ow ww fo Rotary able P]> Workpieces Whee! Warkpisce Workpieee Hovizontal-spindie surfsee yrinder — Horizontal~spindle surface grinder — \. traverse grinding plunge grinding Work table FIGURE 25.14 ‘Schematic illustrations of surface grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding with a herizontal-spindle surface grinder. (b) Plunge grinding with a horizontal-spincle surface grinder, producing a groove in the workpiece. {c) Vertical. spindle rotary table grinder (also known as the Blancharditypel. Whee! guard —— — Whee! head Worktable Workpiese— Column Saddle Peed FIGURE 25,15 pases = Bed Schematic illustration of @ horizontal-spindle surface grinder. The majority of grinding opera. tions are done on such machines. i ry rune 7510 —meen \, (ab Rough grinding of steel Sins ot oversee apres grinder gudasbys specel Stan fatre to) Brigh grinding of balls in a ° ° Grindin wheel % multiple-groove fixture. The balls are ground to within 0.013 mm (0.0008 in.) of their final size. Source: American { Machinist, Guidéor batts Finich-ground batls 801802 25 » Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations y i iy pag He ( FIGURE 25.17 Examples of cylindrical grinding operations. {a) Traverse grinding, {b) plunge grinding, and (c) profile grinding. Source: Okuma Machinery Works Ltd. 25.6.2 Cylindrical grinding In cylindrical grinding (also called center-type grinding; Fig. 25.17), the workpiece’s external cylindrical surfaces and shoulders are ground. ‘Typical applications include crankshaft bearings, spindles, pins, bearing rings, and rolls for rolling mills. The rotat~ ing cylindrical workpiece reciprocates laterally along its axis, although in grinders used for large and long workpieces the grinding wheel reciprocates. The lateer design is called a roll grinder and is capable of grinding rolls as large as 1.8 m (72 in.) in diameter. The workpiece in cylindrical grinding is held between centers or in a chuck, or it is mounted on a faceplate in the headstock of the grinder. For straight cylindrical surfaces, the axes of rotation of the wheel and workpiece are parallel, Separate motors drive the wheel and workpiece at different speeds. Long workpieces with two or more diameters are ground on cylindrical grinders. Cylindrical grinding can produce shapes (form grinding and plunge grinding) in which the wheel is dressed to the form to be ground (Fig, 25.18). Cylindrical grinders are identified by the maximum diameter and length of the workpiece that can be ground, similar to engine lathes. In Universal grinders, both the workpiece and the wheel axes can be moved and swiveled around a horizontal plane, hus permitting the grinding of tapers and other shapes. These machines are equipped with computer controls, reducing labor and producing parts accurately and repetitively.25.6 Grinding Operations and Machines 803 Grinding wheel AGURE25 18 eens ra Pungo grinding of a workiece on o cyl nace! finde th hewn! dressed toa sepped shape Workpice Cylindrical grinders can also be equipped with computer-control features such that noncylindrical pasts (such as cams) can be ground on rotating workpieces. As Fig. 25.19 illusteates, che workpiece spindle rpm is synchronized such that the distance between the workpicce and wheel axes is varied continuously to produce a particular shape, such as that shown in the figure. Thread grinding is done on cylindrical grinders, as well as centerless grinders, with specially dressed wheels matching the shape of the threads (Fig. 25.20). Although costly, threads produced by grinding are the most accurate of any manufacturing process and have a very fine surface finish. The workpiece and wheel movements are synchronized to produce the pitch of the thread, usually in about six passes (see also Section 25.6.4). Grind whee" / A FIGURE 25.19 Schematic illustration of grinding @ noney: lindrical part on a cylindrical grinder with com- Warkpiece puter controls to produce the shape. The part rotation and the distance x between canters has to be varied and synchronized to grind 3 particular workpiece shape. (a) fo FIGURE 25.20 ——_ _ Thread grinding by (a) traverse and {b} plunge grinding.804 e@ Example: si wheel H ‘Workece i \ 25 © Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations Cycle patterns in cylindrical grinding 2cssseeeeee |As in most grinding operations, the grinding wheel in cylindrical grinding usually makes several passes along a path in order to produce che final geometry on the work- piece. Figure 25.21 illustrates various cycle patterns for producing several shapes on a mulkifanctional computer-controlled precision grinder. The determination of the optimum pattern for minimuma cycle time and least cost depends on the amount of material to be removed, part shape, and the process parameters chosen. These pat- terns are automatically generated by the software in the controls of the grinder. The downward arrowheads with numbers indicate the start of the grinding cycle. Source: Toyoda Machinery. ) bow S. FIGURE 25.21 ls WW « a me 25.6.3 Internal grinding In internal grinding (Fig. 25.22), a small wheel is used to grind the inside diameter of the part, such as bushings and bearing races. The workpiece is held in a rotating chuck and the wheel rotates at 30,000 rpm or higher. Internal profiles can also be ground with profile-dressed wheels that move radially into the workpiece. The headstock of internal grinders can be swiveled on a horizontal plane to grind tapered holes.ta) Traverse grinding: (Plunge grinding Workpieee FIGURE 25.22 Schematic illustrations of internal grinding operatios () Profile inding a 28.6.4 Centerless grinding Centerless grinding is 2 high-production process for contiauously grinding cylindsi- cal surfaces in which the workpiece is supported not by centers (hence the term cen- terless) or chucks but by a blade (Figs. 25.23 and 25.24). Typical parts made by centerless grinding are roller bearings, piston pins, engine valves, camshafts, and simi- lar components. This continuous production process requires little operator skill Parts with diameters as small as 0.1 mm (0.004 in.) can be ground. Centerless grinders are now capable of wheel surface speeds on the order of 10,000 m/min (35,000 fe/ min), using cubic boron nitride abrasive wheels. In through-feed grinding the workpiece is supported on a workrest blade and is ground between two wheels. Grinding is done by the larger wheel, while the smaller wheel regulates the axial movement of the workpiece. The regulating wheel, which is rubber bonded, is tilted and runs at speeds of only about 1/20 those of the grinding wheel. Parts with variable diameters, such as bolts, valve tappets, and distributor shafts, can be ground by centerless grinding. Called infeed, or plunge, grinding (Fig, 25.23b), the process is similar to plunge or form grinding with cylindrical grinders. Tapered pieces are centerless ground by end-feed grinding. High production rate thread grind- (a) Through ed grinding (Plunge ging eung wie Workpice Regulating wed Workiece Regulating gf) Bnd ve Setar oY FIGURE 25.23 Schematic illustrations of centertess grinding operations, blade Wheel806 jing and Finishing Operations ives —— ‘A computer-numerical-contro! cytindri- ‘cal grinding machine. The movement of the workpiece is perpendicular to the page. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc ing can be done with centerless grinders using specially dressed wheels. In intermal centerless grinding, the workpiece is supported between three rolls and is internally ground. Typical applications are sleeve-shaped parts and rings. 