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The Collapse of the Ceiling of a Tunnel – A Case Study What happened?

On 10 July, 2006, three concrete ceiling panels, each weighing 3.5 tons, Two rows of 12 ft. x 8 ft. ceiling panels each weighing 4700 lbs. and one
collapsed from the roof of the tunnel (Fort Point Channel Tunnel that row of 6 ft. x 8 ft. ceiling panel weighing 2500 lbs. fell on a car that was
connects to Ted Williams Tunnel in the city of Boston, USA). travelling in the tunnel at that time.

This accident killed one woman, who was sitting on the passenger seat of a Three rows of concrete ceiling panels fell from the roof of the tunnel.
car, and injured her husband who was on the driver’s seat.

This tunnel was part of a mega project known as the Big-Dig which started
construction in 1991 and finished in December 2007.

Initial project cost was $2.8 billion but the final cost was $14.8 billion.

Actual pictures

Reference: http://www.foundationperformance.org/pastpresentations/FowlerPresSlides-10Nov10.pdf (3 April 2020)

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Drawing of the ceiling Schematic of the adhesive anchor

Epoxy

Reference: http://www.foundationperformance.org/pastpresentations/FowlerPresSlides-10Nov10.pdf (3 April 2020)

Reference: http://www.foundationperformance.org/pastpresentations/FowlerPresSlides-10Nov10.pdf (3 April 2020)

Root cause of the failure

1 The original design required ceilings to be made of steel and concrete
with epoxied bolts into the tunnel roof.
The project manager, Bechtel, decided to use a cheaper precast panel
which weighed 2.5 time the original designed panels but was easier to
install.

2 Originally, wedge anchor was proposed that can wedge inside the hole in
the concrete.
Bechtel changed it to adhesive anchors. Consultants had warned against
adhesive anchors which used epoxy as the adhesive as it was prone to
creeping during fire.

Reference: http://www.foundationperformance.org/pastpresentations/FowlerPresSlides-10Nov10.pdf (3 April 2020)

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Wedge anchor There were signs of bolts pulling out of the concrete hole in less than 2
3
months of installation. There was delay in decision making on this and
the contractors completed the works on all the ceilings in the meantime.
The contractor had found that the diamond core drill had left the hole very
smooth with some residue material which was left at the end of the hole. No
further action was taken on this.
4 Pull test was to be done at a high load of 6350 lbs (instead of recommended
3250 lbs.) for all the lanes but the contractor insisted that it could be done
only on HOV lane as all the works had completed.
In this test of 187 bolts, 19 had pulled out. Out of the 19 bolts, 17 were
in the mock-up area and hence it was decided that the 17 had pulled out
because of the inexperience of the workers in the initial period. Hence,
there was no problem. No panel in other lanes was tested.

5 In the original design, Power-fast (Standard Set) epoxy was specified. But the
project manager used Fast Set epoxy which had already shown inferior results
in tests performed in 1995-96. The standard epoxy had given satisfactory
result.
Anchor displacement
6 Post-collapse information: Investigation done after the collapse found that
200 bolts in the Eastbound and Westbound tunnels (but none in HOV lane)
were loose.
The manufacturer of the adhesive knew that Fast Set epoxy was being used

Reference:
in the tunnel and not the Standard Set epoxy
http://www.foundationperfor
mance.org/pastpresentations
/FowlerPresSlides-
10Nov10.pdf (3 April 2020)

Pull-test can not give the required data on creep of a polymeric

adhesive. Creep is a time dependent property of a polymer.
Reference: http://www.foundationperformance.org/pastpresentations/FowlerPresSlides-10Nov10.pdf (3 April 2020)
 21/05/2020

7 Tests conducted way back in 1999 had found the problem with the method
of adhesive application. It was found that most of the bolt was bare, not
enough epoxy was applied. The holes were not filled with epoxy completely
before inserting the bolt. This had reduced the bonding strength between
the bolt and the concrete by about 38%.
Much of epoxy near the tip of the bolt was brittle and it crumbled easily.

