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ROBOT KINEMATICS

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 CHAPTER
ROBOT KINEMATICS

1.1 Introduction
A robotic manipulator arm consists of a chain of links interconnected by
joints. There are typically two types of joints; revolute joint and prismatic joint. It
would be desirable to control both the position and orientation of the end-effecter,
located at the tip of the manipulator, in its three-dimensional workspace. The end
effecter can be programmed to follow a planned trajectory, provided that the
relationships between joint variables and position and the orientation of the end-
effecter are formulated.

Kinematics is the study of motion without regarding to the forces that create
it. The representation of the robot’s end-effecter position and orientation through
the geometry of the robot (joint and link parameters) is called forward Kinematics.
The forward kinematics is a set of equations that calculates the position and
orientation of the end-effector in terms of given joint angles. This set of equations
is usually generated by using the well-known method of the Denavit-Hartenberg
(D-H) parameters. The inverse kinematics problem for a robotic manipulator
involves obtaining the required manipulator joint values for a given desired end-
point position and orientation. It is usually complex due to non-linearity and lack
of unique solutions and closed-form direct expression for the inverse kinematics
mapping.

The inverse kinematics of a robot is the mapping that, given a goal position, it
calculates a set of joint positions so as to place the robot’s end effector in the
specified goal.
 As this is a relevant issue to move the robot, there has been a lot of work
about obtaining a fast and inverse kinematic algorithm. The closed form solution of
the inverse kinematics problem is important in controlling robotic manipulator.
There are some difficulties to solve the inverse kinematics (IK) problem when the
kinematics equations are coupled, non-linear, multiple solutions and Singularities
exist.

There are mainly two types of IK solution: analytical solution and graphical
solution. In the first type, the joint variables are solved analytically according to
given configuration data. In the second type of solution, the joint variables are
obtained based on the graphical techniques [24]. However, based on the algorithm
size and complexity, graphical techniques can be relatively slow in practical
applications.

In this chapter, an introduction to robot kinematics and inverse kinematics is

given first in sections 3.2 and 3.3. The illustrated theories and principles are then
applied to the proposed robot design in section 3.4 to calculate its forward and
inverse kinematics equations.

1.2 Robot Workspace

1.2.1 Degrees of Freedom (DOF)
The degree of freedom (DOF) is the number of independent parameters that
fixes the situation of an end effector. It is a very important term to understand. A
DOF is a joint on the arm, a place where it can bend or rotate or translate. The
number of actuators on the robot arm (in case of serial arms) can be identified by
number of DOF. When building a robot arm it should have as few degrees of
freedom allowed for the application. Since, each degree requires motor and
exponentially complicated algorithms and cost. The gripper placed at the End-
effector is often complex with multiple DOF. It can be a tool for welding, cutting,
drilling, etc., so for simplicity it is treated as a separate subsystem in basic robot
arm design [24].

1.2.2 Robot Workspace (Work Volume)

The robot workspace (sometimes known as reachable space) is
a collection of points at which the end effector (gripper) can reach. The workspace
is highly dependent on the robot configuration such as DOF, angle/translation
limitations, link lengths and etc. Fig. 3.1 shows an example of a workspace for a
simple 3DOF serial arm. It should be noted that the work space does not include
the DOF which controls the wrist orientation [25].

The shoulder and elbow joints rotate a maximum of 180 degrees. To

determine the workspace, trace all locations that the end effector (gripper) can
reach as in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. Error! No text of specified style in

document..1Simple serial arm and its work
space
If the link lengths [25].
are changed, the workspaces will change. The arm can't be
reached any location outside of specified work space. If there are objects
(obstacles) in the way of the arm, the workspace can get even more complicated
[26].

1.3 Denavit-Hartenberg Representation

The objective of forward kinematic analysis is to determine the cumulative
effect of the entire set of joint variables on the end-effector. While it is possible to
carry out all of the analysis in this chapter using an arbitrary frame attached to each
link, it is helpful to be systematic in the choice of these frames. The kinematic
analysis of an n-link manipulator can be extremely complex and the conventions
introduced below simplify the analysis considerably. Moreover, they give rise to a
universal language with which robot engineers can communicate. A commonly
used convention for selecting frames of reference in robotic applications is the
Denavit-Hartenberg, or D-H convention [33].

