19-01-2018

DEGREES OF FREEDOM
AND CONSTRAINTS
MCL7 47 DES IG N OF PRECIS ION MACHINES
DE PARTME N T OF MECHANICA L E NG IN E E RIN G
IIT DE L HI

Degree of Freedom
In three dimensions (3D), an object has exactly six independent degrees
of freedom of motion.

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In two dimensions (2D), an object has

only three degrees of freedom:
• Two translational DOF and
• One rotational DOF

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Constraints
When a mechanical connection is made between an object and a
reference object in such a way that the number of degrees of freedom
of the object (relative to the reference object) is reduced, we say that
the object has been constrained.

There is a one-to-one correspondence between constraints applied to

an object and the degrees of freedom removed.

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Points on the object along the constraint

line can move only at right angles to the
constraint line, not along it.

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Regardless of which of these constraint devices we select – the link,

the bar, or the contact point – the remaining degrees of freedom of
the body are the same.

The body will have a rotational degree of freedom (R) intersecting the
constraint line and perpendicular to the plane of the 2D body; and a
translational degree of freedom (T) perpendicular to the constraint
line and lying in the plane of the 2D body.

These two degrees of freedom are independent of each other. Either

motion can take place with or without the other motion. Because
these two motions can be made independently, the body is said to
have two degrees of freedom.

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A constraint can be thought of as a bar with

articulating joints at the ends to connect
between objects. The bold uppercase letter
C is used to refer to a constraint.

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FUNCTIONAL EQUIVALENCE OF
CONSTRAINTS ALONG A GIVEN LINE
Any constraint along a given constraint line is functionally equivalent to
any other constraint along the same constraint line (for small motions).

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OVERCONSTRAINT

In either case (A or B), two constraints are competing

to control the same degree of freedom (X in this case).

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Overconstraint results in several practical

difficulties.

If the dimensions of the object or the

constraints are not just right, the parts will not
fit properly.

They will be either too loose or they will bind

and interfere.

So, we are faced with a choice between parts

that have loose, sloppy, imprecise location, or
parts that do not go together because they are
too tight and do not fit.

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Cost
If we are willing to spend more money, we can opt for a third
choice:
• get parts that fit together perfectly (or nearly so).

To do this, we can either

• tighten the tolerances on the fit dimensions, or
• we can use special assembly techniques such as drilling
and pinning in place.

Stresses
But even if we get parts that fit together perfectly, there is
another penalty that goes with overconstraint:
• the buildup and transfer of stresses.

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Overconstraint generally results in

• reduced performance (binding, stress, slop, imprecision),
• higher cost (tight tolerances, special assembly techniques), or
• both.

For these reasons, it is a condition that we should always try to

recognize and generally try to avoid.

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INSTANT CENTER OF ROTATION

(VIRTUAL PIVOT)

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FUNCTIONAL EQUIVALENCE OF CONSTRAINT

PAIRS INTERSECTING AT A GIVEN POINT

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The equivalence of intersecting C pairs:

Any pair of constraints whose constraint lines intersect at a given point,
is functionally equivalent to any other pair in the same plane whose
constraint lines intersect at the same point. This is true for small
motions and where the angle between the constraints does not
approach 0° (180°).

Thus, any intersecting pair of Cs defines a disk of radial lines, any two of
which (provided the angle between them is not too small) may be
selected to equivalently replace the original two Cs.

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VIRTUAL PIVOT EXAMPLE

We want to establish a pivot axis for the roller at an "upstream"

location.

By pivoting the roller from the machine frame at this point, the roller
will self-align to the belt in a manner analogous to the way a trailer is
towed by an automobile.

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The intersection of the constraint lines of the two links

defines a virtual pivot axis for the roller.

For the small motions encountered as the roller self-aligns,

the position of the virtual pivot does not move substantially.

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PARALLEL CONSTRAINTS

Two parallel constraints is just a special case

where the constraint lines intersect at a point
at infinity.

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If two lines of an infinite plane of parallel lines represent

a pair of Cs applied to a body, then any two parallel lines
from that plane can equivalently represent the two Cs
applied to the body.

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EXACT CONSTRAINT

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Three constraints have been applied to the body in a way that

has reduced the body's number of degrees of freedom to zero.

No degree of freedom has been overconstrained, nor has any

degree of freedom been left unconstrained.

The 2D body is said to be exactly constrained.

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CONSTRAINT DEVICES
Mechanical connection to constrain one or more of a body’s degrees of
freedom (DOFs).
Different constraint devices:
◦ Link
◦ Contact point
◦ Bar with articulating end connections

Designing the pattern of constraints that will properly constrain each

part of a machine, leaving only those degrees of freedom that are
desired.

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THE “PIN-AND-HOLE”
CONNECTION
The "pin and hole" connection between bodies is a common constraint
device intended to provide constraint in both X and Y.
However, the pin-and-hole connection is, by definition, an
overconstrained.
In the case of a pin and hole, the pin diameter can be:
◦ (A) smaller than the hole,
◦ (B) larger than the hole, or
◦ (C) exactly the same as the hole diameter.

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Pin-in-“V” connection

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NESTING FORCES

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Nesting force can be applied by various means:

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NESTING FORCE WINDOW

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PRECISION AND ACCURACY

Precision (of position), also called repeatability, is the degree to which a
part, or feature on a part, will return to exactly the same position time
after time.
When a machine is designed so that its parts are exactly constrained,
extraordinary precision is automatically obtained.

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PRECISION AND ACCURACY

Accuracy (of position) is the degree to which the location of a part or
feature exactly coincides with its desired or intended location.
In general, precision is achievable without accuracy, but accuracy is not
achievable without precision. By designing exactly constrained
connections, we can achieve high-precision machines using ordinary,
low-cost, inaccurate parts. Then, through the use of adjustments or
fixturing techniques, accuracy can be achieved.

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THE SCREW: AN ADJUSTABLE

CONSTRAINT DEVICE

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