There was dust adhered to the bolt surface which affected bonding.

The holes in the concrete were made by diamond coring drills which left
very smooth surface and the holes were not cleaned immediately giving
residue inside the hole that did not get removed even after cleaning.

Reference: http://www.foundationperformance.org/pastpresentations/FowlerPresSlides-10Nov10.pdf (3 April 2020)

Issues with the bonding of the bolts to the concrete

Epoxy adhesive was used rather than undercut wedge anchors

Adhesive material selected was of inferior quality especially in creep test

Diamond coring drill left very smooth hole internal surface and hence
affected the bonding between the adhesive and the concrete.

Hole cleaning was not done immediately which left unremoved residue inside the hole.
Dust was found on the bolt surfaces

Adhesive on the failed bolts also showed voids which weakened the interface
strength

Periodic inspections of adhesive anchors was not done to see the

performance in any of the lanes.
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Probable cause Viscoelastic Testing of Polymers

“The National Transportation Safety Board determined that the probable cause of the July Experimental Precautions
10, 2006 ceiling collapse was the use of an epoxy anchor adhesive with poor creep Sample conditioning for creep and recovery tests:
resistance, that is, an epoxy formulation that was not capable of sustaining long-term Before conducting creep and recovery tests the polymer sample should be conditioned by
loads.” loading the specimen to the maximum load and temperature as to be performed in the actual
Lessons Learnt test. Recovery should be performed for at least 10 times the loading period. This is to avoid
long-term history effect and ensure complete recovery.
Money should not take precedence over important engineering decisions.
Temperature Control
Precise temperature control especially in the vicinity of major relaxation region is necessary.
Engineering principles should be followed with proper live testing. For example, isotactic polypropylene close to room temperature.
Experimental data should guide any engineering decision.

Consequence of a wrong decision should be considered before any engineering Ambient environment must be controlled:
project is started. In addition to temperature control, gaseous and humidity should also be controlled. For
example, humidity has strong influence on Nylon

For large strain, load should be changed for the same applied stress: Clamping stress should be considered in tensile tests:
The change in cross-sectional area due to large strain can mean that the stress is changing too.
Therefore, load should be gradually reduced as the cross-sectional area reduces in the same Length should be at least 10 times the diameter of the sample.
proportion for the same stress.
Extensometer or laser method should be used and strain should be measured
The loading rate immediately before measurement is to be controlled: away from the two ends.
In stress relaxation measurement, load cell should be stiff in comparison to the specimen
Creep test must be conducted over an extended period covering specific application:

Short-term creep behaviour at a

single temperature implies
Effect on stress relaxation of the strain being Damped vibrations resulting from rapid nothing about the eventual
applied slowly. loading in a creep experiment. deformation.
Based on Fig 5.3 and 5.4, p82, I M Ward and J Sweeney, “The Mechanical Properties of Solid Polymers” 2nd Edition, Wiley 2004 (Based on Fig 5.5, p83, I M Ward and J Sweeney, “The Mechanical Properties of Solid Polymers” 2nd Edition, Wiley 2004)
 21/05/2020

Free resonance analyzer:

Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) / Dynamic Mechanical Testing (DMT) (a) the decay wave from free resonance and
Dynamic Mechanical Testing is a measurement method of strain response when an oscillating force (b) a schematic of a Torsional Braid Analyzer.
(stress) is applied to a polymer specimen and vice versa.
1. Free-Oscillation method
2. Forced Oscillation method

The torsion pendulum

𝜀 = 𝜀 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜎 = 𝜎 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)

Fd is the dynamic or oscillatory

(Based on Fig 5.6, p84, I M Ward and J
Sweeney, “The Mechanical Properties of
Solid Polymers” 2nd Edition, Wiley 2004)
force, Fs is the static or clamping
force
(Based on Fig 1.1, p15, K P Menard, Dynamic Mechanical
Analysis A Practical Guide, CRC Press, 1999)
(Fig 4.6, p82, K P Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis A Practical Guide, CRC Press, 1999)