1.3.1 Link description

A link is considered only as a rigid body that connects two neighboring joints
of a manipulator. Joint axis is defined by a line in space. Joint axis (i) is defined by
a line in space about which link (i) rotates relative to link (i-1) [27].

For any two axes in 3-space, there exists a well-defined measure of distance
between them. This distance is measured along a line that is mutually
perpendicular to both axes. This mutual perpendicular always exists; it is unique
except when both axes are parallel, in which case there are many mutual
perpendiculars of equal length [27].

Fig. 3.2 shows link (i-1) and the mutually perpendicular line along which the
link length, ai-1, is measured. Another way to visualize the link parameter ai-1 is to
imagine an expanding cylinder whose axis is the
joint i-1 axis when it just touches joint axis i, the radius of the cylinder is equal to
ai-1.

Fig. Error! No text of specified style in document..2DH parameters

defined two links of a serial manipulator [28].
The second parameter needed to describe a link is called the link twist. If we
imagine a plane whose normal is the mutually perpendicular line just constructed,
we can project the axes (i-1) and (i) onto this plane and measure the angle between
them. This angle is measured from
axis (i-1) to axis (i) in the right-hand sense about ai-1 (ai-1 is given the direction
pointing from axis (i-1) to axis (i), so the angle is counter-clock wise looking from
(i) toward (i-1) side). In Fig. 3.3, αi-1 is indicated as the angle between axis (i-1)
and axis (i) [28]. (The lines with the triple hash marks are parallel.)

1.3.2 Link-connection description

Two more parameters are needed to describe the way in which links are
connected to each other: The link offset di and the joint angle θi
(see Fig. 3.3).The link offset di is the signed distance (positive or negative)
measured along the axis of joint-i from the point where ai-1 intersects the axis to the
point where ai intersects the axis. The link offset is variable if joint-i is prismatic.
The joint angle θi is the angle made between an extension of ai-1 and ai measured
about the axis of joint-i. The joint angle is variable for a revolute joint.

Fig. Error! No text of specified style in document..3Link-connection

description bythe link offset, d, and the joint angle, θ.

1.3.3 Link parameters

Hence, any robot can be described kinematically by giving the values of four
quantities (ai-1, αi-1, di, Ɵi) for each link. Two describe the link itself, and two
describe the links connection to a neighboring link. In the case of a revolute joint,
θi , is called the joint variable, and the other three quantities are fixed parameters.
While, in case of prismatic joint, di, is called the joint variable, and the other three
quantities are fixed parameters. The definition of mechanics by means of these
quantities is a convention usually called the Denavit-Hartenberg convention.
1.3.4 Procedure to follow using Denavit-Hartenberg convention
The following is a summary of the procedure to follow when faced with a new
manipulator mechanism [7], [24] and [47], see Fig. 3.4:

1- Identify the joints axes and assign the Zi axis pointing along the i-th joint
axis.
2- Identify the common perpendiculars of the joints axes. At the point where
the common perpendicular meets the i-th axis, assign the link-frame origin.
3- Assign the Xi axis pointing along the common perpendicular.
4- Assign the Yi axis to complete a right-hand coordinate system.
5- Assign frame {0} to match with frame {1} when the first joint variable
is zero.
6- For the last frame {n}, choose an origin location and Xn direction so that as
many as possible linkage parameters become zero.
The last method is called Right Handed Coordinate System (RHCS) [47].

Fig. Error! No text of specified style in document..4 Link frames are

attached so that frame {i} is attached rigidly to link I and the
right hand frames procedures.
 If the link frames have been attached to the links according to the above
convention, the following definitions of the link parameters are valid [7] and [29]:

αi-1 = the angle from Zi-1 to Zi measured about Xi-1(link twist);

ai-1 = the distance from Zi-1 to Zi measured along Xi-1 (link length);

di = the distance from Xi-1 to Xi measured along Zi (link offset);

θi = the angle from Xi-1 to Xi measured about Zi(joint angle).

Note that, ai-1>= 0 is usually chosen, because it corresponds to a distance; but

αi-1, di, and θi are signed quantities.

