa for LaB6) is needed to
prevent oxidation of the
filament +
• Electrons “boil off” from
the tip of the filament
• Electrons are accelerated
by an acceleration voltage
of 1-50kV
 Source of Electrons
Thermionic Gun E: >10MV/cm
T: ~1500oC
W

Filament
(5-50mm)

(5nm)

W and LaB6 Cold- and thermal FEG

Electron Gun Properties

Source Brightness Stability(%) Size Energy spread Vacuum
W 3X105 ~1 50mm 3.0(eV) 10-5 (t )
LaB6 3x106 ~2 5mm 1.5 10-6
C-FEG 109 ~5 5nm 0.3 10-10
T-FEG 109 <1 20nm 0.7 10-9
Brightness – beam current density per unit solid angle
 Magnetic Lenses
• Condenser lens – focusing
determines the beam current
which impinges on the sample.
• Objective lens – final probe
forming
determines the final spot size of
the electron beam, i.e., the
resolution of a SEM.
 Why Need a Vacuum?
When a SEM is used, the electron-optical column
and sample chamber must always be at a vacuum.

1. If the column is in a gas filled environment, electrons will be

scattered by gas molecules which would lead to reduction of
the beam intensity and stability.

2. Other gas molecules, which could come from the sample or

the microscope itself, could form compounds and condense
on the sample. This would lower the contrast and obscure
detail in the image.
 The Condenser Lens

• For a thermionic gun, the diameter of

the first cross-over point ~20-50µm
• If we want to focus the beam to a size
< 10 nm on the specimen surface, the
magnification should be ~1/5000, which
is not easily attained with one lens
(say, the objective lens) only.
• Therefore, condenser lenses are added
to demagnify the cross-over points.
 The Objective Lens
• The objective lens
controls the final
focus of the electron
beam by changing the
magnetic field strength
• The cross-over image
is finally demagnified
to an ~10nm beam
spot which carries a
beam current of
approximately 10-9-10-
10-12 A.
 The Objective Lens - Focusing
• By changing the Objective
current in the lens

objective lens,
the magnetic field
strength changes
and therefore the
focal length of
the objective lens
is changed.
Out of focus in focus out of focus
lens current lens current lens current
too strong optimized too weak
 The Objective Lens – The Aperture
• Since the electrons Electron beam
coming from the
electron gun have Objective
spread in kinetic lens
energies and directions Narrow
Wide
of movement, they may aperture aperture
not be focused to the
same plane to form a
sharp spot. Wide disc of
Narrow disc of
least confusion
• By inserting an aperture, least confusion
the stray electrons are
blocked and the Large beam diameter
striking specimen
Small beam diameter
striking specimen
remaining narrow beam
will come to a narrow
“Disc of Least Confusion”
 The Scan Coil and Raster Pattern
• Two sets of coils
are used for
scanning the X-direction
scanning coil
electron beam
across the Holizontal line scan
specimen surface Blanking
in a raster pattern
similar to that on a
TV screen. y-direction
• This effectively scanning
coil
samples the
specimen surface
point by point
over the scanned
area.
Objective
lens
specimen
Electron Detectors and Sample Stage

Objective
lens
Sample stage
 How do we get an image?

Electrons in
Electrons out

or: x-rays out

• In brief: we shoot high-energy electrons and

analyze the outcoming electrons/x-rays
How do we get an image?
Electron gun
156
288 electrons!
electrons!

Detector

Image
 Electron beam-sample interactions
• The incident electron beam is scattered in the sample,
both elastically and inelastically
• This gives rise to various signals that we can detect
(more on that on next slide)
• Interaction volume increases with increasing acceleration
voltage and decreases with increasing atomic number

Images: Smith College Northampton, Massachusetts

 Signals from the sample
Incoming electrons
Secondary electrons
Auger electrons
Backscattered Cathodo-
electrons luminescence (light)

X-rays

Sample
Where does the signals come from?
 Secondary electrons (SE)
• Generated from the collision
between the incoming electrons
and the loosely bonded outer
electrons
• Low energy electrons (~10-50 eV)
• Only SE generated close to
surface escape (topographic
information is obtained)
• Number of SE is greater than the
number of incoming electrons
• We differentiate between SE1 and
SE2
 SE1
• The secondary electrons that are
generated by the incoming electron beam
as they enter the surface
• High resolution signal with a resolution
which is only limited by the electron beam
diameter
 SE2
• The secondary electrons that are generated by the
backscattered electrons that have returned to the surface
after several inelastic scattering events
• SE2 come from a surface area that is bigger than the spot
from the incoming electrons  resolution is poorer than for
SE1 exclusively
SE2
Incoming electrons
Sample surface
Factors that affect SE emission
1. Work function of the surface
2. Beam energy and beam current
• Electron yield goes through a maximum at low acc.
voltage, then decreases with increasing acc. voltage
(page 283)
electron yield
Secondary

Incident electron energy / kV

 Factors that affect SE emission
3. Atomic number (Z)
• More SE2 are created
with increasing Z
• The Z-dependence is
more pronounced at
lower beam energies
4. The local curvature of the
surface (the most
important factor)

Image: Smith College Northampton, Massachusetts

High resolution image setup
• By placing the
secondary electron
detector inside the
lens, mainly SE1
are detected
– Resolution of 1 – 2
nm is possible
Backscattered electrons (BSE)
• A fraction of the incident
electrons is retarded by
the electro-magnetic field
of the nucleus and if the
scattering angle is greater
than 180 ° the electron can
escape from the surface
 Backscattered electrons (BSE)
• High energy electrons (elastic scattering)
• Fewer BSE than SE
• We differentiate between BSE1 and BSE2
 BSE2
• Most BSE are of BSE2 type

BSE2
Incoming electrons
Sample surface
 Factors that affect BSE emission
• Direction of the irritated surface
– more electrons will hit the BSE detector when
the surface is aligned towards the BSE
detector
• Average atomic number

• When you want to study differences in

atomic numbers the sample should be as
levelled as possible (sample preparation is
an issue!)
 BSE vs SE

Images: Greg Meeker, USGS

 X-rays
• Photons not electrons
• Each element has a
fingerprint X-ray signal
• Poorer spatial resolution
than BSE and SE
• Relatively few X-ray signals
are emitted and the
detector is inefficient
 relatively long signal
collecting times are needed
 X-rays
• Most common spectrometer: EDS
(energy-dispersive spectrometer)
• Signal overlap can be a problem
• We can analyze our sample in different
modes
– spot analysis
– line scan
– chemical concentration map (elemental
mapping)
 Our traditional detectors
• Secondary electrons: Everhart-Thornley
Detector
• Backscattered electrons: Solid State
Detector
• X-rays: Energy dispersive spectrometer
(EDS)
 Summary
• Signals:
– Secondary electrons (SE): mainly
topography
• Low energy electrons, high resolution
• Surface signal dependent on curvature
– Backscattered electrons (BSE): mainly
chemistry
• High energy electrons
• “Bulk” signal dependent on atomic number
– X-rays: chemistry
• Longer recording times are needed
High C (optical 600x)

High C (SEM 400x)

High C (SEM 3000x)

Low C (600x optical)

Low C (SEM 400x)

Low C (SEM 3000x)

Unknown (optical 600x)

Unknown C (SEM 400x)

Unknown (SEM 3000x)

 Low C
(3000x vs 10000x)