For a torsional pendulum, torque is given as, An A + ΔA

= n +1 = 1+
ΔA
≈ 1+
ΔA
The logarithmic decrement in the amplitude is given as,
Γ = −κθ (3.91) An +1 An +1 An +1 An

 A 
where κ is the torsional stiffness constant and θ is the angular displacement. Λ = ln n  (3.95)
Using strength of materials formulations, κ can be related to the shear modulus as,  An +1 
πr 4G where, An is the amplitude of the nth oscillation. For small damping,
κ= (3.92)
2l  ΔA  ΔA 1 ΔA2 1 2 1 3 1 4
where l is the length and r the radius of the rod, G is the shear modulus of the material. Λ = ln1 + = − ln(1 + x ) = x − x + x − x ...
An  An 2 An2
2 3 4

Now, from the equation of motion for torsion pendulum (for small values of θ), the angular 
speed, ω, is given as, κ Hence,
ω = 1  A2 − A2 
Λ =  n 2 n +1 
(3.93)
I (3.96)
I is the moment of Inertia of the disk and κ is the torsional stiffness of the rod. 2 An  An2 − An2+1 En − En +1 ΔE
= =
Combining Equation (3.92) and (3.93) and assuming G=G1 for small damping, we can But, A2 is proportional to stored energy, thus, An2 En E
write, πr 4G1 1 ΔE
2
ω = (3.94) Λ= = π tan δ (3.97)
2lI 2 E also, G2 = G1 tan δ
2π
Also, time period will be given as, T =
ω
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Forced Vibration Methods: 𝜎 cos 𝛿

𝐸 =
𝜀
𝐸∗ = 𝐸 + 𝑖 𝐸
𝜎 sin 𝛿
𝐸 =
𝜀

σ o fo where b is the sample geometry

= term, fo is the force applied at the (3.98)
ε o bk peak of sine wave, k is the sample
displacement at the peak value.
E2
tan δ = E*
E1 E2
δ (d)
E1
When the material responds to the applied Storage and loss.
stress wave as a perfectly
elastic solid, an in-phase response is seen (a), When a ball is bounced from a flat surface, depending on the viscoelastic
while a purely viscous material gives an out-of- properties of the surface and the ball, part of the energy is recovered which
phase response (b). Viscoelastic materials fall corresponds to the purely elastic response. The part which is lost is the viscous
in between these two lines, as shown in (c).
The relationship between the phase angle, E*,
loss which is consumed in overcoming internal friction between the molecules
E1 , and E2, are graphically shown in (d). and in internal motion of the molecules.
(Based on Fig 4.2, p75, K P Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis A Practical Guide, CRC Press, 1999)

Axial and Torsional Analyzers

(c)
Flexure test fixtures : (a) three-point bending, (b) four-
point bending, and (c) compressive and tensile strains in
a three-point bending specimen.
(Based on Fig 4.5, p81, K P Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis A Practical Guide, CRC Press, 1999) (Fig 4.7, p86, K P Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis A Practical Guide, CRC Press, 1999)
 21/05/2020

(a) (b)
Extension and sliding shear fixtures: (a) an extension
fixture for thin films or fibers. (b) A sliding plate shear
fixture using two round samples.
(Fig 4.10, p91, K P Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis A Practical Guide, CRC Press, 1999)

DMA scan results for Nylon

δ = Local motion of the molecules
(a) (b)
γ = Molecular bend and stretch
Higher E1

Storage Modulus (GPa)

Storage Modulus (GPa)

Higher
β = movement of side groups damping
Tg or α

tan δ (x10-1)
tan δ (x10-1)
Tg = Glass transition, main chain transition
gradual motion β
transition
Tm = Melting temperature or
more precisely softening
temperature