Also, the general transformation matrix is:

 cosi  sin i 0 ai  1 
sin i cosi  1 cosi cosi  1  sin i  1  sin i  1di 
i-1
Ti=   (3.1)
 sin i sin i  1 cosi sin i  1 cosi  1 cosi  1di 
 
 0 0 0 1 
This transformation will be a function of all joint variables. From the values
i-1
of the link parameters (DH-table), the individual link transformation matrices Ti
can be computed, see section 3.4.

1.3.5 Frames with standard names

As a matter of convention, it will be helpful if we assign specific names and
locations to certain "standard" frames associated with a robot and its workspace
(Craig) [7], (ABB) [30]. Fig. 3.5 shows a typical situation in which a robot has
grasped some sort of tool and is to position the tool tip to a user-defined location.
 Fig. Error! No text of specified style in
document..5 The standard frames of
Base frame, {B}
The robot base coordinate system is located on the robot base. The origin of
the base frame is located at the intersection of axis of the 1st link and the robot’s
mounting surface [30].

The station frame, {S}

{S} is located in a task-relevant location. In Fig. 3.5, it is at the corner of a
table upon which the robot is to work. As far as the user of this robot system is
concerned, {S} is the universe (world) frame, and all actions of the robot are
performed relative to it. The station frame is always specified with respect to the
base frame, that is, BTS [30].

The wrist frame, {W}

{W} is affixed to the last link of the manipulator. The link frame attached to
the last link of the robot. Very often, {W} has its origin fixed at a point called the
wrist of the manipulator. It is defined relative to the base frame that is,BTW [30].

The tool frame, {T}

{T} is affixed to the end of any tool the robot happens to be holding. When
the hand is empty, {T} is usually located with its origin between the fingertips of
the robot. The tool frame is always specified with respect to the wrist frame that is,
W
TT [30].

The goal frame, {G}

{G} is a description of the location to which the robot is to move the tool.
Specifically this means that, at the end of the motion, the tool frame should be
brought to coincidence with the goal frame. {G} is always specified relative to the
station frame, STG.

All robot motions may be described in terms of these frames without loss of
generality. Their use helps to give us a standard language for talking about robot
tasks.

1.4 Forward and Inverse Kinematics of the Proposed Arm Robot

The previous two sections illustrate the principles that will be used in the
analysis of the proposed arm robot for the current study. In this section the robot
forward kinematics is given first, and then the problem of the inverse kinematic is
formulated.

1.4.1 Forward Kinematics

The study of kinematic problem of a robot can be carried out by commonly
used method is based on Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) parameters [33]. This method is
a systematic in nature and more suitable for modeling serial manipulators. DH
method has been used to develop the kinematic model of the robot in this work
because of its versatility and acceptability for modeling of any number of joints
and links of a serial manipulator regardless of complexity [31].

{B}
 Fig. Error! No text of specified style in
Figure 3.6 illustrates the schematic
document..6 drawing
The proposed and the simplified kinematic
robot
model of the proposed [PRRRR] arm robot. Also the shown frames used to
facilitate formulating the problem.
Where:
{B} is the base frame
{W} is revolute joint frame (Wrist)
{T} is a tool frame
{G} is a goal frame
{S} is a station frame

The first three joints are used to move the tool point to its desired position,
while the last two joints adjust the orientation of the
end-effector.Robot link lengths mentioned in Fig. 3.7 and Fig. 3.8 are tabulated in
Table 3.1.
Table Error! No text of specified style in document..1The dimensions of the
designed model

Symbol xmax dmax L1 L2 Lo L3

D
Length (cm) 50 50 30 30 15 15
H
works with quadruple (ai-1, αi-1, di, Ɵi) which represents twist angle, link length,

Inward
link offset and joint angle respectively. Following DH convention, an orthonormal
coordinate system has been attached to each link of the manipulator (Fig. 3.7 &
Fig. 3.8).

