Concepts and Equations

for Petroleum Engineers

Ken Wolcott, Yukoc RED

Zhuoxin Bi, Petrotel Inc.

March, 2003

1
 Table of Contents
Reservoir Engineering ............................................................................................. 4
1. DARCY’S LAW ...................................................................................................................................................... 4
 Expression ................................................................................................................................................. 4
 Darcy’s law in field metric units ............................................................................................................... 4
 Darcy’s law in radial steady-state flow ..................................................................................................... 4
 Darcy’s law in radial flow pseudosteady-state flow .................................................................................. 4
2. OOIP/RESERVES .................................................................................................................................................. 5
 OOIP- Original Oil in Place ..................................................................................................................... 5
 Reserves ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
3. SKIN FACTOR ....................................................................................................................................................... 6
 Definition ................................................................................................................................................... 6
 The additional pressure drop due to skin effect, ∆ps ................................................................................ 6
 Example ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
4. DIFFUSIVITY EQUATION, FLOW REGIMES .......................................................................................................... 7
 Diffusivity equation in radial form ........................................................................................................... 7
 Semi steady state (or pseudo steady-state) ................................................................................................ 7
 Steady state ................................................................................................................................................ 7
5. WELL TEST ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................................................... 8
 Pressure Drawdown or Injectivity ............................................................................................................. 8
 Buildup or Falloff...................................................................................................................................... 8
6. WATER INJECTION COMPENSATION ................................................................................................................. 10
7. IMMISCIBLE DISPLACEMENT (WATERFLOODING) ........................................................................................... 11
 Linear water fractional flow equation, fw ............................................................................................... 11
 Average water saturation ........................................................................................................................ 11
8. MATERIAL BALANCE METHODS ....................................................................................................................... 12
 General equation ..................................................................................................................................... 12
 FE method (solution gas drive) ............................................................................................................... 13
 GASCAP Method ..................................................................................................................................... 14
 Havlena – Odeh Method ......................................................................................................................... 15
 Campbell Method..................................................................................................................................... 16
 Pressure match methods (any reservoir) ................................................................................................ 17

Production Engineering ......................................................................................... 18

1. BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE (BHP) IN ESP PUMP WELLS.................................................................................. 18
 Vertical well case ..................................................................................................................................... 18
 Deviated wells (subtract a constant correction) ....................................................................................... 19
 Units conversion ...................................................................................................................................... 19
2. OIL FLOW RATE BASED ON TOTAL LIQUID AND WATER CUT ......................................................................... 20
 Volumetric flowrate ................................................................................................................................. 20
 Mass flowrate ........................................................................................................................................... 20
 Example ................................................................................................................................................... 20
 Units conversion ...................................................................................................................................... 20
3. PRODUCTIVITY INDEX PI ................................................................................................................................... 21
 Definition ................................................................................................................................................. 21
 PI for steady state flow to a vertical well ................................................................................................ 21
 PI for pseudosteady – state flow to a vertical well .................................................................................. 21
 PI calculation given qL, pwf and pR .......................................................................................................... 21
4. INFLOW PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP (IPR) ................................................................................................ 22
 Vogel model in dimensionless form ........................................................................................................ 22
 General IPR based on Vogel’s model ..................................................................................................... 22
 General IPR based on Fetkovich’s model .............................................................................................. 22
 Example problem (IPR) .......................................................................................................................... 22
5. FLOW EFFICIENCY ............................................................................................................................................. 23
 Definition ................................................................................................................................................. 23
 FE for steady-state flow........................................................................................................................... 23
 FE for pseudosteady-state flow ............................................................................................................... 23
6. CALCULATIONS FOR ENHANCEMENT CANDIDATE SELECTION........................................................................ 24
 Enhancement ........................................................................................................................................... 24
 Calculation of potential oil rate increment ............................................................................................. 24
7. CALCULATIONS FOR FRACTURING WELL CANDIDATE SELECTION ................................................................ 25

2
  Calculation of potential oil rate increment ............................................................................................. 25
8. ESP PUMP DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................. 26
9. FRACTURE EFFICIENCY ..................................................................................................................................... 27
 Definition ................................................................................................................................................. 27
10. FRACTURE DESIGN EQUATIONS ...................................................................................................................... 28
 Rock mechanics parameters.................................................................................................................... 28
 Fluid volume pumped (Vi) ....................................................................................................................... 29
 Fracture volume (Vf) ............................................................................................................................... 29
 Volume lost into the reservoir (VLp) ........................................................................................................ 29
 Fracture half length or penetration (L) .................................................................................................. 29
 Dimensionless fracture conductivity (FCD) ........................................................................................... 29
11. MD, TVD AND TVDSS .................................................................................................................................... 31
12. SINGLE PHASE PRESSURE DROP IN CASING OR TUBING ................................................................................ 32
 Pressure drop in casing or tubing ........................................................................................................... 32
 Pressure drop in annular ........................................................................................................................ 33
13. FLOW THROUGH CHOKES ................................................................................................................................ 34
 Gilbert equation (water/oil, producing gas) ............................................................................................ 34
 Example ................................................................................................................................................... 34
 Poettmann and Beck’s charts.................................................................................................................. 34
14. MULTIPHASE PRESSURE DROP IN CASING OR TUBING .................................................................................. 35
 General pressure drop expression ........................................................................................................... 35
 Orkiszewski’s correlation ........................................................................................................................ 35
 Bubble flow .............................................................................................................................................. 36
 Slug flow .................................................................................................................................................. 36
 Continuous oil phase ............................................................................................................................... 37
 Continuous water phase .......................................................................................................................... 37
15. OIL PVT PROPERTIES...................................................................................................................................... 38
 Oil specific gravity and API gravity ........................................................................................................ 38
 Bubble pressure or saturation pressure .................................................................................................. 38
 Dead oil viscosity ..................................................................................................................................... 38
 Oil viscosity above bubble point pressure ............................................................................................... 38
 Oil formation volume factor (Standing) ................................................................................................. 39
16. GAS PROPERTIES.............................................................................................................................................. 40
 Real gas equation of state (EOS) ............................................................................................................ 40
 Gas FVF .................................................................................................................................................. 40
 Gas viscosity ............................................................................................................................................. 40
17. DECLINE CURVE EQUATIONS .......................................................................................................................... 42
 General mathematical expression ........................................................................................................... 42
 Exponential or constant decline.............................................................................................................. 42
 Hyperbolic decline ................................................................................................................................... 42
 Harmonic decline .................................................................................................................................... 43