25.65 Other grinders A variecy of special-purpose grinders are available. Bench grinders are used for routine offhand grinding of tools and small parts. They are usually equipped with two wheels mounted on the two ends of the shaft of an electric motor. One whee is usually coarse for rough grinding, and the other is fine for finish grinding. Pedestal, or stand, grind= ers are placed on the floor and used similarly to bench grinders. Universal tool and cutter grinders are used for grinding single-point or multipoint tools and cutters. They are equipped with special workholding devices for accurate positioning of the tools to be ground. Tool-post grinders are self-contained units and are usually attached to the tool post of a lathe. The workpiece is mounted on the headstock and is ground by moving the tool post. These grinders are versatile, but the lathe should be protected from abrasive debris. Swing-frame grinders are used in foundries for grinding large castings. Rough grinding of castings is called snagging, and is usually done on floorstand grinders using wheels as large as 0.9 m (36 in.) in diameter. Portable grinders, either air or electrically driven, or with a flexible shaft connected to an electric motor or gasoline engine, are available for operations such as grinding off weld beads and cutting-off operations using thin abrasive disks, usually on large workpieces.25.6 Grinding Operations and Machines 807 TABLE 25.4 TYPIGAL RANGE OF SPEEDS AND FEEDS FOR ABRASIVE PROCESSES Conventional Process Variable Grinding Buffing Polishing Wheel speed (m/min) 1500-3000 1800-3000 1800-3600 1500-2400 Work speed (mvimin} 10-60 ont - - Feed imm/pass) 0.01-0.05 1-6 ~ ~ 25.6.6 Creep-feed grinding Grinding has traditionally been associated with small rates of material removal (Table 25.4) and fine finishing operations. However, grinding can also be used for large-scale metal removal operations similar to milling, broaching, and planing. In creep-feed grinding, developed in the late 1950s, the wheel depth of cut d is as much as 6 mm (0.25 in.), and the workpiece speed is low (Fig. 25.25a). The wheels are mostly softer grade resin bonded with open structure 1o keep temperatures low and improve surface finish. Grinders with capabilities for continuously dressing the grinding wheel witha diamond roll are now available, The machines used for creep-feed grinding have special features, such as high power—up to 225 kW (300 hp)—high stiffness (because of the high forces due to the depth of material removed), high damping capacity, eati- able and well-controlled spindle and work- table speeds, and ample capacity for grind- ing fluids, Its overall economics and competitive position with other material-removal pro- cesses indicate that creep-feed grinding can be economical for specific applications, @ ©) Low work speed, FIGURE 25.25 {a) Schematic illustration of the creep feed grinding process, Note the large wheel depth of cut. (b) A shaped groove produced on a fiat surface in one pass by creep-fead grinding. Groove depth can be onthe order of a few mn. fo) An example of creep-feed grinding with a shaped wheel, Source: Courtesy of Slohm, Inc., and Manufacturing Engineer ing Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers, This operation can also be performed by some of the processes described in Chapter 26,808 25 * Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations such as in grinding shaped punches, key seats, ewist-drill lute, the roots of turbine blades (Fig. 25.25c) and various complex superalloy parts. The wheel is dressed to the shape of the workpiece to be produced. Consequently, the workpiece does not have to be previously milled, shaped, or broached. Thus near-net shape castings and forg- ings are suitable parts for creep-feed grinding. Although generally one pass is suffi- cient, a second pass may be necessary for improved surface finish. 25.6.7 Heavy stock removal by grinding Grinding processes can be used for large-scale material removal by increasing process paramecers. This is 2 rough grinding operation, with possibly detrimental effects on the workpiece surface, but can be economical in specific applications and compete favorably with machining processes, particularly milling, but also turning and broach- ing as well. In this operation, surface finish is of secondary importance and the grind- ing wheel (or belt) is vtilized to its maximum for minimum cost per piece. The geometric tolerances in this process are on the same order as those obtained by other machining processes. 25.6.8 Grinding chatter Chatteris particularly significant in grinding because it adversely affects surface finish and wheel performance. Vibrations during grinding may be caused by bearings, spindles, and unbalanced wheels, as well as external sources, such as from nearby machinery. The grinding process can itself cause regenerative chatter. The analysis of chatter in grinding is similar to that for machining operations (see Section 24.4). Thus the important variables are stiffness of the machine tool and workholding devices, and damping, Additional factors that are unique to grinding chatter are nonuniformities in the grinding wheel, dressing techniques used, and uneven wheel wear. Because these variables produce characteristic chatter marks on ground surfaces, careful study of these marks can often Iead to the source of the problem. General guidelines have been established to reduce the tendency for chatter in grinding, such as using soft-grade wheels, dressing the wheel frequently, changing dressing tech- niques, reducing the material-removal rate, and supporting the workpiece rigidly. 25.6.9 Safety Because grinding wheels are brittle and are operated at high speeds, certain procedures must be carefully followed in their handling, storage, and use. Failure to follow these trales—and the instructions and warnings printed on individual wheel labels—may result in serious injury or death. Grinding wheels should be stored properly and pro- tected fcom environmental extremes. They should be visually inspected for eracks and damage prior to installing them on grinders. Damage to a grinding wheel can severely reduce its bursting speed, defined as the surface speed at which a freely rotating wheel bursts (also referred to as exploding).© Example: 25.7 Grinding Fluids 809 The surface speed is, of course, related to the wheal diameter and its rotational speed; hence bursting speed can be defined in terms of bursting rpm for a particular wheel Bursting speed depends on the type of wheel, its bond, grade, and structure. In dias mond and CBN wheels, which are operated at high surface speeds, the core material affects the bursting speed; mecal coves, as expected, have the highest speed, on the order of about 250 m/s (800 fe/s). ‘Wheels should be mounted on spindles of proper size, so that they are neither forced, which may fracture the wheel at its center, nor loose, which ean cause unbal- ance. Flanges should be of appropriate design and dimensions. Wheels should be bal- anced because otherwise the surface produced will be wavy and the wheel will cause vibrations, possibly leading to wheel fracture. Some machine spindles and flanges pro- vide for balancing wheels. Grinding wheels should be used according to their specifi cations and maximum operating speeds, and should not be dropped or abused. Wheel guarding, operator protection, and bystander safety are all importane Grinding vs. hard turning eee Section 22.5 described hard turning, an example of which is the machining of heat- treated steels (usually above 45 HRC) using a single-point polycrystalline cubic- boron-nitride cursing tool. In view of the discussions presented thus far in this chapter, it is evident that grinding and hard turning will be competitive in specific applications. Consequently, there has been considerable debate regarding their respec- tive merits. Hard turning continues to be increasingly competitive with grinding, and toler- ances and surface finish are beginning to approach those for grinding. Turning requires much less energy than grinding (compare Tables 20.1 and 25.2), thermal and other damage to the workpiece surface is less likely to occur, cutting fluids may not be necessary, and the machine tools are less expensive. In addition, finishing the part while still chucked in the lathe eliminates the need for material handling and setting the part in the grinder. However, workholding devices for large and slender work pieces for hard curning can present problems since the cutting forces are higher than in grinding. Furthermore, tool wear and its control caa bea significant problem as