Fig.Error! No text of specified style in document..7The

designed manipulator coordinates of all joints (2D).
 Y3
{B} Y1
Y2

Y0 {W}

{S}
{G} XG Y4
Z5
{T}
Ys
ZG
ZT

Fig. Error! No text of specified style in document..8 The

designed manipulator coordinates of all joints (3D)

Table Error! No text of specified style in document..2 The D-H

table for the designed robot [32].

i αi-1 ai-1 di Ɵi

1 0 0 d1 0

2 0 0 0 Ɵ2

3 0 L1 0 Ɵ3

4 0 L2 0 Ɵ4
 5 -90 0 0 Ɵ5
Using
the frames assigned in Fig. 3.7, Fig. 3.8 and definitions of D-H parameters given in
the previous section. One can formulate the
D-H parameters for the designed robotic arm as shown in Table 3.2.

Now, developing the kinematic equations is straightforward. From the values

i-1
of the link parameters (DH-table), the individual link transformation matrices Ti
can be computed. Then, the link transformations can be multiplied together to find
the single transformation that relates frame {5} to frame {0} [32].Referring to
equation (3.1), one can formulate the transformation matrix between each two
successive frames as follow:

1 0 0 0 Cos 2  Sin  2 0 0
0 1 0 0 1  Sin  Cos 2 0 0
0
T1=   , T2=  2 
0 0 1 0  0 0 1 0
   
0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1

Cos3  Sin 3 0 L1  Cos 4  Sin  4 0 L2 

 Sin  Cos3 0 0 3  Sin  Cos 4 0 0 
2
T3=  3  , T4=  4 
 0 0 1 0  0 0 1 0 
   
 0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1 

 Cos 5 - Sin  5 0 0
 0 0 1 0
4 
T5= - Sin  5  Cos 5 0 0
 
 0 0 0 1
 Using the individual transformation matrix between each two successive
frames, the total transformation matrix 0TT is given by:

B
TW=0T5=0T11T22T33T44T5 (3.2)
Where:

 r11 r12 r13 Px 

r r r23 Py 
B 0
TW= T5 =
 21 22  (3.3)
r31 r32 r33 Pz 
 
0 0 0 1

Where Px, Py and Pz are the global coordinates indicating the spatial position
of the end-effector. Using MATLAB programming to multiply the individual
matrices, see Appendix A.
So;
r11= CosƟ5 [(CosƟ4*Cos (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) - SinƟ4*Sin (Ɵ2+Ɵ3)]

r12= -SinƟ5 [(CosƟ4*Cos (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) - SinƟ4*Sin (Ɵ2+Ɵ3)]

r13= -CosƟ4*Sin (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) - Sin Ɵ4*Cos (Ɵ2+Ɵ3)

r21= CosƟ5 [(CosƟ4*Sin (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) + SinƟ4*Cos (Ɵ2+Ɵ3)]

r22= -SinƟ5 [(CosƟ4*Sin (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) + SinƟ4*Cos (Ɵ2+Ɵ3)]

r23= CosƟ4*Cos (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) - Sin Ɵ4*Sin (Ɵ2+Ɵ3)

r31= -SinƟ5

r32= -CosƟ5

r33= 0
 Px= L2* Cos (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) + L1* CosƟ2

Py= L2* Sin (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) + L1* SinƟ2

Pz= d1

The last equations can be noted as equation (3.4), to simplify using it. These
equations give the forward kinematics of the designed arm robot. Knowing the
robot variables (d1,Ɵ2, Ɵ3,Ɵ4,Ɵ5), then the 0T5will be identified, and the position
and orientation of the robot wrist relative to the base frame is known.

1.4.2 Inverse Kinematics (IK)

IK problem computes the joint angles required to achieve the given position
and orientation. In contrast to the forward kinematics, IK does not have a unique
solution. The solutions which ensure collision-free operation and minimum joint
motion are considered more optimum.

In the inverse kinematic problem the target is to find the manipulator

parameters d1, θ2; θ3, θ4 and θ5 to bring the tool frame {T} coincide with the goal
frame {G}. It can be calculated from the following:

B
TW = BTS. STG. (G=TTW) (3.5)

So,
B
TW = BTS. STG. (WTG=T)-1 (3.6)

The left hand side of the equation (3.5) is given in the forward kinematics
problem as a function in robot variables. The right hand side of the equation must
be found to solve the inverse kinematic problem.