Formation Evaluation ............................................................................................ 44

1. SHALE VOLUME BY GR AND SP ........................................................................................................................ 44
 Definition: shale content, Vsh .................................................................................................................. 44
 GR – natural gammy ray log ................................................................................................................... 44
 SP – spontaneous potential ..................................................................................................................... 44
2. POROSITY FROM POROSITY LOGS ..................................................................................................................... 45
 Porosity of clean reservoirs (Vsh=0) ........................................................................................................ 45
 Porosity of shaly reservoirs, shale content correction ............................................................................ 45
3. ARCHIE’S EQUATIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 46
 Formation factor ..................................................................................................................................... 46
 Formation resistivity index, I .................................................................................................................. 46
 Example ................................................................................................................................................... 46
 Correction for shale content (Vsh) ........................................................................................................... 47
 Example ................................................................................................................................................... 47

3
 Reservoir Engineering
1. Darcy’s Law
 Expression
A dp
q  k  
 dx
where
q – single phase flow rate, cm3/sec
k – permeability, Darcy
A – flow area, cm2
dp – pressure drop, atm
dx – flow length, cm
The units used in the law are called Darcy units. Note: 1 md=10-15 m2, 1Darcy=1 m 
2

Rank of the formation based on permeability

<1 md - Very low
1 to 10 md - Low
10 to 50 md - Medium
50 to 200 md - Average
200 to 500 md - Good
>500 md - Excellent

 Darcy’s law in field metric units

A dp
q  8.64  10 3 k 
B dx
Where q – volumetric flow rate at stock tank conditions, m3/day
k – permeability, mD
B - formation volume factor of the fluid, m3/m3
A – flow area, m2
dp – pressure drop, atm
dx – flow length, m

 Darcy’s law in radial steady-state flow

kh p e  p wf 
q  5.435  10  2
B ln re / rw   S 
where
pe – reservoir pressure at outer boundary radius re, bars
pwf – bottom-hole pressure (BHP) at rw, bars
re – outer boundary radius, m
rw – wellbore radius, m
S – skin factor, dimensionless
h – formation thickness, m

 Darcy’s law in radial flow pseudosteady-state flow

kh p e  p wf 
q  5.435  10  2
B ln re / rw   0.75  S 

4
2. OOIP/Reserves

 OOIP- Original Oil in Place

h (1  S w )
N dA
Bo
where
N – OOIP at standard conditions, sm3
h – reservoir thickness, m
φ – reservoir porosity, fraction
Sw – water saturation, fraction
Bo – oil FVF, m3/sm3

Remark: all the quantities in the integrant will vary arealy in general,
So numerical integration is needed to calculate the OOIP

 Reserves

Defined as the future economically recoverable hydrocarbons (oil) from a reservoir

Ultimate recovery is given by
R = OOIP×Er
R – ultimate recovery
OOIP – Original Oil-in-Place
Er – recovery efficiency
Reserves = R – Qp
Qp – cumulative oil production

5
3. Skin Factor
 To represent formation damage around a wellbore due to drilling, completion and
stimulation processes
 Definition
k  r
S    1 ln s
 ks  rw
where
k - permeability of the undamaged reservoir, md
k s - permeability of damage zone, md
rs - radius of the damaged zone, m
rw - wellbore radius, m

 The additional pressure drop due to skin effect, ∆ps

18.4qB
p s  S
kh
where
q – volumetric oil flow rate at stock tank conditions, m3/d
B – oil FVF, m3/m3
h – formation thickness, m
µ - oil viscosity, cp
Δps - pressure drop, atm

 Example

Assume a well has a radius rw= 10cm (0.328ft), and a damage radius rs = 3.328ft, drilling
mud invasion and partial perforation results in k/ks = 5, the well is producing 50 m3/d of
oil with viscosity 1.3cp and FVF 1.21 m3/m3, reservoir thickness at the well location is
about 15m, what would be the skin effect?

3.328
Skin factor: S  (5  1)  ln  9 .3
0.328
18.4  50  1.21  1.3
Pressure drop due to skin: p s   9.3  19.3atm
5  15

 Notes

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4. Diffusivity Equation, Flow Regimes

 Diffusivity equation in radial form

 2 p 1 p ct p
 
r 2 r r k t
Where
p – pressure
r – radius
t - time
φ – porosity
ct – total compressibility of the porous media
k – permeability

This radial flow equation applies to any coherent units system.

 Transient flow, pressure, so as flow rate, changes with time t and radius r, i.e.,
p
 f (r , t )
t
This flow state is also called infinite acting. It is assumed that the pressure
response in the reservoir is not affected by the outer boundary.

 Semi steady state (or pseudo steady-state)

p
 const
t
This condition is applicable to a reservoir which has been producing for a sufficient
period of time so that the effect of the outer boundary has been felt.
If the well is producing at a constant flow rate q, then the constant can be expressed as
p q

t cre2 h
where re is the outer boundary radius and h is the reservoir thickness.

 Steady state
p
0
t
This applies to a constant pressure boundary or the pressure is maintained in the
reservoir due to natural flow influx or fluid injection, such as water injection.

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5. Well Test Analysis
 Pressure drawdown or injectivity
21.5qBo  k 
pi  p wf  log(t )  log  3.1  0.87 S 
kh  ct rw2

qBo
Permeability: k  21.5
mh
 p  p1hr  k  
Skin factor: S  1.15   i  log 
2 
 3 . 10 
 m  ct rw  
Where
pwf – flowing bottom hole pressure, bar
pi – initial reservoir pressure, bar
p1hr – pressure on straight line portion of semilog plot 1 hour after
beginning a transient test
q – volumetric flow rate, m3/d
µ - oil viscosity, cp
Bo – oil FVF, m3/sm3
t – time, hours
k – permeability of the reservoir, md
φ – reservoir porosity, fraction
h – reservoir thickness, m
ct – total compressibility, bar-1
S – skin factor, dimensionless
rw – wellbore radius, m
m - the slope of the semilog straight line, bar/cycle