com- pared to the automatic dressing of grinding wheels. It is thus evident that the com- petitive position of hard turning vs. grinding must be evaluated individually for each application and in terms of product surface integrity, quality, and overall economics. EF" ee 25.7 Grinding Fluids The functions of grinding fluids are similar to those for cutting fluids (Section 21.13). Although grinding and other abrasive-removal processes can be performed dry, the use of a fluid is important. Ic prevents temperature rise in the workpiece and improves the810 25 © Abrasive Machining and Finishing Op: TABLE 25,9 seamen GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GRINDING FLUIDS Materiel Grinding Fluid Aluminum E.eP Copper CSN, E, MO + FO. Magnesium D, mo Nickel CSN, EP Refractory metals =P Steels SNE Titanium CSN, E dry: arution: EF exvero or thats: MO: marl EO at ra CSN: caries and yr part’s surface finish and dimensional accuracy: Fluids also improve the efficiency of the operation by reducing wheel loading and wear and lowering power consumption, Grinding fluids are typically water-base emulsions for general grinding and oils for thread grinding (Table 25.5). They may be applied as a stream (flood) or as mist, which is a mixture of fluid and air. Because of the high surface speeds involved, an airstream or ait blanket around the periphery of the wheel usually prevents the fluid from reaching the cutting 2one. Special nozzles that mate with the shape of the cucting surface of the grinding wheel have been designed in which the grinding fluid is applied effectively under high pressure. “The temperarure of water-base grinding fluids can rise significantly during its use as it removes heat from the grinding zone, in which case the workpiece can expand, making it difficult to control dimensional tolerances. The common method employed to maintain even temperature is to use refrigerating systems (chillers) through which the fluid is circulated ‘As discussed in Section 21.13 on cutting fluids, the biological and ecological aspects, disposal, treatment, and recycling of grinding fluids are among the important considerations in their selection and use. The practices employed must comply with federal, state, and local laws and regulations (see also Section 37.4). erent Rt RE ES 25.8 Design Considerations for Grinding Design considerations for grinding operations are similar to those for machining pro- cesses. However, specific attention should be given to the following: a) Parts should be designed so that they can be held securely, either in chucks, mag- netic tables, or suitable fixtures and workholding devices. Otherwise, chin straight or tubular workpieces may distort during grinding25.9. utraso 25.9 Ultrasonic Machining Bi b)_Taterrupted surfaces, such as holes and keyways, should be avoided if high dimen- sional accuracy is needed because such interruptions can cause vibrations. «) Incylindsical grinding, parts should be balanced, and long slender designs should be avoided to minimize deflections. Fillets and comer radii should be as large as possible, of relief should be provided for by prior machining 4) In centerless grinding, short pieces may be difficult to grind accurately because of their lack of support on the blade. In through-feed grinding, only the larg- est diamerers can be ground. Small-diameter sections can be ground by plunge grinding. ©) Designs vequiring accurate form grinding should be kept simple to avoid frequent wheel dressing. {) Deep and small holes, and blind holes requiring internal grinding, should be avoided, or should inchide a relief In general, design should require that a minimum amount of material be removed by grinding (excepr in creep-feed grinding). Moreover, designs should allow, insofar as possible, all grinding to be done without having to reposition the workpiece, Machi In ultrasonic machining, material is removed from a susface by microckipping or erosion with fine abrasive grains. The tip of the tool (Fig. 25.26a) vibrates at 2 fre- quency of 20 kHz and a low amplitude (0.0125-0.075 mm; 0.0005-0.003 in.). This vibration, in tur, transmits 2 high velocity to abrasive geains in a slurry between the tool and the workpiece. The stress produced by the abrasive particles hitting the work- piece surface are high because (2) the time of contact between the particle and the w Power supply © mas © 6 as-arapite om fH Trantor spy Sac N AW ° 1.2mm Avasivestury — | ORO fenton eins cage af, eae , tien Jo Workpiece 38 | ee ee S0is086 1.5mm Holes04 mmco016in) (02s 0069 diameter FIGURE 25.28 (a) Schematic illustration of the ultrasonic machining process. (b) and (c) Types of parts made by this process. Note the small size of holes produced.812 25 + Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations surface is very short (10-100 ps), and (b) the area of contact is very small. fn britdle materials, impact stresses are high enough to cause mierochipping and erosion of the workpiece surface. The tip of the tool, which is attached to a transducer through the tool holder, is usually made of mild steel and undergoes wear. The grains are usually boron carbide, although aluminum oxide or silicon carbide are also used. Grain sizes range from 100 for roughing to 1000 for finishing operations. The grains are carried in a water slurry, with concentrations of 20 to 60 percent by volume. The slurry also carries the debris away from the cutting zone ‘Ultrasonic machining is best suited for materials that are hard and brittle, such as ceramics, carbides, precious stones, and hardened steels. Two applications of ultea- sonic machining are shown in Figs. 25.26b and c. A drawback of this process is that it requires special tooling for each job. Design considerations, Design guidelines for ultrasonic machining include: a) Avoid sharp profiles, corners, and radii because the abrasive slurry erodes away sharp corners. b) Some taper is to be expected for holes made by this process. ©) _ In order to avoid chipping of brittle materials in producing through holes, the bottom of the parts should be supported with a backup plate In addition to those described thus far, several processes are generally used on work- pieces as the final finishing operation. These processes mainly utilize abrasive grains. Commonly used finishing operations are described in this section in the order of improved surface finish produced. Finishing operations can contribute significantly to production time and product cost. Thus they should be specified with due consider- ation to their costs and benefits, 28.10.1 Coated abrasives Typical examples of coated abrasives are sandpaper and emery cloth. The grains used in coated abrasives are more pointed than those used for grinding wheels. The grains are electrostatically deposited on flexible backing materials, such as paper or cloth. (Fig. 25.27), with their long axes perpendicular to the plane of the backing. The matrix (coating) is made of resins. Coated abrasives are available as sheets, belts, and disks and usually have a much more open structure chan the abrasives on grinding wheels. Coated abrasives are used extensively in finishing flat or curved surfaces of metallic and nonmetallic parts, ‘of metallographic specimens, and in woodworking. ‘The precision of surface finish obtained depends primarily on grain size.25.10 Finishing Operations 813 FIGURE 25.27 eeeeeeemnettecennesn Schematic iliustration of the structure of a costed Abrasive grain Size coat abrasive. Sandpaper. developed in the sixteenth cen- \ Make coat tury, and emery cloth sre common examples of coated abrasives, Example: Coated abrasives are also used as belts for high-rate material removal. Belt grind~ ing has become an important production process, in some cases replacing conventional grinding operations such as grinding of camshafts, with 8 to 16 lobes of approximately elliptic shapes per shaft. Belt speeds are usually in the range of 700-1800 m/min (2500-6000 fr/min). Machines for abrasive-belt operations require proper belt sup- port and rigid construction to minimize vibrations. Belt grinding of turbine nozzle vanes eee The turbine nozzle vane shown in Fig. 25.28 was investment cast (see Section 11.8) from a cobalt-base superalloy. To remove a thin diffusion layer from the root skirt and tip skirt sections, this part was ground on a cloth-backed abrasive belt (aluminum oxide, 60 grain size). The vanes were mounted on a fixture and ground at a belt speed of 1809 m/min (6000 ft/min) without a grinding fluid, Production rate was 93 s per piece. Each vane weighed 21.65 g before belt grinding and 20.25 g after. Source: ASM International. Root skirt FIGURE 25.28 25.10.2 Wire brushing In the wire brushing process, the workpiece is held against a circular wire brush that rorates at high speed. The tips of the wire produce longitudinal scratches on the work-814 25 * Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations FIGURE 25.29 Schematic illustration of a honing tool to improve the surface finish of bored or ground holes. Nonabrading bronze guide piece surface. This process is used to produce a fine surface texture. Some efforts are taking place in developing wire brushing as a light material-removal process. 