Note that, the general Rotation matrix in terms of the Z-Y-X Euler angles is
given by (Craig):

(3.7)
 Cos Cos Cos Sin  Sin  - Sin  Cos Cos Sin  Cos + Sin  Sin  
 
i-1
Ri=  Sin  Cos Sin  Sin  Sin  + Cos Cos Sin  Sin  Cos - Cos Sin  
  Sin  Cos Sin  Cos Cos 
And the general translation vector according to (Craig):
 i 1 X i 
 
i-1
Piorg=  i 1 Yi  (3.8)
 i 1 Z 
 i

Here the origin of {i} is not coincident with the origin of frame {i-1} but has
a general vector offset. The vector that locates the origin of {i} relative to {i-1} is
i-1
called Piorg as shown in (3.8). Also {i} is rotated with respect to {i-1}, as
described by a rotation matrix i-1Ri as shown in (3.7).
i-1
Then, the transformation matrix Ti can be written using the construction
used to cast the rotation and translation of the general transform into a single
matrix form:

i-1  i -1 R i i -1
Piorg 
Ti=   (3.9)
0 0 0 1 

 The transformation matrix BTS

Using Z-Y-X Euler angles, Fig. 3.7 and Fig. 3.8,it is noted that frame{S} is
only translated L0 units in direction of axis Y0 with no rotations. So, from (3.8) the
location of the origin of the frame {S} relative to frame {0} is given as:

0
0  
PSorg= L 0 (3.10)
 
 0 

From (3.7)the rotation of the frame {S} relative to

frame {0} is given as:
 1 0 0
0 
RS= 0 1 0 (3.11)
 

0 0 1

Also, the transformation matrix 0TS can be written from (3.9):

0
 0 RS 0
PSorg 
TS=   (3.12)
0 0 0 1 

So, the transformation matrix of 0TS can be written as:

1 0 0 0 
0 1 0 L0 
0
TS=   (3.13)
0 0 1 0 
 
0 0 0 1 

 The transformation matrix STG

From Fig. 3.7 and Fig. 3.8 it is noted that frame {G} is rotated relative to
frame {S}.

Using Z-Y-X Euler angles, frame {G} is rotated to frame{S} about axis Zs by
α=0, axis Ys by a variable angle β, axis Xs by γ=-π/2 and translated with a variable
parameters as SxG units in direction of axis Xs,SzG units in direction of axis Zs.

S x 
 G
S
PGorg=  0  (3.14)
Sz 
 G

From equation (3.7)the rotation of the frame {G} relative to

frame {S} is given as:
  cos  sin  0
S
RG=  0 1 1 (3.15)
 

 sin   cos 0


Also, the transformation matrix STG can be written using the definition of:

S  SRG S
PGorg 
TG=   (3.16)
0 0 0 1 

So, the transformation matrix of STG can be written as:

 cos  sin  0 S
xG 
 
TG= 
S 0 1 1 0 
(3.17)
 sin   cos 0 S
zG 
 
 0 0 0 1 

 The transformation matrix5TG=T

Using Z-Y-X Euler angles, Fig. 3.7 and Fig. 3.8, it is noted that
frame{T} is only translated L3 units in direction of axis Z5 with no rotations.

So, the location of the frame {T} relative to frame {5} is given as:

0
5  
PTorg=  0  (3.18)
 L 3 

From equation (3.7) the rotation of the frame {T} relative to

frame {5} is given as:
 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
5
TT =   (3.19)
0 0 1 L3 
 
0 0 0 1
5
In order to formulate the transformation matrix TT due to
equation (3.6), the inverse should be done. So the final transformation matrix is:

1 0 0 0 
 0 
W -1 0 1 0
 (3.20)
[ TG=T] =
0 0 1  L3 
 
0 0 0 1 

In worth work noting the position and orientation of the goal

frame {G} (cobalt-60 capsules) identified by XG,ZG and will be determined by
using image processing techniques as discussed
in chapter 5.