 Buildup or falloff
21.5qBo t p  t
pi  p ws (t )  ln
kh t
21.5qBo
Permeability: k 
mh
 p  p1hr  k   t p  1 
Skin factor: S  1.1513   i  log   3.2275  log  
2   t 
 m  ct rw   p 
where
pws(∆t) – bottom hole pressure during the buildup phase, bar
tp – production or injection time, hours

tp 
 q  24hours
q last
∆t – shut in time, hours
m - the slope of the straight line on a graph of pws versus log(tp+∆t)/ ∆t

8
 Front end effect Semilog straightline Boundary effect

Typical Curve Match

Horner&MDH Const Pe
Bottom hole pressure

Close Boundary
in e
Positive skin, small WBS htl
tr aig
s Pressure increase
log
mi from offset injection
Se

sma ll WBS Pressure decline from

acture,
Deep fr No skin, no WBS offset production

BS
Small W S
arg e WB
kin, l
eg ative s
N
BS
W
m
diu
, me BS
kin all W
os , sm
N ski n WBS-Well Bore Storage
itive
Pos

Log(shutin time)

9
6. Water Injection Compensation

 Definition: cumulative compensation

C m (%) 
 q i Bw  100%
 qo Bo   q w Bw
where
ΣqiBw – cumulative water injected into the entity from the injector(s).
ΣqoBo – cumulative oil production from the entity at reserevoir conditions.
ΣqwBw – cumulative water production from the entity at the reservoir conditions.
Bo – oil FVF.
Bw – water FVF.

 Definition: instantaneous compensation

qi Bw
cm   100%
q o Bo  q w B w
where
qi – water injection rate into the entity from the injector(s).
qo –oil production rate from the entity at surface conditions.
qw –water production rate from the entity at the surface conditions.
Bo – oil FVF.
Bw – water FVF.

 Explanation

This parameter tells roughly how the reservoir pressure is maintained by water injection.
Local practice suggests that a value of Cm between 110% to 120% would indicate good
reservoir pressure maintenance by water injection.

10
7. Immiscible Displacement (Waterflooding)
 Linear water fractional flow equation, fw
kk A  Pc 
1  8.64  10 3 ro   0.1    w   o  sin( )
 o qt  L 
fw 
 w k ro
1
 o k rw
or
1
fw 
 k
1  w ro
 o k rw
if gravity and capillary effects can be neglected.

where
A – area of the linear system, m2
fw – water fractional flow, fraction
k – absolute permeability, md
kro, krw – relative permeabilitiy of oil and water, respectively
µo, µw - oil and water viscosity, cp
ρo, ρw – oil and water density, g/cm3
L – distance along direction of flow, m
Pc = po – pw, – capillary pressure, atm
qt – total flow rate, qo+qw, m3/d
α – angle of the linear system from horizon, degrees

 Linear frontal advance equation (Buckley-Leverett)

 x  q  f 
   t  w 
 t  S w A  S w  t
Physically, this equation says that the advance rate of a fixed water saturation, Sw, at a
time, t, is equal to the total fluid velocity times the change in composition of the flowing
stream. This equation can be used to derive the average water saturation of the system.

 Average water saturation

S wf  S wc
At water breakthrough: S wbt  S wc 
f wf
1  f w2
After water breakthrough: S w  S w 2 
f w2
Where Swc – connate water saturation
Swf – water saturation at the flood front
Sw2 – water saturation at the producing end of the system
fwf = fw(Swf) – water fractional flow at Sw = Swf
fw2 = fw(Sw2) – water fractional flow at Sw = Sw2
f w2 - derivative of fw at Sw = Sw2
S wbt - average water saturation before breakthough
S w - average water saturation after water breakthrough

11
8. Material Balance Methods
 General equation

Underground = Expansion of oil

Withdrawal + Original dissolved gas + Expansion of gas caps
+ Reduction in hydrocarbon pore volume due to connate water
expansion and decrease in the pore volume.
+ Natural water influx
F  N Eo  mE g  E fw   We  NEt  We
where:
F = underground withdrawal, m3
 
= N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg  W p Bw  Wi Bw  Gi Bg
= Np B  R
t p  Rsi B   W B
g p w  Wi Bw  Gi Bg
3
Np= cumulative oil production, sm
Bo = oil formation volume factor, m3/sm3
Rs = gas in solution in oil, sm3/sm3
Bg = gas formation volume factor, m3/sm3
Wp= cumulative water production, sm3
Wi = cumulative water injection, sm3
Gi = cumulative gas injection, sm3
Rp = cumulative gas oil ratio (GOR), sm3/sm3
N = OOIP, sm3
Bt = Bo+(Rsi-Rs)Bg
Eo= Expansion of oil and original gas in solution, m3/sm3
= Bt - Bti= (Bo-Boi)+(Rsi-Rs)Bg
m = initial gas gap volume factor
initial hydrocarbon volume of the gas cap
= , m3/m3
initial hydrocarbon volume of the oil zone
Eg = Expansion gas cap gas, m3/sm3
 Bg 
= Boi  1
B 
 gi 
Efw = Expansion of the connate water and reduction in the pore volume,
m3/sm3
 C w S wi  C f 
= 1  m Bo  P
 1  S wi 
Cw, Cf = water, formation, compressibility, respectively, atm-1
Swi = initial water saturation, fraction
P = pressure drop, atm
We = cumulative natural water influx, m3
=U×S(p,t)
U = aquifer constant, m3/atm
S(p, t) = aquifer function

12
 FE method (solution gas drive)

Assume We = 0,
F = NEt
Plot: F vs Et through origin, N=Slope

m≠0

ctm
rre
l
mal
c o
F N,
oo s
e
lop
S
m, t

e
arg
oo l
m, t

Et

m=0

F N
e
S lop

Et

13
 GASCAP method

Assume We=Efw=0, divided by Eo

F  Eg 
 N  mN  
Eo  Eo 
F E
Plot: vs g , N =Y intercept, mN=Slope
Eo Eo

m N
P E=
O
SL

F
Eo

Eg
EO

14
 Havlena – Odeh method

Water drive, divided by Et

F W S
 N  e  N U
Et Et Et
F We  S 
Plot: vs  or  , N =Y intercept, U = Slope
Et Et  Et 

ma
ll e tr y
t om
Ge
os

r rec
o
ec t
– to

– c r
We o r
In c
We

F
Et

e
W e – too la rg

We S
or
Et Et

15
 Campbell method

Water drive
F
Plot: vs F , N =Y intercept
Et

in fl u x
at er
w
F h n et
W it
Et
No net water influx

16
 Pressure match methods (any reservoir)

Plot: PR vs Np, Correct N, m, and We for best match

Observed
P
-Predicted with
correct m,N,We

Np

17
 Production Engineering
1. Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP) in ESP Pump Wells
 Vertical well case
 