25.103 Honing Honing is an operation used primarily to give holes a fine surface finish (see Fig. 22.13). ‘The honing tool (Fig. 25.29) consists of a set of aluminum-oxide or silicon-carbide bonded abrasives, called stones. They are mounted on a mandrel that rotates in the hole, applying a radial force with a reciprocating axial motion, thus producing a cross hatched pattern, The stones can be adjusted radially for different hole sizes. The fine- ness of surface finish can be controlled by the type and size of abrasive used, the speed of rotation, and the pressure applied. A fluid is used to remove chips and to keep temperatures low, If not done properly, honing can produce holes that are not straight and cylindrical but with shapes that are bellmouthed, wavy, barrel-shaped, or tapered. Honing is also done on external cylindrical or flat surfaces and to remove sharp edges ‘on cutting tools and inserts (see Fig. 21.5). In superfinishing, the pressure applied is very light and the motion of the stone has a short stroke. The process is controlled so that the grains do not travel along the same path along the surface of the workpiece. Examples of external superfinishing of a round part are shown in Fig, 25.30, 25.10.4 Lapping Lapping is a finishing operation used on flat or cylindrical surfaces. The lap (Fig. 25.31a) is usually made of cast iron, copper, leather, or cloth. The abrasive par- ticles are embedded in the lap, or they may be carried through a slurry. Tolerances on the order of +0.0004 mm (0.000015 in.) can be obtained with the use of fine abra- sives—up to size 900. Surface finish can be as smooth as 0.025—0.1 jum (1-4 quin.). Production lapping on flat or cylindrica! pieces is done on machines such as those shown in Figs. 25.31b and c. Lapping is also done on curved surfaces, such as spherical objects and glass lenses, using specially shaped laps. Running-in of mating gears can be done by lapping. Depending on the hardness of the workpiece, Japping pressures range from 7-140 kPa (1-20 psi).28.10 Finis 1ing Operations 815 a ©) Holder Pressure Workpiece Oscillation “ieaverse ifnecessary? Motor N FIGURE 25.30 ‘Schematic illustrations of the superfinishing process for a cylindrical part, (a) Cylindrical miero- honing, b) centerless microhoning. 25.105 Polishing and buffing Polishing is a process that produces 2 smooth, lustrous surface finish. Two basic mechanisms are involved in the polishing process: (a) fine-scale abrasive removal, and (b) softening and smearing of surface layers by frictional heating during polishing. The shiny appearance of polished surfaces results from the smearing action, Polishing is done with disks or belts made of fabric, leather, or felt and coated with fine powders of aluminum oxide or diamond, Parts with irregular shapes, sharp corners, deep recesses, and sharp projections are difficult to polish. oasis tap Lappin ad Nowe Op were RAWAM Guide rail ‘Workpicces Machise pon Loner lap FIGURE 25.31 {a} Schematic iNustration of the cylindrical surfaces. surfaces. (c) Produ (b} Production lapping on fl ion lapping on816 25 * Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations: Buffing is similarto polishing, with the exception that very fine abrasives are used on soft disks made of cloth or hide. The abrasive is supplied externally from a stick of abrasive compound. Polished parts may be buffed to obtain an even finer surface finish, 25.10.6 Electropolishing “Mirror-like finishes can be obtained on metal surfaces by electropolishing, a process which is the reverse of electroplating (see Section 33.8). Because there is no mechanical contact with the workpiece, this process is particularly suitable for polishing ircegular shapes. The electrolyte attacks projections and peaks on the workpiece surface at 2 higher rate than the rest, thus producing a smooth surface. Electropolishing is also used for deburring operations. 25.10.7 Polishing processes using magnetic fields ‘A recent development in polishing involves the use of magnetic fields to support abra- sive slarries in finishing (polishing) ceramic balls and bearing rollers. Magnetic float polishing of ceramic balls is illustrated schematically in Fig. 25.32a. A magnetic fluid, containing abrasive grains and extcemely fine ferromagnetic particles in a carrier fluid such as water or kerosene, fills the chamber within a guide ring, The ceramic balls are ‘ Drive shaft Magwesic Noid and abrasive _7 Guide ring rains Ceramic balls (workpiece) Float nfsinis|yfsiyisinis(N}s Magnetic Aid Permanent magnets FIGURE 25.32 ‘Schematic illustration of polishing of balls and rollers using magnetic fields. (a) Magnetic float polishing of ceramic bali, and (b) magnetic-field-assisted polishing of rollers. Source: F. Kemanduri, Ml. Doc, and M. Fox.25.11. Daburring 817 located berween a drive shaft and a float. The abrasive grains, ceramic balls, and the float (which is made of a nonmagnetic material) are all suspended by magnetic forces. The balls are pressed against the rotating drive shaft and are polished by the abrasive action. The forces applied by the abrasive particles on the balls are extremely small and controllable, hence the polishing action is very fine. Polishing times are much lower than those for other polishing methods, hence the process is very economical and the surfaces produced have little or no defects. Magnetic-field-assisted polishing of ceramic rollers is illustrated in Fig. 25.32b. A ceramic or steel roller (the workpiece) is clamped and rotated on a spindle, The magnetic poles are oscillated, introducing a vibratory motion to the magnetic-abrasive conglomerate. This action polishes the cylindrical roller surface. Bearing steels of 63 HIRC have been mirror finished in 30 seconds by this process, 25.11 Deburring Burrs are thin ridges, usually triangular in shape, that develop along the edges of a workpiece from shearing sheet materials, trimming forgings and castings, and machin- ing. Burrs may interfere with the assembly of parts and can cause jamming of parts, misalignment, and short circuits in electrical components. Furthermore, burrs may reduce the fatigue life of components. Because they are usually sharp, they can be safety hazard to personnel. The need for deburring may be reduced by adding cham- fers to sharp edges on parts. Oa the other hand, burrs on thin drilled or eapped com- ponents, such as tiny parts in watches, can provide extra thickness and, thus, improve the holding torque of screws. Several deburring processes are available: (a) manually with files, (b) mechani- cally by cutting, (c) wire brushing, (d) flexible abrasive finishing, using rotary nylon brushes with filaments embedded with abrasive grits, (c) abrasive belts, (f} ultrasonics, (g) electropolishing, (h) electrochemical machining, (i) vibratory finishing, (j) shot blasting, (k) abrasive-flow machining, and (1) thermal energy. The last four processes are described below; other processes are covered elsewhere. Vibratory and barrel finishing processes are used