Referring to (3.6),the right hand side of this equation can be got by

multiplying the calculated matrices. Using MATLAB program, we can get:

 cos  sin  0 xG 
S
 
B S W -1  0 1 1 L 0  L3  (3.21)
TS. TG. [ TG=T] = 
 sin   cos 0 S
zG 
 
 0 0 0 1 

B 0
Substituting for TW = T5 from equations (3.3) and (3.8), we
can get:
  r11 r12 r13 Px   cos  sin  0 xG 
S
r  
r22 r23 Py   0 1 1 L 0  L3  (3.22)
 21 =
 r31 r32 r33 Pz   sin   cos 0 S
zG 
   
0 0 0 1   0 0 0 1 

Equating both sides in equation (3.22) and use of equation (3.4), we can get a
series of equations from which the robot variables are (d1,Ɵ2, Ɵ3,Ɵ4,and Ɵ5) can be
calculated. These equations can be used to find the robot variables.

From equations (3.4) and (3.22):

Px= L2* Cos (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) + L1* CosƟ2 = SxG (3.23)

Py= L2* Sin (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) + L1* SinƟ2=L0– L3

Now begin the algebraic solution of equations (3.21):

Px2+Py2 =L12 (Sin2Ɵ2+Cos2Ɵ2) + L22 [Sin2(Ɵ2+Ɵ3) +Cos2(Ɵ2+Ɵ3)] + 2L1L2

[CosƟ2Cos (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) +SinƟ2Sin (Ɵ2+Ɵ3)]

=SxG2 + (L0-L3)2 (3.24)

Using the relations:

Cos (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) = CosƟ2 CosƟ3 – SinƟ2 SinƟ3

(3.25)
Sin (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) = CosƟ2 SinƟ3 + SinƟ2 CosƟ3

Substituting the equations (3.25) in (4.24) we could have:

S
xG2 + (L0-L3)2 = L12+L22+2 L1 L2CosƟ3 (3.26)

From equation (3.24), Ɵ3 can be identified as:

Ɵ3= Cos-1 { SxG2+ (L0-L3)2 - (L12 + L22) } (3.27)

 2L1L2

From equations (3.21), (3.22) and (3.23), Ɵ2 can be identified as:

[(L0-L3) L2 Sin Ɵ3] + [(L1+ L2 Cos Ɵ3) SxG]

Ɵ2= Cos-1 { } (3.28)
L12+L22+2 L1 L2 CosƟ3

In order for a solution to exist, the right-hand side of these equations must
have a value between -1 and +1. In the solution algorithm, this constraint would be
checked at this time to find whether a solution exists. Physically, if this constraint
is not satisfied, then the goal point is too far away for the manipulator to reach.

The choice of signs in this routine corresponds to the multiple solutions in

which we can choose the “elbow up” or “elbow down” solution.in this work the
negative sign (elbow down) will be neglected.

From equations (3.4) and (3.22):

r23= CosƟ4*Cos (Ɵ2+Ɵ3)  Sin Ɵ4*Sin (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) =1 (3.29)

Then,

Cos (Ɵ2+Ɵ3+Ɵ4) = 1

So,

Ɵ2 + Ɵ3 + Ɵ4 =0

Ɵ4 =  (Ɵ2+Ɵ3) (3.30)

Also,

r31=  SinƟ5 =  Sinβ

So, Ɵ5 = β (Roll angle=rotation angle of {G}) (3.31)

Finally Pz = d1 = SzG

d1 = SzG (3.31)

We can rewrite and list the final equations as following:

x G 2 + (L 0  L3 ) 2  (L12 + L 2 2 )
1
S
3  Cos { }
2 L1 L 2

[(L 0  L3 )L 2 Sin3 ] + [(L1 + L 2 Cos 3 ) S x G ]

1
 2  Cos { }
L12 + L 2 2 + 2 L1 L 2 Cos 3

 4 =  (Ɵ2+Ɵ3)

 5 = β (Roll angle=rotation angle of {G})

d1 = SzG
Example:
S S
For xG=10cm, zG=15cm, β=60 (Forward Kinematics) and
L1 = L2 = 30cm and L3=L0=13cm (Geometry) find the robot variables.

Solution:
The joints data can be found by substituting in (3.27) to (3.31), so:

Ɵ3= 160.8 , Ɵ2= 80.4 , Ɵ4= -241.2 , Ɵ5=60 and d1=15cm

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