Idealized DMA scan.
An idealized scan showing the effect of various molecular relaxations on the
storage modulus, E1, curve. In some materials like PET, the beta transition
occurs as a broad slope, while in other it exhibits a relativity sharp drop.
(Based on Fig 1.5, p19, K P Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis A Practical Guide, CRC Press, 1999)
o Temperature oC
DMA of a nylon. Temperature C
(a) We can see in the storage modulus, E1, both a Tg at ~50 and a strong Tβ at – oC
80 oC. These are also seen as peaks in the tanδ. (b) The curves for the material
that fails impact testing are overlaid. Note the lower modulus values and the
relatively weaker Tβ in the bad sample. Comparisons of the relative peak areas for
Tβ suggest that the second material is less able to damp vibrations below the Tg.
(Based on Fig 1.4, p18, K P Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis A Practical Guide, CRC Press, 1999)
 21/05/2020

Cake batter Epoxy

108 Frequency scan response to properties
Amorphous solid Amorphous solid
109 1.3
of an adhesive (resistance to removal)
1.2
(stickiness)
106
1.1
Molecular weight increases
1.0
104 2
1
108
0.9
1
0.8 Curing 1
(Solidification 102 starts
starts) 0.7
Molecular weight distribution increases
0.6

1
107 100
25 50 75 100 125 150
Curing in the DMA
The curing of very different materials can be studied using DMA. Both (Cake batter
and Epoxy) show the same type of curing behavior, an initial decrease in complex
viscosity (Pa.s) to a minimum followed by a sharp rise to a plateau. Note that
gelation is often taken as the E1–E2 crossover or where tan δ= 1.
(Fig 1.6, p20, K P Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis A Practical Guide, CRC Press, 1999) (Fig 1.8, p22, K P Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis A Practical Guide, CRC Press, 1999)

Storage shear modulus G1 (Pa)

1 E1 continues to
increase but at a
much slower rate
as the epoxy
cures.
1

Cross-linking during the

decrement, Λ
curing process starts.

Logarithmic
Temperature oC
Time–temperature studies in the DMA: We can fix the temperature and Storage shear modulus and logarithmic decrement as a function of
study property change as a function of time, environment, etc. In this case, temperature at the frequency of 3 Hz for polychlorotrifluoroethylene
an epoxy cures at 45°C and the curing reaction progresses with time. (PCTFE) and polyvinyl fluoride (PVF). (Based on Fig 6.5, p99, I M Ward and J Sweeney, “The Mechanical Properties of Solid Polymers” 2 nd

(Fig 5.1, p103, K P Menard, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis A Practical Guide, CRC Press, 1999) Edition, Wiley 2004) (originally taken from Schmieder and Wolf, Kolloidzeitschrift, 134, 149 (1953).
 21/05/2020

(a)

Tensile storage modulus (E1) and loss tangent

(a) un-oriented amorphous polyethylene
terephthalate and Polymer Composites or Fibre
(b) (b) un-oriented crystalline polyethylene
terephthalate as a function of temperature at
Reinforced Plastics (FRPs)
(b)
1.2 Hz.

(Based on Fig 6.6, p100, I M Ward and J Sweeney, “The Mechanical Properties of Solid Polymers” 2nd
Edition, Wiley 2004) (originally taken from Thompson and Woods, Trans. Faraday Soc., 52, 1383 (1956)).

Structural materials mass distribution on the Boeing 747 (year 1970), 777 (year
1995) and 787 (year 2011) airplanes

787

Composites
Aluminium
Titanium
Steel
Others

Boing-Sikorski RAH-66 Comanche helicopters used 60 percent carbon fibre-epoxy composite.