to improve the surface finish and remove burrs from large numbers of relatively small workpieces. In this batch- type operation, specially shaped abrasive pellets or media are placed in a container along with the parts to be deburred, The container is either vibrated or tumbled. The impact of individual abrasives and metal particles removes sharp edges and burrs from the parts. Depending on the application, this is a dry or wet process, and liquid com- pounds may be added for requirements such as degreasing and corrosion resistance. In shot blasting (also called grit blasting), abrasive particles (usually sand) are propelled by a high-velocity jet of air, or by a rotating wheel, onto the surface of the workpiece. Shot blasting is particularly useful in deburring metallic and nonmetallic materials and stripping, cleaning, and removing surface oxides. The surface produced818 25 » Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations FIGURE 25.33 nt Schematic illustration of abrasive flow machining to ‘deburr 2 turbine impeller. The arrows indicate move- ment of the abrasive media. Note the special fixture, which is usually different for each part design. ‘Source: Extrude Hone Corp. Top machine pte Workpiece Top. -~ tooling Bottom . machine ple Bottom tooling has a matte finish, Small-scale polishing and etching can also be done by this process on bench-type units (microabrasive blasting). In abrasive-flow machining, abrasive grains, such as silicon carbide or diamond, are mixed in a putty-like matrix, which is thea forced back and forth through the ‘openings and passageways in the workpiece. The movement of the abrasive matrix under pressure erodes away burrs and sharp corners and polishes the part. The process is particularly suitable for workpieces with internal cavities that are inaccessible by other means, Pressures applied range from 0.7 MPa to 22 MPa (100 psi to 3200 psi). External surfaces can also be deburred by this process by containing the workpiece within a fixture that directs the abrasive media to the edges and areas to be deburred. An application concerning deburring of a turbine impeller by abrasive-flow machin. ing is illustrated in Fig, 25.33. ‘The thermal energy method of deburring consists of placing the part in a cham- ber which is then injected with a mixture of natural gas and oxygen. This mixture is ignited, whereby a heat wave is produced with a cemperature of 3300 °C (6000 °F). The burrs heat up instantly and are melted away, while the pare temperature reaches only about 150 °C (300 °E), ‘The process is effective in many applications on noncom- bustible parts. However, larger burrs or flashes tend to form beads afcer melting, the process can distort thin and slender parts, and it does not polish or buff the workpiece surfaces as many of the other deburring processes would. Deburring and flash removal from castings and forgings are now being performed increasingly by programmable robots (see Section 38.7), thus eliminating tedious manual labor and resulting in more consistent deburring. One example of deburring die-cast parts for an outdoor motor housing is shown in Fig, 25.34.25.12. Economics of Grinding and Finishing Operations 819 FIGURE 25.30 A daburring operation on a robot-hold die-cast part for an outboard motor housing, using a grinding wheel, Abrasive belts of flexible abrasive radial- wheel brushes can also be used for such operations. Scurce: Courtesy of Acme Manufacturing Company and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society ‘of Manufacturing Engineers. 25.12 Economies of Grinding and Operations hing We have shown that grinding may be used both as a finishing operation and as alarge- scale removal operation (as in creep-feed grinding). The use of grinding as a finishing operation is often necessary because forming and machining processes alone usually cannot produce parts with the desiced dimensional accuracy and surface finish. How ever, because itis an additional operation, grinding contributes significantly to product cost. Creep-feed grinding, on the other hand, has proved to be an economical alter- native to machining operations such as milling, even though wheel wear is high. Also, grinding and hard turning have now become competitive for certain applications. Alll finishing operations contribute to product cost. On the basis of the discussion thus far, you can sce that as the surface finish improves, more operations are required,820 25 + Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations ws 1 8 Machining cost Surface finish R, in FIGURE 5S Increase in the cost of machining and finishing @ part as a function of the surfece finish required. and hence the cost increases. Note in Fig. 25.35 how rapidly cost increases as surface finish is improved by processes such as grinding and honing. Much progress has been made in automating the equipment involved in finishing operations, including computer controls. Consequently, labor costs and production times have been reduced, even though such machinery may require significant capital investment. If finishing is likely to be an important factor in manufacturing a particu- Jar product, the conceptual and design stages should involve an analysis of the degree of surface finish and dimensional accuracy required. Furthermore, all processes that precede finishing operations should be analyzed for their capability to produce a more acceptable surface finish and dimensional accu- racy. As you have seen, this can be accomplished through proper selection of tools and process parameters and the characteristics of the machine tools iavolved, er TR EEE SUMMARY Grinding and various abrasive-removal processes are capable of producing the finest accuracy and surface finish in manufactured products. The majority of abra- sive processes are basically finishing operations that are usually performed on machined or cold-worked parts. However, abrasives are also used for large-scale material-removal processes, such as creep-feed grind- ing and snagging in foundries.A variety of abcasive processes and machine: available for surface, external, and internal grinding. The selection of abrasives and process variables in these operations must be controlled in order to obtain the desired surface finish and dimensional accuracy. Otherwise, damage to surfaces such as burning, heat Trends 827 checking, and harmful residual stresses may develop. Several finishing operations are available for debur- ing. Because they contribute significantly to product cost, proper selection and implementation of finishing. operations are important. —— SUMMARY TABLE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ABRASIVE MACHINING PROCESSES AND MACHINES: Maximum Dimension {rm)* ‘ate; low to medium labor skill. Reciprocating table L: 6 Rotery table 0: 3 Workpiece 0:0.8 Roll grinders D:1.8 Universat grinders D:2.5 Workpiece D:0.8 Hole 0:2 Spindle D: 1.2 Table D:3.7 Process Character ‘Surface Flat surfaces on most materials; production rate depends on table size and automation; labor skill depends on part; production rate is high on verticat-spindle rotary-table type. Cylindrical Round workpieces with stepped diameters; low production rate unless automated; labor skili depends on part shape, Centerless Round workpieces; high production rate; low to medium labor skill Internal Boras in workpiece; low producti: Honing Bores and holes in workpiece; low production rate: low labor skill Lapping Fiat surfaces; high production rate; low labor skill. Ultrasonic Holos and cavities of various shapes, particularly in hard and brittle machining _ nonconducting materials. “Larger capecues are avaiale fer specie applications = length O = dameter —_—_—————— TRENDS + As with other machine tools, the trend for abrasive ‘operations is for greater automation and computer control. + Advanced controls on grinders are now capable of calculating when and how long a grinding. wheel should be dressed, as well as automatically and continuously compensating for wheel-diameter reduction, feeds, and wheel surface speeds. + The trend in the design of grinding machines is for higher