BHP  Pcsg   o Z pump  Z FL   m ( Z pzt  Z pump )

 10 10 
Where
 m   wWc   o 1  Wc  - oil/water mixture density between the pump
intake and the top depth of the pay zone.
ρw – water density, g/cm3
ρo -- oil density, g/cm3
Note that surface oil density is actually used in the calculation.
Wc-- water cut, fraction
Z ’s – true vertical depths in downward direction, m
Zpump – measured pump depth, m
ZFL – fluid level depth, m
Zpzt – top depth of the pay zone, m
Pcsg – casing pressure (casing/tubing annular pressure), atm
BHP – bottom-hole pressure, atm or bars (kg/cm2)
The coefficient, 1/10, comes from the following units conversion
 g   g   kg  100cm  1  kg  1
 cm 
3
m    cm 3  1000 g m m   10  cm 2   10 atm
 
Note that it is assumed in the calculation that it is pure oil above the pump and oil/water
mixture between the pump and the top of the pay zone. Further, the oil and water
densities are equal to their densities at the surface conditions and the oil/water mixture
density can be estimated in terms of water cut measured at surface condition.

Tubing

ZFL

Oil Oil

Pump
Zpump
●●●●● Pump Intake

Water/oil mixture
Zpzt

Schematic diagram of a vertical pump well.

18
 Deviated wells (subtract a constant correction)

It is assumed that the deviation angle of the wellbore is constant.

 o  MD  TVD 
BHP  ( Z pump  Z FL
 )   
Z pump  Z FL
10  Z pzt 
 m  MD  TVD 
 ( Z pzt  Z pump )  Z pzt  Z pump 
10  Z pzt 

Note that |MD-TVD| is termed as deviation, it is the difference between the measured
depth and the true vertical depth of the pay zone.
Note also that all Z’s have the same meaning as in the vertical well case, but they are all
measured depths along the deviated wellbore. Therefore, a prime is used to distinguish.

 Units conversion

1MPa (atm) = 14.51 psi

1 psi = 0.6805 atm
1 g/cm3 = 62.43 lb/ft3
1 lb/ft3 = 0.01602 g/cm3

19
2. Oil Flow rate Based on Total Liquid and Water Cut
 Volumetric flowrate
q 0  q L (1  Wc ) , m3/day
 Mass flowrate
M 0  q L 1  Wc  0 , tones/day
Where
qL -- total liquid rate, m3/day
ρo – oil density at surface conditions, g/cm3
Wc -- water cut, fraction
Mo – oil mass rate, tones/day

 Example

A ESP well is producing 80 m3/d of liquid (oil+water), surface measurement gives 16%
water cut, suppose that oil density is 0.82 g/cm3, then the oil rates would be,
q o  80  (1  0.16)  67.2m 3 / d
M o  qo    67.2  0.82  55.1tons / d

 Units conversion

1 barrel = 0.159 m3
1 m3 = 6.29 barrels
1 g/cm3 = 62.43 lb/ft3
1 lb/ft3 = 0.01602 g/cm3

20
3. Productivity Index PI
 To represent well productivity or deliverability

 Definition
q
PI 
p R  p wf
Where
q – flow rate, sm3/d or stb/d
pR – average pressure of the drainage area around the well bore, can be
represented by the static fluid level, bar or psi
pwf – flowing bottom-hole pressure, bar or psi
PI – productivity index, (sm3/d)/bar or (stb/d)/psi

 PI for steady state flow to a vertical well

kh
PI  0.05435 
 r 
B  ln e  S 
 rw 
Where
kh – average kh product of the drainage area, md.m
re – drainage radius, m
rw – wellbore radius, m
S – skin factor
B - oil FVF, m3/sm3
µ - oil viscosity, cp
PI – productivity index, (sm3/d)/bar

 PI for pseudosteady – state flow to a vertical well

0.05435  kh
PI 
 r 
B  ln e  0.75  S 
 rw 
 PI calculation given qL, pwf and pR

 qL
 , if p wf  pb
 2

 p  p  pb 1  0.2 p wf  p 
  0.8 wf 
 R   p 
PI   b
1.8   b   pb  
 
 qL
, if p wf  pb
 p R  p wf

Where:
pb - bubble point pressure (saturation pressure), atm
pwf - flowing bottom-hole pressure, atm
pR-- reservoir pressure, atm
qL -- total liquid rate, m3/day
PI – productivity index, (m3/day)/atm

21
4. Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)
 Vogel model in dimensionless form
q   p wf   p wf  
2

 1  0.2   0.8  
q max   p res   p res  
 
where q – flow rate at flowing BHP pwf, less than bubble point pressure
qmax – maximum flow rate at pwf =0
pwf – flowing BHP
pres – reservoir pressure

 General IPR based on Vogel’s model

 pb   p wf   p wf   
2

q  PI ( p res  p b )  1  0.2   0.8   
 1 . 8   p   p   
 b b

where PI – the stabilized Productivity index at zero draw down pwf => pres
pb – bubble point pressure of the producing fluid

 General IPR based on Fetkovich’s model


q  PI ( p res  pb ) 
1
2 pb
2 
pb  p wf2   
 
 Example problem (IPR)

An oil well is producing at a stabilized rate of 20 sm3/d at a flowing BHP pwf = 80 bars. The
average reservoir shut-in static pressure, pres = 100 bars. Calculate maximum possible flow
rate at pwf = 0, and producing rate if a new pump were installed to lower flowing BHP to 50
bars. Make the calculations using Vogel’s model.

1. Productivity Index (PI)

q 20
PI    1 ( sm 3 / d ) / bar
p res  p wf 100  80
2. Flow rate at pwf =50bars

q = PI(pres-pwf) = 1×(100-50) = 50 sm3/d

3. Vogel IPR
2
q  80   80 
 1  0.2   0.8   1  0.16  0.512  0.328
qmax  100   100 

qmax = q/0.328 = 20/0.328 = 61 (sm3/d)

  50   50  
2

q p wf 50  q max 1  0.2   0.8    61  0.7  42.7( sm / d )

3

  100   100  

22
5. Flow Efficiency

 Definition
PI actual
FE 
PI ideal

 FE for steady-state flow

ln re / rw
FE 
ln re / rw  S

 FE for pseudosteady-state flow

ln re / rw
FE 
ln re / rw  0.75  S

23
6. Calculations for Enhancement Candidate Selection
 Enhancement
Lower the flowing bottom-hole pressure (or correspondingly dynamic fluid level) from the
current higher value to 50 bars by changing a bigger size pump. Apparently, this is applicable
only to producing wells with a running pump (whether it is ESP or Sucker Rod pump).