First flight in 1996 but the project was cancelled.
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Wind Energy Harvesting

Sports

Hydrogen gas storage cylinder

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Materials for making pole vault

Bamboo

Aluminum

Steel

GFRP/CFRP

5.96 m 5.97 m

CFRP

GFRP

Bamboo, 1896
2008 2012

Olympic record for pole vault

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Composites Typical Fibres and their Tensile Properties

Light, Stiff and Strong Important fibre materials are: Glass, Carbon (CNT, Long/short fibre, CNF etc.), boron,
The role of fibre is to take the maximum load and the role of matrix is to hold the fibres together silica and synthetic fibres such as aramid (trade name Kevlar), PET etc.
and transmit the load to the fibres. The adhesion between the fibre and the matrix is very 5.0
critical. Properties of some fibres and matrices
Polymer Composites (Thermoset Materials Density (x103 Modulus E Strength σf (MPa)
4.0
or thermoplastic matrices) kg/m3) (GPa)
S-glass
Boron Carbon Kevlar-49 Carbon Fibre (type 1) 1.95 390 2200
3.0 (HS)
Particulate-filled Fibre-filled Network composites

Stress (GPa)
Carbon Carbon fibre (Type 2) 1.75 250 2700
Honeycomb E-glass
Cellulose fibre 1.61 60 1200
Continuous fibre Discontinuous fibre 2.0
Glass (E-glass) 2.56 76 1400-2500
Unidirectional
Aligned Aramid (Kevlar) 1.45 125 2760
short fibre
1.0
Epoxy matrix 1.2-1.4 2.1-5.5 40-85
Random short
(Nanocomposites or Bidirectional
fibre Polyester matrix 1.1-1.4 1.3-4.5 45-85
microcomposites) etc.
Data from Table 25.1, p. 264, Ashby & Jones 2
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Strain (%)
Multidirectional or
quasi-isotropic
Open cell structure Based on Fig. 3.2, p170 RJ Crawford

Important Matrices for composites Thermoplastics: Polypropylene, nylon, styrene based plastics, polyesters, acetal,
Thermoset and thermoplastic polymers and all metals. Even ceramics can also be used a matrix polycarbonate, polysulphone etc.
Unsaturated polyester resins and epoxy resins – they do not liberate volatiles during curing
Choice of the matrix depends on the application, service conditions and cost.
Thermosets:
and they can be moulded using low pressure and at room temperature Typical properties of fibre reinforced Nylon 66
Tensile properties of epoxy-based composites Material Weight Density Tensile Flexural
Material Volume Density (x1000 Tensile strength Tensile Data from Table 3.1, p171
fraction (kg/m3) Strength modulus
fraction (Vf) kg/m3) (GN/m2 or GPa) modulus RJ Crawford (Wf) (GN/m2 or (GN/m2 or
(GN/m2) GPa) GPa)
Nylon 66 - 1140 0.07 2.8
Epoxy (matrix) - 1200 0.07 6
Nylon 66/glass 0.40 1460 0.2 11.2
Epoxy/E-glass 0.57 1970 0.57 22
Nylon 66/carbon 0.40 1340 0.28 24.0
Epoxy/Kevlar 0.60 1400 0.65 40
Nylon 66/glass/carbon 0.20C/0.20 1400 0.24 20.0
Epoxy/Carbon 0.58 1540 0.38 80 G
Epoxy/Boron 0.60 2000 0.38 106 Nylon 66/glass beads 0.40 1440 0.09 5.6

Thermosets provide high strength, excellent adhesion to the fibres,

thermal resistance, chemical resistance. Data from Table 3.2, p171, RJ Crawford
 21/05/2020

Comparison of FRP with high strength steel and aluminium alloys for aircraft applications Effect of fibre content on the properties of glass fibre reinforced Nylon 66
Material Density Young’s Strength σf Fracture E/ρ σy/ρ (x Weight fractions Wf
(x1000 modulus E (MPa) toughness, KIC (x10−3 GPa 10-3 MPa
kg/m3) (GPa) (MPa m1/2) kg-1m3) kg-1 m3) Property 0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.6
Density (kg/m3) 1140 1210 1280 1370 1460 1570 1700
Composites
Tensile strength 0.07 0.09 0.13 0.18 0.21 0.23 0.24
CFRP, 58% uniaxial C in 1.5 189 1050 32-45 126 700 (GN/m2 or GPa)
epoxy
% elongation at 60 3.5 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.5 1.5
GFRP, 50% uniaxial 2.0 48 1240 42-60 24 620 break
glass in polyester
Flexural modulus 2.8 4.2 6.3 9.1 11.2 15.4 19.6
Kevlar-epoxy (KFRP), 1.4 76 1240 54 886
(GN/m2 GPa)
60% uniaxial
Thermal 90 37 32 30 29 25 22
Metals expansion
High-strength steel 7.8 207 1000 100 27 128 (μm/m/oC)
Aluminium alloy 2.8 71 500 28 25 179 Water absorption 1.6 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.4
(24 hr)