machine and spindle stiffnesses, vibration- free structures, higher and more stable wheel speeds, continuous dressing, higher material removal rates, and lower cycle times, + Cooling the workpiece in some grinding opera- tions, such as creep feed, is requiring mist col- lecting (from grinding fluids) and avromatie fire-extinguishing systems. + Grinding is now capable of competing with some machining operations and performing coughing and finishing operations in one setup of the work= piece. Creep-feed grinding is beginning to compete with milling and broaching processes. + Developments in grinding wheels include better control of manufacturing parameters and greater uniformity of properties. Operating speeds of wheels are being increased for higher productivity, The design, guarding, and safe operation of these wheels is an important consideration,822 KEY TERMS Abrasive-flow machining Friability Abrasives Glazing Accritious wear Grade Barrel finishing Grinding Bonded abrasives Grinding ratio Bonding Grinding wheel Buffing Honing Coated abrasives Lapping Creep-feed grinding Loading Deburring Mezal bonding Dressing Polishing Electropolishing Resinoid bond ing Operations Seeded gel abrasive Shor blasting Snagging Structure Superabrasives Superfinishing Teuing Ultrasonic machining Vibratory finishing Viteified Wear flat Wire brushing eR BIBLIOGRAPHY Andrew, C., T. D. Howes, and T. R. A. Pearee, Creep Feed Grinding. New York: Industrial Press, 1985. Borkowski, J, and A. Szymanski, Uses of Abrasives and Abrasive Tools. Chichester, Eng: Ellis Hor- wood, 1992, Farago, E.T., Abrasive Methods Engineering, Vol. 1, 1976; Vol. 2, 1980. New York: Industrial Press Gillespie, L. K., Deburring Technology for Improved ‘Manufacturing. Dearborn, Mich. Society of ‘Manufacturing Engineers, 1981 King, R. L, and R. S. Haha, Handbook of Modern Grinding Technology. New York: Chapman and Hall/Methuen, 1987, Kear, $,, and E. Ratterman, Superabrasives: Grinding and Machining with CBN and Diamond, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. Lewis, K. B. and W. F. Schleicher, The Grinding Wheel: A Textbook of Modern Grinding Practice, 3d ed, Cleveland: The Grinding Wheel Instieute, 1976, Machinery’ Handbook, revised periodically. New York: Industrial Press. Machining Data Handbook, 3d ed., 2 vols. Cincin- snati: Machinability Data Center, 1980, Malkin, S., Grinding Technology: Theory and Appli- cations of Machining with Abrasives. New York: Wiley, 1989. Maroney, M.L., A Guide to Metal and Plastic Finish~ ing. New York: Industrial Press, 1994 McKee, RL, Machining with Abrasives. New York: Van Nosteand Reinhold, 1982. Metals Handbook, 8th ed., Vol. 3: Machining. Metals Park, Ohio: American Society for Metals, 1967. Metals Handbook, 9th ed., Vol. 16: Machining. Mate- rials Park, Ohio: ASM International, 1989, Metzger, J Lu Superabrasive Grinding. Stoneham, Mass.: Butterworths, 1986 Tooland Manufacturing Engincers Handbook, #thed. Vol. 1: Machining. Dearborn, Mich. Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1983. ena REVIEW QUESTIONS 25.1 What is an abrasive? What are superabrasives? 25.2 How is the size of an abrasive grain related to its number? 25.3 Why are most abrasives now made syatheti- ally? 25.4 Describe the structure of a grinding wheel. 25.5 Explain the characteristics of each type of bond used in bonded abrasives. 25.6 Describe the (2) grade and (b) structure of bonded abrasives.25.7 What are grinding sparks caused by? 258 Define metallurgical burn, 25.9 Explain the mechanisms by which grinding wheels wear 25.10 Define (a) friability, (b) wear flat, (c) grinding ratio, d) teuing, and (e) dressing. 25.11 Explain what is meant by a grinding wheel act- ing soft or hard 25.12 What is eceep-feed grinding and what ace its advantages? Quantitative Problems 823 25.13 What is the principle of ultrasonic machining? Why is ir not suitable for ductile materials? 25.14 List the finishing operations commonly used jin manufacturing. Why are they necessary? Explain why they should be minimized. 25.15 What are the differences between lapping, pol ishing, and buffing? 25.16 Name the major deburring operations and describe briefly their principles. 25.17 What is the function of grinding fluids? QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS 25.18 Why aregrinding operations necessary forcom- ponents thas have been machined by the pro- cesses described in Chapters 22 and 23? 25.19 Explain why there are so many different types and sizes of grinding wheels. 25.20 Explain the reasons for the large difference be- tween the specific energies involved in machin ing (Table 20.1) and grinding (Table 25.2) 25.21 Comment on the selection of grinding wheels, for the applications showa ia Table 25.3. 25.22 What precautions would you take when grind- ing wich high precision? Make comments about the machine, process parameters, the grinding wheel, and grinding fuids. 25.23 What factors could contribute to chatcer in grinding? 25.24 The grinding ratio G depends on the follow- ing: type of grinding wheel, workpiece hard- sess, wheel depth of cus, wheel and workpiece speeds, and type of grinding fluid. Explain why. 25.25 Ic is generally recommended that in grinding hardened steels, che grinding wheel be of a softer grade. Explain the reason. 25.26 In Fig. 25.4, the proper grinding surfaces are shown for each type of wheel with an arrow. Explain why the other surfaces of the wheels should aot be used for grinding. 25.27 Explain the factors involved in selecting the appropriate type of abrasive for 2 particular grinding operation. 25.28 What are che effects of x wear flat on the grind- ing process? 25.29 Would you encouncer any difficulties in grind- ing thermoplastics? If so, what precautions would you take? 25.30 Is the grinding ratio G important in evaluat- ing the economics of a grinding operation? Explain, 25.31 We know that grinding can produce a very fine surface finish on a workpiece. Is this necessarily an indication of the quality of a part? Explain. 25.32 What are the consequences of allowing the tem- perature to rise in grinding? 25.33 What costs would be associated with dressing a grinding wheel? Explain. 25.34 We have stated that, if not done properly, hon ing can produce holes that are bellmouthed, wavy, barrel-shaped, or tapered. Explain how this is possible. 25.35 List and explain factors that contribute to poor surface finish in the processes described in this chapter. eo a ESR NR QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS 25.36 Calculate the chip dimensions for the example problem in Section 25.4 for the following pro- cess variables: D = 10 in, d = 0001 in, » = 100 ft/min, V = 5000 ft/min, C and r = 15. = 500 per ins,824 2537 25.38 2539 25.40 25 * Abrasive Machining and If the strength of che workpiece material is doubled, what should be the percentage decrease in the wheel depth of cur din order to maintain the same grain force, all other vati- ables being the same? Assume that 2 surface grinding operation is being carried out under the following condi- tions: D = 200 mm, d= 0.1 mm,» = 24 m/min, and V = 1800 m/min. These conditions are then changed to the following: D = 150 mm, d= 0.1 mm, v = 18 m/min, and V = 1500 m/ min, How differents the temperature rise from the initial conditions? Estimate the percent increase in cost of the grinding operation if the specification for the surface finish of a part is changed from 63 jin. to 16 pin. Assume that the energy cost for grinding an aluminum part, with a specific energy require- ment of 8 W - s/mm?, is $0.90 per piece. What 2541 2542 25.43 19 Operations. would be the energy cost of carrying out the same operation ifthe workpiece material is T35 tool steel? (On the basis of the information given in Chap- ters 22 and 25, comment on the feasibility of producing 2 10-mm hole 100 mm deep in a copper alloy by (a) conventional drilling and (b) internal grinding. In describing grinding processes, we have not given the type of equations regarding feeds, speeds, material removal rates, total grindiag tiene, etc, a8 we have done in turning and mill- ing operations in Chapters 22 and 