 Calculation of potential oil rate increment

 PI based on the current production, qL, pwf and pres

 Current oil rate in tones/day

qo=qL (1-Wc/100)ρo where ρo is the oil density in g/cm3 and Wc is the water cut in
percentage

 Total liquid rate after enhancement

qLenh=PI (pres-pwf) where pwf =50atm.

 Oil rate after enhancement, in tones per day, assuming on change in Wc.

qoenh=qLenh (1-Wc/100)ρo where ρo is the oil density in g/cm3.

Note that strictly speaking, these calculations are very rough.

 Oil rate increment in tones/day

∆qo= qoenh-qo

24
7. Calculations for Fracturing Well Candidate Selection
A skin value of -4.7 is assumed in the calculations after fracturing.

 Calculation of potential oil rate increment

 kh product based the current production and skin if there is any.

 r  
kh  18.4   o Bo n e   3  S  * PI
4
  r  
 The new PI value after fracturing.
kh
PInew 
 r  
18.4   o Bo n e   3  (4.7)
4
  r  
 Total liquid rate after fracturing

qLfrac=PInew (pres-pwf) where pwf =50atm and pwf > pb.

Otherwise
 p b   p wf   p wf  
2

 PInew p res  p b  1  0.2   0.8  , p wf  50atm, p wf  p b
Frac
q
p b  p b  
L
 1 .8   
 
Note that the enhancement pressure 50atm is used in the calculations above.

 Oil rate after fracturing, in tones per day, assuming on change in Wc.

qofrac=qLfrac (1-Wc/100)ρo where ρo is the oil density in g/cm3.

 Oil rate increment in tones/day

∆qo= qofrac-qo

25
8. ESP Pump Design

 Target

Identify a pump of the largest possible diameter that can be run in the well. The target
efficiency should be within its recommended operating range and close to its peak efficiency

 Selection data

1. Mechanical Data
Casing/tubing size
Well depth /Deviation/Perforation Depth
2. Production Data
Current/potential production rate
Oil rate /water cut/GOR
Static BHP / fluid level
Producing BHP / fluid level
Bottom hole pressure
System backpressure from flowline, separator and choke
3. Fluid Data
Oil/gas/water properties
4. Power Supply
Voltage/frequency
Capacity of the service
Quality of the service

 Total dynamic head (TDH) for the number of stages in the pump

True vertical lift distance from the producing fluid level to the surface
Friction loss in the tubing string
Wellhead pressure
 Pump performance curve review for optimal producing range and peak efficiency

 The number of stages required, ns

TDH
ns 
Ls
where THD – the total dynamic head, m
Ls – lift per stage, m
ns – the number of stages required
 Horse power required, Php
Php  Phs  n s   f
where
Php – motor horse power
Phs – horse power per stage
ns – number of stages
ρf – specific gravity of the pumping fluid
 Specific pump selection by computer program based on data (setting depth, casing size and
motor voltage) and models (pump performance, reservoir response and fluid characteristics)

26
9. Fracture Efficiency
 Definition
qo post  frac qo pre  frac

q0 pwf  0 q0 pre  frac

where

qo|post-frac and qo|pre-frac are the oil flowrate after fracture and before fracture in
t/d, calculated from the total liquid rate in m3/d and water cut.
qo|pwf=0 is called Absolute Open Flow (AOF) rate of oil at pwf = 0, which can
be calculated from the following equation,

 p  Wc   Wc 
qo pwf  0  PI  p res  pb  b 1    o  PI  p res  0.444 pb 1  o
 1.8  100   100 

Remark: PI value here could be the PI before fracture, designed for a

skin =-4.7 or the actual value after fracture. Correspondingly, there could be three
values of qo|pwf=0.

 Practically the fracture efficiency could be calculated by the actual oil rate increment
divided by the designed oil rate increment

qo post  frac qo pre  frac


q0 skin  4.7 q 0 pre  frac

Where qo|skin=-4.7 is the potential oil rate based on an assumed skin factor -4.7.

27
10. Fracture Design Equations
 Rock mechanics parameters

 Concepts

Stress (σ) – force per unit area

Strain (ε) – under stress, change in length (δ), compared to the original length (l) is
called strain

 Young’s modulus (E) and dynamic Young’s modulus (Ed)

stress    3t s2  4t c2 

E  , Ed  2  2 
 2.15  10 8
strain  t s  t s  t c 
2

 Poisson’s ratio (υ) and dynamic Poisson’s ratio (υd)

lateral strain 1  t s2  2t c2 

 , d   2 
axial strain 2  t s  t c2 

Typical values: sandstone (0.25), limestone (0.15), shale (0.4)

 Shear modulus (G) and dynamic shear modulus (Gd)

shear stress  
G  , Gd  2  2.15  10 8
angle of deformation  in radians t s

For fluid G=0, for solid G=finite number

 Bulk modulus (K) and dynamic bulk modulus (Kd)

Force / surface area  3t s2  4t c2 

K , Kd     2.15  10
8

 3t s t c 
2 2
volume change / original volume

K is the reciprocal of compressibility

 Parameter relationship

9 KG E 3KE E
E ,   1, G  , K
3K  G 2G 9K  E 3(1  2 )

where Δts and Δtc are shear wave and compressional wave travel time from logs, µs/ft
ρ – rock bulk density, lb/ft3

28
 Fluid volume pumped (Vi)

Vi = qi×tp
3
Where qi – total injection rate, m /hour
tp – pumping time for a treatment, hour

 Fracture volume (Vf)

Vf = hf ×w×2L = η×Vi
Where
hf – average, gross fracture height
w- average fracture width
L – fracture half length or penetration
η - the fluid efficiency

 Volume lost into the reservoir (VLp)

V LP  6C L hL L t p  4 LhL S p
where CL – the fluid loss coefficient (typically 0.0005 to 0.05ft/min0.5)
hL – fluid loss height
Sp – spurt loss (typically from 0 to 50 gal/100ft2)

 Fracture half length or penetration (L)

qi t p
L
6C L hL t p  4hL S p  2 wh f

 Dimensionless fracture conductivity (FCD)

k f wf
FCD 
kx f
Where
xf – fracture half-length, m
wf – fracture width, m
k – reservoir permeability, md
kf – permeability of proppant in the fracture, md
kf wf – fracture conductivity, md.m

Note: FCD is the ratio of the ability of fracture to carry flow divided by the ability of the
formation to feed the fracture.