Data from Table 25.2, p. 265, Ashby & Jones 2

Data from Table 3.3, p172,RJ Crawford

Some important aspects of reinforcements in composites: Analysis of Continuous Fibre Composites

1. Fibre reinforcement has the best strengthening effect (compared with particle Unidirectional continuous fibres provide the maximum reinforcement
reinforcement) Modulus and Strength in the Longitudinal direction
Equilibrium of the forces: Applied force is shared by Fibre, f Fc Fc
2. Fibre diameter can vary from about 7 μm to 100 μm. Matrix, m
the fibres and the matrix
3. Fibre can be used in continuous or chopped strands (lengths about 3 mm – 50 mm)
Fc = F f + Fm (4.2a)

4. For chopped fibre, length to diameter ratio is known as the aspect ratio.
σ c Ac = σ f A f + σ m Am (4.2b) L
5. For short fibre composites, greater the aspect ratio, greater will be the strength and
stiffness Geometry of deformation: Total strain in the composite
will be the same as in the fibres or the matrix
6. Volume fraction of the fibre Vf is the ratio of the volume of the fibre, vf, to the volume
of the composite vc. εc = ε f = εm (4.3) δL
Fc
Weight fraction of the fibre can be calculated from the volume fraction as follows: The stress-strain relationships will be given as, Fc
wf ρ f vf ρ f
Wf = = = Vf σ m = E mε m
wc ρ c vc ρ c (4.1) σ c = Ec ε c σ f = Efε f (4.4a, b, c)
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Combining Equation (4.2b) and (4.4) and applying F=σ A, where A is the cross-sectional area of the Strength of a composite in the longitudinal direction
specimen.
Ecε c Ac = E f ε f A f + Emε m Am (4.5) We can write Equation (4.2b) in the form of Force (= stress x area) as,

σ c Ac = σ f A f + σ m Am (4.8)
Now, using Equation (4.3), we can write, εc = ε f = εm (4.3)
Dividing both sides by Ac, we obtain,
 Af  A 
Ec = E f   + Em  m   Af  A 
σ c = σ f   + σ m  m 
(4.6)
 Ac   Ac  (4.9)
 Ac   Ac 
If the fibres extend to the full length of the composite, then the area ratio Af Af L v f
= = = Vf Again, the surface ratios can be replaced with volume ratios for longitudinal fibre composites and
Ac Ac L vc
σ c = σ f (V f ) + σ m (Vm )
will be same as the volume ratio (= volume fraction). We can write, we can write,
(4.10)
Ec = E f V f + EmVm (4.7)
Now, for calculating the ultimate tensile strength of the composite, we replace the stresses to the
Equation (4.7) is also known as the rule of mixture. Similarly relations can also be written to determine maximum possible stress which is the ultimate tensile strength of the composite, the fibre and the
σ cu = σ fu (V f ) + σ mu (Vm )
strength, Poisson’s ratio, thermal conductivity etc. in the fibre direction. matrix. Thus,
(4.11)

0o 45o It is found that the rule of mixture for

Fibre σfu Fibre strength calculation is only applicable if the

Stress
0o 90o Unidirectional fibre volume fraction of fibre is above a critical
0o 90o σmu σfu value.
0o, 45o, 90o Matrix
σ’m This critical value is defined by the
Bi-directional fibre
following formula (at the critical point the
Strain
two lines cross each other):
Stress