23. Study the quantitative relationships involved and develop such equations for grinding operations. What would be the answers co the example in Section 25:4.1 on grinding forces if the work- piece is high-strength titanium and the width of cut w is 0.5 in. Give your answers in newtons SYNTHESIS AND DESIGN 23.44 25.45 25.46 ‘Assume that you are an instructor covering the topics described inthis chapter, and you are giv- ing 2 quiz on the numerical aspects to test the understanding of the students. Prepare several quantitative problems and supply the answers With appropriate sketches, describe the prin- ciples of various fixturing methods and devices that ean be used for the processes described in this chapter, Explain the major design guidelines for grinding, 2547 25.48 Make a comprehensive table of the process capabilities of the abrasive machining processes described in this chapter. Using several col- unas, deseribe the machines involved, type of abrasive tools used, shapes of blanks and parts produced, typical maximum and minimum sizes, surface finish, tolerances, and production sates. Based on the data developed in the foregoing problem, deseribe your thoughts regarding the procedure to be followed in determining what type of machine tool to select for 2 particular part to be machined by abrasive meansNontraditional Machining Processes 26.1 Introduction 26.8 Electron-Beam Machining and 26.2 Chemical Machining Plasma-Arc Cutting 26.3 Electrochemical Machining 26.9 Water-Jet Machining 26.4 Electrochemical Grinding 26.10 Abrasive-Jet Machining 26.5 Electrical-Discharge Machining 26.11 Economies of Nontraditional 26.6 Wire EDM Machining Processes 26.7 Laser-Beam Machining 26.1 introduction The machining processes that have been described so far remove material by chip for- mation, abrasion, or microchipping. There are situations, however, where these pro- ‘cesses are not satisfactory, economical, or even possible for the following reasons: + The hardness and strength of the material is very high, typically above 400 HB, or the material is too britle. * The workpiece is too flexible, slender, or delicate to withstand the cutting or grinding forces, or parts are difficult to clamp in workholding devices. + The shape of the part is complex (Fig. 26.12), such as internal and external profiles, or small-diameter holes, such as in fuel-injection nozzles (Fig. 2.16). + Surface finish and tolerances better than those obtainable by other processes sre required, + Temperature rise or residual stresses in the workpiece are undesirable or unacceptable. 825826 28 * Nontvaditional Machining Processes FIGURE 26.1 Examples of parts made by nontraditional machining processes. These parts would be difficult oF uneconomical to manufacture by conventional processes. (a) Internal spl jn @ bushing produced by electrochemical machining. (5) Holes in a fuel-injection nozzle made by electrical-discharge machining. Material: Heat-treated steel 15mm dia Bholes, 0.17 mm 11 mmwall es 26.2 Chemical Machining “These requirements led to the development of chemical, electrical,and other alter- nate means of material removal beginning in the 1940s, These methods are called rron- traditional ot waconventional machining, and are listed in ‘Table 26.t in the order they are described in this chapter. Because they fall beyond truly traditional means of machining materials, some of the processes described in Chapter 25 could also be categorized as nontraditional, as is done in some texts; examples are ultrasonic machining and some of the deburring operations such as ebrasive-flow machining and thermal energy (thermochemical) methods. The distinctions are, however, not particu- larly significant When selected and applied properly, nontraditional machining processes offer considerable technical and economic advantages over traditional machining methods This chapter describes these processes, including their typical applications, limitations, and considerations of quality, dimensional accuracy, characteristics of surfaces pro~ duced, and economics. We know that ceztain chemicals attack metals and etch them, thereby removing small amounts of material from the surface. Thus chemical machining (CM) was devel- oped, whereby material is removed from a surface by chemical dissolution, using chemical reagents, or etchants, such as acids and alkaline solutions. Chemical machining is the oldest of the nontraditional machining processes, and has been used for many years for engraving metals and hard stones, and more recently in the production of printed-circuit boards and microprocessor chips. Parts can also be deburred by chemical means.26.2 Chemical Machining 827 TABLE 26.1 sR eve GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES Process Parameters and ‘Typical Material Removal Process Characteristics Rate or Cutting Speed Chemical machining Shallow removal upto 12mm) on large flat or 0.0025-0.1 mevmin. (cM) curved surfaces: blanking of thin sheets; iow tooling and equipment cost; suitable for iow production runs. Electrochemical machin. Complex shepeswith deep cavities: highest V:5-25 de: A: 15-8 A/mm? ing (ECM) rate of material removal among nontraditional ©——-25-12 mm/min, dapending on processes; expensive tooling and equipment: current density. high power consumption; medium to high production quantity. Electrochemical grinding Cutting off and sharpening hard materials, A:1-@ mm; Typically (ECG) such as tungsten-carbide tools; also used as 1.5 em*min per 1000 A, honing process; higher removal rate than grinding Electrical-discharge Shaping and cutting complex parts made of V: 50-380; A: 0.1~-800; Tyoi- machining (EDM) hard materials; some surface damage may cally 300 mm*imin, result; also used as a grinding and cutting pro- cess; expensive tooling and equipment. Wire 20M Contour cutting of flat or curved surfaces; Varies with mat expensive equipment. thickness. Laser-beam machining Cutting and hoiemaking on thin materials: 0.50-7.5 venin, (aM heat-affected zone; does not require a vacuurn; expensive equipment; consumes much energy. Electron-beam machin: Cutting and holemaking on thin materials; 1-2 mm/min, ing (EBM) very small holes and slots; heat-affected zone; requires a vacuum; expensive equipment. Water jet machining Cutting all types of nonmetallic materials to Varies considerably with (wim 25 mm and greater in thickness; suitable for material, contour cutting of flexibie materials; no ther. mal damage; noisy. Abrasive weter-jet Single or multilayer cutting of metallic and Upto 7.5 mimin, ‘machining (AWJM) nonmetallic materials. Abrasive-jet machining Cutting, slotting, deburring, deftashing, etch- Varies considerably with (AJM) ing, and cleaning of metallic and nonmetallic material. maierials; menually controlled; tends to round off sharp edges; hazardous. 26.2.1 Chemical milling In chemical milling, shallow cavities are produced on plates, sheets, forgings, and extrusions for overall reduction of weight (Fig. 26.2). Chemical milling has been used on a wide variety of metals, with depths of removal to as much as 12 mm (05 in). Selective attack by the chemical reagent on different areas of the workpiece surfaces is controlled by removable layers of material, called masking (Fig. 26.3a), or by partial immersion in the reagent,828 26 + Nontraditional Machining Processes i vs 4mm "before machining? 2mm, after machining? Chemically machined area Section FIGURE 26.2 (a) Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the stiffnass-to-weight ratio of the part: {b) Weight reduction of space launch vehicles by chemical milling aluminum-alloy plates. These panels are milled after the plates have first been formed into shape, such as by coll forming or stretch forming. The design of the chemically machined rib patterns can be modified readily at minimal cost. Source: Advanced Materials and Pro- cesses, p. 43, December 1990. ASM International “ Hille pagiraroy oy Badge of maskant, Steps sa] td} 7 terial ‘Tank Undereut removed Hieating (Cooling calls FIGURE 26.3, (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical machining process. Note that no forces or machine tools are involved in this process. (b} Stagas in producing a profiled cavity by chemical machining.262 Chemical Machining 829 ‘The procedure for chemical milling consists of the following steps: 1. IF the part to be machined has residual stresses from prior processing, the stresses should be relieved ia order to prevent warping after chemical milling. 