 Fracture Conductivuty
 Dimensionless Pressure, PD
 Dimensionless Time, tD
 Time to Pseudo Radial Flow, tprf
 Time to Pseudo Steady State Flow, tpss
 Skin Factor Based on PSS pD

29
30
11. MD, TVD and TVDSS

MD, TVD and TVDSS

RKB: Rotary Kelly Bush

MD&TVD Reference Depth

Sea Level
Sea Bed MD: Measured Depth

TVD: True Vertical Depth

TVDSS
TVD
MD

TVDSS: True Vertical Depth

SubSea

Displacement

31
12. Single Phase Pressure Drop in Casing or Tubing
The type of the flow is characterized by the Reynolds number Re,
vd
Re 

Where
v - fluid velocity (m/s)
d - inner diameter of casing or tubing (m)
 - dynamic viscosity (Pa.s)
 - fluid density of fluid (kg/m3)

A critical value (Re)c = 2100. Laminar flow: Re ≤ (Re)c; Turbulent flow: Re > (Re)c.

For an annular
0.8165(d o  d i )v
Re 

Where,
do - outer diameter of the annular (m)
di - inner diameter of the annular (m)

The critical velocity vc is the velocity at the critical Reynolds number. If v  vc , the flow is of the
laminar type.

 Pressure drop in casing or tubing

 Critical velocity: vc (m/s)

2100
vc 
d
 Critical flow rate: qc(m3/s)
525d
qc 

 Pressure loss inside casing or tubing: Pi (laminar flow) (Pa)
32 Lv 128 Lq
Pi  
d2 d 4
 Pressure loss inside casing or tubing: Pi (turbulent flow) (Pa)
0.1L 0.8 v1.8  0.2 1.21L 0.8 q1.8  0.2
Pi  
d 1.2  1.8 d 4.8
where
L - length (m)
V - fluid velocity (m/s)
q - flow rate (m3/s)
d - inner diameter (m)
 - dynamic viscosity (Pa.s)
 - density of fluid (kg/m3)

32
 Pressure drop in annular

o Critical velocity, m/min

6.08
vc 
(d o  d i ) 
o Pressure drop Pi (laminar flow) (bar)
Lv Lq
Pi  
80645d o  d i  40863d o  d i d o  d i 
2 3

o Pressure drop Pi (turbulent flow) (bar)

L 0.8 v1.8  0.2 L 0.8 q1.8  0.2
Pi  
240415d o  d i  70696d o  d i  d o  d i 
1.2 1.8 3

where
L - length (m)
v - fluid velocity (m/min)
q - flow rate (liter/min)
do - outer diameter (m)
di - inner diameter (m)
 - fluid dynamic viscosity (cp)
 - fluid density (kg/dm3)

33
13. Flow through Chokes
Control production rate from a well. It should be selected so that the fluctuations in the
line pressure downstream of the choke have no effect on the well flowrate.

 Gilbert equation (water/oil, producing gas)

435GOR 0.546 q t
pt  1.89
Sc
where
pt – tubing pressure, psi
GOR – gas/liquid ratio, 103scf/bbl
qt – gross liquid rate, b/d
Sc – choke size in 1/64 in

 Example

It is desired to produce a well at 100b/d oil, the producing GOR is 4×103 scf/bbl. At this
rate, the tubing pressure is 1800psi, estimate the choke size.
1.89 435GOR 0.546 qt 435  4 0.546  100
Sc    0.87
pt 1800
Sc = 7.4 (1/64 in), a 8/64in choke can be used

 Poettmann and Beck’s charts

For flow rate estimation given choke size, GOR and pt

From GOR to Tubing pressure to choke size, then find qt
For choke size estimate given others
From qt to pt to GOR horizontally, then choke size

34
14. Multiphase Pressure Drop in Casing or Tubing
Multiphase flow in vertical pipes may be categorized into four different flow regimes, which are
bubble flow, slug flow, transition flow and mist flow. Complete sets of pressure traverses for
specific flow conditions, tubing/casing sizes and fluid properties have been published and can be
used for hand calculations.
Here Orkiszewski’s correlations for bubble flow and slug flow are given only as reference. Due
to this, English units will be applied to the equations.

 General pressure drop expression

 
 
1   avg   f 
p   Z
144  wt q g 
1
 144 g c A 2 p avg 
 
where
ρavg – average fluid density, lbm/ft3
τf – friction loss gradient, lbf/ft2-ft
wt – total mass flowrate, lbm/sec
qg – gas or light phase volumetric flowrate, ft3/sec
A – cross-sectional area of the pipe, ft2
pavg – average pressure in ΔZ, psi
gc – gravitational constant, 32.2 ft-lbm/lbf-sec2
ΔZ – depth interval for the segment, ft
Δp – pressure drop in ΔZ, psi

Remark: the key to Δp calculation is to evaluate ρavg and τf for different flow regimes.