45o
σ mu (1 − Vcrit ) = σ fuVcrit + σ m′ (1 − Vcrit )
Random fibre
45o σcu
90o (4.13)
Matrix Schematic Stress-Strain
behaviour of the fibre, the matrix σ cu = σ fu (V f ) + σ m′ (1 − V f ) From Figure (3.5), it is seen that the
effect of strengthening is effective only
and composites in different fibre V1
above V1. The value of V1 is obtained as
orientation arrangements. σmu σ cu = σ mu (1 − V f ) follows:
Strain
Since at the point of fracture of brittle fibres, the composite will fail which means σ’m Vcritical
σ mu = σ fuV1 + σ m′ (1 − V1 ) (4.14)
that the matrix will be stressed only up to the fracture strain of the fibre. Hence
σmu should be replaced by σ’m which is the stress in the matrix at the strain equal 0 Vf 1 σ mu − σ m′
to the fracture strain of the fibres.
Equation (4.11) can be re-written as,
σ cu = σ fu (V f ) + σ m (Vm )
′ (4.12)
Based on Figure 3.4, p175, RJ Crawford
Ref:
Fig3.5, p176, Crawford,
P267, Ashby & Jones 2
Vmax. ~0.8, Actual strength ~ 65% of the theoretical
V1 =
σ fu − σ m′
(4.15)
 21/05/2020

Composite Analysis in the Transverse direction From the geometry of deformation:

A continuous long fibre composite is weakest in the transverse direction
ε c = ε f V f + ε mVm (4.18)
Cross sectional area = A Fc
Stress- strain Relations:
σc σf σm
εc = εf = εm = (4.19a, b, c)
h EcT Ef Em

Substituting Equation (4.19) into (4.18), σc σf σm

Actual
cross-section
Assumed
cross-section = Vf + Vm
Fc EcT Ef Em
σc = σ f = σm (4.17)
A unidirectional continuous fibre composite loaded in transverse direction 1 V f Vm
Utilizing Equation (4.17) we can write, = +
EcT E f Em
Equilibrium of the forces: Fc = F f = Fm (4.16)

σc = σ f = σm (4.17) E f Em
Also,
EcT = (4.20)
V f Em + Vm E f

Empirical relation by Halpin-Tsai provides,  1 + ζβV f 

250
EcT = Em   (4.21)
(Unidirectional continuous composite)  1 − βV 
Ef (Fibre)  f 

200 EcL where ζ is a measure of the reinforcement geometry (aspect ratio) and it can be taken 2 for the
transverse tensile modulus (ζ =1 for shear modulus) and,
Modulus, GPa

150
 Ef 
  −1
E 
100 β is given as, β=  m (4.22)
 Ef 
  + 2
 Em 
50 ET (Halpin-Tsai)
Em (Matrix)
EcT EcT (Transverse) E f Em
Brintrup gave equation for EcT as, EcT = (4.20)
0 (Equation (4.20) V f Em + Vm E f
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Em′ E f
Fibre volume fraction (Vf)
EcT = (4.23)
E f (1 − V f ) + V f Em′
Inaccuracies arise due to the random distribution of the fibres rather than layered and
mismatch of the Poisson’s ratios of the fibres and the matrix. where, (
Em′ = Em / 1 −ν m2 )
Based on Fig.3.7, p179, RJ Crawford
 21/05/2020

28 Using simplistic mechanics of materials approach, the shear modulus G12 for the composite can also
Normalized transverse modulus, ET/Em
Fibre volume fraction, Vf be given by the relation,
24 1 V f Vm (4.24)
0.78 = +
G12 G f Gm
20
0.75
16
Gf is actually G12f and Gm is the shear modulus of the matrix.
G f Gm
12
Or, G12 = (4.25)
0.70 V f Gm + VmG f
0.75, H-T
8 model
0.55 A further modification of Equation (4.25) was given empirically by Halpin-Tsai as,
4 0.40
0.04  (G f + Gm ) + V f (G f − Gm ) 
0 G12 = Gm   (4.26)
 (G f + Gm ) − V f (G f − Gm ) 
1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 100 200 400 1000
Modulus ratio, Ef / Em
Comparison of Halpin-Tsai calculation (solid circles) with Adams and
Doner’s calculations for transverse modulus using finite difference
method and numerical calculation (J Composite Mater 1 (January 1967) pp 4-17)
Based on Fig 1 in J C Halpin and J L Kardos, The Halpin-Tsai Equations: A review, Polymer Engineering and Science, 16(5) (1976) 344-352.