 Orkiszewski’s correlation

 Dimensionless variables for flow regime determination

Dimensionless gas velocity
q g  L /  g 
0.25

vgD 
A
at the bubble slug boundary
0.2218vt2
LB  1.071 
dH
but LB  0.13
at the slug-transition boundary
36vgD qL
LS  50 
qg
and at the transition-mist boundary
0.75
v q 
LM  75  84 gD L 
 q 
 g 
where
vgD - dimensionless gas velocity
vt - total fluid velocity (qt/A), ft/s
 L - liquid density, lbm/cu ft
35
  - liquid surface tension, lbm/sec2
L - flow regime boundary, dimensionless
dH - hydraulic pump diameter, ft
dg - gas flow rate, cu ft/sec
g - acceleration of gravity, ft/sec2
A - flow area of pipe, sq ft

 Bubble flow

The average flowing density in bubble flow is calculated from the following equation,
which volumetrically weights the gas and liquid densities.
 g   g f g  1  f g  L
The following gas fraction fg in bubble flow is given by
  1  qt  4q g 
2
1 qt
fg  1    
2  vs A  vs A  vs A 
 
where the slip velocity, vs is the difference between the average gas and liquid velocity.
Griffith suggests the use of an approximate value of vs = 0.8 ft/sec for bubble flow

The friction loss gradient for bubble flow is based on single-phase liquid flow.
f L v L
2
f 
2 g c d H cos 
where
qL
vL 
A1  f g 
1488  L d H vL
N Re 
L
Where
dH - the hydraulic pipe diameter, ft
 L - Liquid viscosity

 Slug flow

Average density term for slug flow is expressed as

w   L vb A
 t   L
qt  vb A
vb - bubble rise velocity
vb = C1C2 gd H
1488  L d H vb
N Reb 
L
1488  L d H vt
N Re 
L

vb  0.546  8.74(106 ) N Re  gd H

0.5
 2 13.59 L 
vb  0.5vbi  0.5 vbi  
  L d H 


36
 
vbi  0.251  8.74(106 ) N Re  gd H
vb  0.35  8.74(10 6
) N Re  gd H
f v2
 qL  vb A 
f  L b
   
2 g c d H cos   qt  vb A 

 Continuous oil phase

When vt <10
0.0127
 1.415
log L  1  0.284  0.167 log vt  0.113 log d H
dH
When vt >10,
0.0274
  1.371
log L  1  0.161  0.569 log d H
dH
 0.01 
 log vt  1.571 log L  1  0.397  0.63 log d H 
dH 

 Continuous water phase

When vt<10,
0.013
 1.8
log  L  0.681  0.232 log vt  0.428 log d H
dH
When vt>10,
0.045
 0.799
log  L  0.709  0.162 log vt  0.888 log d H
dH

37
15. Oil PVT Properties
 Oil specific gravity and API gravity

141.5 141.5
o  , o
API   131.5
131.5 o API o
where
γo – oil specific gravity
o
API – oil API gravity

 Bubble pressure or saturation pressure

 R 
0.83

 
Pb  18.2 s 
o
 10 0.00091TR 0.0125 API  1.4
 
 rg  
where
Rs – produced gas/oil ratio, scf/bbl
γg - gas specific gravity
TR – reservoir temperature, oF

 Dead oil viscosity

D
 1.8  10 7  360 
 do  0.32  o  
 API 4.53  TR  200 
where
8.33
0.43 o
D  10 API

µdo – dead oil (gas free) viscosity, cp

and TR – reservoir temperature, oF

 Oil viscosity above bubble point pressure

 P  Pb 
 o   ob  e A  R , A  2.68  0.98 ln( ob )  0.91ln( ob ) 
2

 1000 
where
µob –oil viscosity at bubble point pressure Pb, cp
µo –oil (undersaturated) viscosity, cp
pR – reservoir pressure, psi
Pb – bubble point pressure, psi
Oil Viscosity

Pb Pressure

38
 Oil formation volume factor (Standing)

1.175
1.47  g 
At or below Pb: Bob  0.972  4  Rs  1.25TR 
10  o 

Bo  Bob Exp C o ( Pb  p R )
where
Bob – oil FVF at or below bubble point pressure, RB/STB
Bo – oil FVF above Pb, RB/STB
Co – oil compressibility, psi-1
γg - gas specific gravity
TR – reservoir temperature, oF
Oil formation volume factor

Pb Pressure

39
16. Gas Properties
 Real gas equation of state (EOS)
m
pV  znRT  z RT
M
where
p – absolute pressure (measured from vacuum), bar
T – absolute temperature (measured from absolute zero), oK=oC + 273
V – volume occupied at p and T by n=m/M moles of gas, m3
m – mass of gas considered, g
M – molecular weight of gas
R – gas constant, 8.315×10-5 (m3.bar)/mol.g
z – compressibility factor

 Gas FVF
zT
B g  0.00350958
p
T – temperature, oK
p – pressure, bar
Bg – gas formation volume factor, res m3/std m3

 Gas viscosity
Y 1  expY 5
g 
10 4
where

Y1 
9.4  0.02 M 1.8T  492 
1.5

209  19 M  1.8T  492

Y 5  Y 2(Y 4) Y 3
M
Y 4  0.007532
Bg
Y 3  2.4  0.2Y 2
986
Y 2  3.5  0.01M 
1.8T  492
M  28.9 g ( Lee et al.)
µg – gas viscosity, cp
Gas Viscosity

pressure

40
 z factor

 Definition
Vactual
z
Videal
where Vactual – actual volume of gas at a specified temperature (T) and pressure (p)
Videal – ideal volume of gas at the same T and p

 Correlation

 A A A A   A A  2
z  1   A1  2  33  44  55   pr   A6  7  28   pr
 T pr T pr T pr T pr   T pr T pr 
 
A A    pr
2

T 

 A9  7  28   r5  A10 1  A11  pr
2

 T3

 exp  A11  pr

2

 pr T pr   pr 

Where
0.27 pr T p
 pr  , T pr  , Ppr 
zTr  T pc Ppc
Ppc and Tpc – pseudo critical pressure and temperature which can be
calculated by
Ppc  756.8  131.07 g  3.6 g2
T pc  169.2  349.5 g  74.0 g2
with γg – gas specific gravity ranging from 0.57 to 1.68.

and constants A1 through A11 are

A1= 0.3265; A2 = -1.700; A3 = -0.5339; A4 = -0.01569; A5 = -0.01565

A6 = -0.5475; A7 = -0.7361; A8 = 0.1844; A9 = 0.1056; A10 = 0.6134;
A11 = 0.7210

41
17. Decline Curve Equations

 General mathematical expression

dq / dt
D  Kq n
q
Where,
q - production rate, cubic meters per day, month or year
t - time, day, month
K - constant
n - exponent

Note: The decline rate in this equation can be constant or variable with the time yielding
three basic types of production decline.

 Exponential or constant decline

q 
ln t 
dq / dt q
D K   i
q t
where
n = 0, K – constant
qi – initial production rate
qt – production rate at time t
The rate- time and rate – cumulative relationships are given respectively by
q q
qt = qie-Dt, Qt = i t
D
A familiar rate constant for exponential decline is as follows:
q
D' 
qi
Where q is the rate change in the first year. In this case, the relationship between
D and D’ is given below.
 q 
D   ln1     ln 1  D'
 qi 
 Hyperbolic decline
dq / dt
D  Kq n (0<n<1)
q
Note that this is the same equation as the general decline rate equation except for
the constraint on n. For initial condition
D
K  ni
qi
The rate – time and rate – cumulative relationships are given by:

1
qt  qi 1  nDi t  n , Qt 
 
qin qi1 n  qt1 n 
1  n Di
Where Di = initial decline rate

42
 Harmonic decline
dq / dt
D  Kq
q
Where n = 1 and for initial condition
Di
K
qi
The rate – time and rate – cumulative relationships are given by:
qi q q
qt  , Qt  i ln i
1  Di t  Di qt
Note also that both harmonic and exponential declines are special cases of the
hyperbolic decline.

43
 Formation Evaluation
1. Shale Volume by GR and SP
 Definition: shale content, Vsh
Shale Volume
Vsh   100%
Rock Volume
 GR – natural gammy ray log

 Relative GR for shale content

GR  GRsand
Vsh  GR   100%
GRshale  GRsand
Where
GR – GR of reservoir
GRsand – GR of thick clean sand without hydrocarbon, minimum
GRshale – GR of pure shale, maximum
 Non-linear correction
2 GRc  1
Vsh   100%
2c  1
Where coefficient c depends on formation age,
Jurassic formation c=3.7, older formation c=2

 SP – spontaneous potential
 SP 
Vsh  SP  1    100%
 SSP 
where
SP – SP of the reservoir
SSP –Static SP in thick/clean sand without hydrocarbon content.

44
2. Porosity from Porosity Logs
 Porosity of clean reservoirs (Vsh=0)

 Neutron Porosity
 N   Nma
N 
 Nmf   Nma
ΦN – neutron of reservoir in limestone porosity units, percentage
ΦNma – matrix neutron (sandstone: -4~-6%; limestone:0; dolomite: 2%)
ΦNf – neutron of mud filtration, approximately 100%

 Density Porosity
 b   ma
D 
 mf   ma
ρb– density of reservoir, g/cm3
ρma – matrix density (sandstone: 2.65; limestone:2.71; dolomite: 2.87)
ρmf – density of mud filtration, approximately 1g/cm3

 Acoustic Porosity
t  t ma 1
S 
t f  t Nma C p
Δt– time interval of the reservoir formation, µs/m
Δtma – transit time of matrix (sandstone: 182.1; limestone:155.8; dolomite: 142.7)
Δtmf – transit time of mud filtration, approximately, 680µs/m.
Cp – compaction factor, can be estimated from Δtsh/30.48
Where Δtsh is the transit time in adjacent shale.

 Porosity of shaly reservoirs, shale content correction

 Neutron Porosity
 N   Nma    Nma
N   Vsh Nsh
 Nmf   Nma  Nmf   Nma
 Density Porosity
 b   ma    ma
D   Vsh sh
 mf   ma  mf   ma
 Acoustic Porosity
t  t ma 1 t  t ma
S   Vsh sh
t f  t Nma C p t mf  t ma

45
3. Archie’s Equations

 Link resistivity log value to water saturation and porosity log value, experimental
results, for saturation calculation from formation resistivity
 Formation factor
R a
F o  m
Rw 
where
a - lithology coefficient ( 1 in general is a good estimate) and
m – porority cementation index (  2, in general)
Rw – formation water resistivity, Ωm, can be calculated from SP
Ro – resistivity 100% water-saturated formation with water resistivity Rw, Ωm
φ - porosity determined by porosity logs (Acoustic/Neutron/Density), fraction
F - formation factor (constant for a given sample)

Useful models are listed

0.625 0.81
1) Commonly used sandstone equations (Humble) F  , F
 2.15
2
2) Compact rocks, low porosity, non-fractured carbonate
1 1
F  2.2~ 2.5 , F  1.87  0.019 / 
 
1.13
3) Chevron equation for sandstone F 
 1.73
 Formation resistivity index, I
Rt 1
I  n
Ro S w
or combined with F equations for a Sw equation

Ro FRw aR
Sw  n n n mw
Rt Rt  Rt
Where
Rt – the true formation resistivity, Ωm
n – saturation coefficient, =2 in general.
Sw – water saturation of the formation, fraction

Note that the Archie equations are satisfied for clean formations (sandstone with very
little shale content). For shaly-sand, shale correction is needed.

 Example

A clean consolidated sandstone formation has Rt = 10Ωm, if the porosity and water resistivity
are 15% and 0.05Ωmrespectively, Calculate Ro and Sw and determine whether the formation
is oil-bearing?
1.13
Solution: use F  1.73 for example, F = 1.13/0.151.73 = 30

Ro = FRw = 30 × 0.05 = 1.5Ωm<<Rt the formation is possibly oil-bearing.
Sw = (Ro/Rt)0.5 = 0.387 (38.7%)
Oil saturation = 1 – Sw = 61.3%

46
 Correction for shale content (Vsh)

 Simandoux equation
0.4 Rw  v sh v sh2 5 e2 
Sw     
 e2  Rsh Rsh2 Rt Rw 
where
vsh – shale content determined by shale indicator curves (SP, GR, etc),
fraction
Rsh – shale resistivity taken from the neighboring shale, Ωm
φe – effective porosity that excludes the shale effect

 Fertle-Hammack equation

FRw v R
Sw   sh w
Rt 0.4 Rsh e

where F reflects effective porosity too. Other parameters are the same
as above.

 Example

A shaly sandstone reservoir has the following log data and parameters:

Rt = 5Ωm, Rw=0.05Ωm, Vsh=20%, Rsh =1Ωm and φe =18%

1. Use Archie equation for F and water saturation Sw

F=0.81/φe2 = 0.81/0.182 = 25
Sw = (FRw/Rt)0.5 = 25×0.05/5 = 0.5 (50%)

2. Use Fertle-Mammack equation to account for the shale effect

Sw = (FRw/Rt)0.5-vshRw/(0.4Rsh φe)= 0.5-0.2×0.05/(0.4×0.18×1)

= 0.5 – 0.14 = 0.36 (36%)

3. Use Simandoux equation for shale correction

0.4(0.05)  0.2 0.2 2 5  0.18 2 

Sw        0.388 (38.8%)
0.18 2  1 12 0.05  5 

47