Strength of a continuous fibre composite in the transverse

direction
Elastic modulus and shear modulus of typical polymer composites
Cross sectional area = A Fc
Material Fibre volume EcL (GPa) EcT (GPa) G12 (GPa)
fraction, Vf
E glass/Epoxy 0.6 40 9 4
h
E glass/polyester 0.42 32 7 3.1
Kevlar 49/epoxy 0.6 79 4.1 1.5 Actual Assumed
cross-section cross-section
Carbon/epoxy 0.6 125 9 4.4 Strength in the longitudinal direction Fc
Carbon HM/epoxy 0.62 497 5.3 5.6 σ cu = σ fu (V f ) + σ m′ (Vm )
(4.12)
Practically, the strength of a composite in the transverse direction is
less than that of the matrix and common assumption is σcT = σm/2
Data taken from Table 3.4, p181, RJ Crawford
 21/05/2020

Composite strength with fibre orientation Tensile strength in longitudinal and transverse directions and shear strength of
σcL σcT unidirectional continuous fibre composites with the following fibres (matrix is epoxy)
Fibre, f Fc
Fibre σcL (MPa) σcT (MPa) σcS (MPa) 1400
Boron
Matrix, m
Cross sectional area = A Fc (Vf=0.5) 1200 E-Glass

Boron 1447 56 83.4

σcL
Thronel
1000

σcθ (MPa)
E-Glass 1082 27.6 41.4 Modmor
800
Carbon 634 6.89 27.6
L
θ
σcθ h (Thornel 25) 600

Carbon 1034 55 75.8 400

(Modmor)
200

σcT Fc Data taken from Table 4, page 480, LE Nielsen and RF Landel
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Composites, 2nd edition) θ (deg)
Fc
Longitudinal Transverse
1 cos 4 θ  1 1  sin 4 θ (4.27)
= +  2 − 2  cos 2 θ . sin 2 θ + 2 1 cos θ 4
 1 1  sin θ 4
σ c2θ σ cL2  σ cS σ cL  σ cT = +  2 − 2  cos 2 θ . sin 2 θ + 2 (4.27)
σ c2θ σ cL2 σ
 cS σ cL  σ cT
Above equation is taken from S. W. Tsai, Mechanics of Composite Materials, 1966, Air Force Mater. Lab Report, AFML-TR-66-149

Moduli of cross-ply laminated composite of boron fibre (0.7 volume fraction) in a polymer
Property control in any direction through laminates
Fibre orientation and Direction of the Tensile modulus Compressive Shear modulus
Laminates of fibre fabrics are laid one over another to achieve same properties in any stress (GPa) modulus (GPa) (GPa)
direction on the plane of the fabric. One ply and stress in the longitudinal 276 262 6.9
direction
Typically, the fibre direction is alternated by 90o which is known as cross-ply. Two plies at 90o to each other and stress 138 138 12.4
along the longitudinal direction of one
of the layers
Two plies at 90o to each other and stress 27.6 27.6 82.7
at 45o to the longitudinal direction of
One ply Two plies in cross-ply Two ply-45o each of the layers
Data taken from Table 7, page 482, LE Nielsen and RF Landel
(Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Composites, 2nd edition)
For the same fibre volume fraction, there is drastic decrease in the modulus and strength
Cross-ply Laminate composite
from single ply to two plies as the interface become the weakest zone where fracture

Stress
initiates.
90o layer cracks
For multi layered laminates, the layers should be stacked symmetrically on both sides of
the central plane.

Strain