2. The surfaces are thoroughly degreased and cleaned (see Section 33.16) to ensure good adhesion of the masking material and uniform material removal. Scale from heat treatment should be removed. 3. The masking material is applied. Masking with tapes or paints (maskants) is a common practice, although elastomers (rubber and neoprene) and plastics (poly- chloride, polyethylene, and polystyrene) are also used as maskants. The maskant material must be such that it adheres to the workpiece surface and does not react with the chemical reagent. 4. The masking that covers various regions that require etching is then peeled off by the seribe-and-peel technique, # 5. The exposed surfaces are etched. Common etchants are sodium hydroxide for alunsinum, solutions of hydrochloric and nitric acids for steels, and iron chloride for stainless steels, Temperature control and stirring during chemical milling is important in order to obtain 2 uniform depth of material removed, 6. After machining, the parts should be washed thoroughly to prevent further reac- tions with any etchant residues. 7. The rest of the masking material is removed and the partis cleaned and inspected. Additional finishing operations may be performed on chemically milled parts 9. This sequence of operations can be repeated to produce stepped cavities and con- tours (Fig, 26.3b) Process capabilities. Chemical milling is used in the aerospace industry for removing shallow layers of material from large aircraft, missile skin panels, and extruded parts for airframes. Tank capacities for reagents are as large as 3.7 m X 15m (12 fe x 50 fr). The process is also used to fabricate microelectronic devices (Chapter 34). The range of surface finish and tolerances obtained by chemical machin- ing and other machining processes is shown in Fig, 26.4 Some surface damage may resule from chemical milling because of preferential ‘etching and intergranular attack, which adversely affect surface properties. Chemical milling of welded and brazed structures may produce uneven material removal. Chemical milling of castings may result in uneven surfaces caused by porosity and nonuniformity of structure, 26.2.2 Chemical blanking Chemical blanking is similar to blanking of sheet metal in that it is used to produce features which penetrate through the thickness of the material (see Fig, 16.4), with the exception that material is removed by chemical dissolution rather than by shearing. Typical applications for chemical blanking are burr-free etching of printed circuitIOV JO UOrssILUIad Aq PaSN|‘OBGL @ 1YGUAGOD ‘pa PIE “YoOgnUEH eIEg GUE DEY ION “S¥sSa00I0 BuIUIYeW SNOLIEA UL PaulNgo s22UEI0/0} pu ssoUuyENo, Deus 92 ANNO ‘are Styeuap yuasin9-mo7 (p) 8 AySUEp UBL YI “sAo|]0 (ayDHU aey Z9ydnes K;jesauad axe ako|jeLUNILETN ‘onjane Huneys yo ayes uo spuadae] (ur °y) seouynes aoeuing, go Obs uy & ouesaqoy, 09 soo co 80 Be Ser os ISS 2 szI sz _os sai ose ans ose OOS S200 10 yo ont 9 Sunparad aoequng a Suruiey, ONINIHOVIN TYNOLLNSANOD —| Baystodosioerg z jelo0ssy yoreas f2amnog “EL ze “B14 os12 095) sse001d YoED UNM aBueD apt au aI uonpues Supesado jmads) a1ey [——} a HT C mi a “WoINaHO “| urunjpew eoq-aiteilg uur wsaq- 9507] @uny2n03) Supurgoeus eBLeypeyp-qeEVo|g ‘TWwAUaHS, Suyunyoour an xyonns9j9 eqna padeng @) Hf peonmarooayrayg he wa} o a “WoRLLoaTa Suyuyypeur quosesytfT BuxpuraR sanye-mory ‘Sururyoour moy-oatenagy “WOINVHOSW sooro so 9 1% © oF 02 of oor a us tooo ‘souezaing, so % 8 ee get 00s oor (Cunt "y) ssauysnar aoming 83026.2 Chemical Machining 831 boards, decorative panels, thin sheet-metal stampings, and the production of complex orsmall shapes. 26.2.3 Photochemical blanking Also called photoetching, photochemical blanking is a modification of chemical mill- ing. Material is removed, usually from flat thin sheet, by photographic techniques. Complex burr-free shapes can be blanked (Fig. 26.5) on metals as thin as 0.0025 mm (0.0001 in.). Sometimes called photochemical machining, i is also used for erching, The procedure consists of the following steps (see also Sections 34.6 and 34.7): 1, The design of the part co be blanked is prepared at a magnification of up to 100 x A photographic negative is then made and reduced to the size of the finished part. ‘The reduced negative of the design is called artwork, The original (enlarged) drawing allows inherent design errors to be reduced by the amount of reduction (such as 100 x ) for the final artwork image. 2. The sheet blank is coated with 2 photosensitive material (photoresist) by dipping, spraying, or roller coating, and dried in an oven. This coating is often called the emulsion, 3. The negative is placed over the coated blank and exposed to ultraviolet light, which hardens che exposed areas. 4. The blank is developed, which dissolves the unexposed areas. 5. The blank is immersed into a bath of reagent, as in chemical milling, o sprayed with the reagent, which exches away exposed areas. 6. The masking material is removed and the part is washed thoroughly to eliminate all chemical residues. FIGURE 265 —————e An example of photochemical blanking of Amen (0.004-in.} thick, 60-mm (2i-in.) diamoter steel sheet with various blanked profiles. Note the fine detail. Source: Neweut832 26 » Nontraditional Machining Processes Process capabilities. Typical applications for photochemical blanking are fine screens, printed-circuit cards, electrie-motor laminations, flat springs, and masks for color television. Although skilled labor is required, tooling costs ave low, the process can be automated, and itis economical for medium to high production volume. Photochemical blanking is capable of forming very small parts where traditional blanking dies (Section 16.2) are difficult to make. Also, the process is effective for blanking fragile workpieces and materials. Handling of chemical reagents requires precautions and special safety consider- ations to protect the workers against both liquid chemicals and volatile chemical expo- sure, Furthermore, disposal of chemical by-products from this process is a major consideration, although some by-products can be recycled 26.2.4 Design considerations for chemical machining Because the etchant attacks all exposed surfaces continuously, designs involving sharp. corners, deep and narrow cavities, severe tapers, folded seams, and porous workpiece materials should be avoided. Moreover, the etchant attacks the material in both vertical and horizontal directions, so undercuts may develop, as shown by the areas under the edges of the maskant in Fig, 26.3. In order to improve the production rate, the bulk of the workpiece should be shaped by other processes prior to chemical machining. Dimensional variations can occur because of size changes in artwork due to humidity and temperature. This variation can be minimized by careful selection of artwork media and controlling the environment in the areworke generation and pro- duction area in the plant. Many product designs are now made with computer-aided design systems (see Chapter 38). However, product drawings must be translated into a protocol that is compatible with the equipment for photochemical artwork generation, 26.3 Electrochemical Mac! Electrochemical machining (ECM) is basically the reverse of electroplating. An elec- rolyce (Fig. 26.6) acts as current carrier, and che high race of electrolyte movement in the tool-workpiece gap washes metal ions away from the workpiece (anode) before they have a chance to plate onto the tool (cathode). Note that the cavity produced is the female mating image of the tool. Modifications ofthis process ace used for turning, facing, slotting, trepanning, and profiling operations in which the electrode becomes the cutting tool. The shaped tool is generally made of brass, copper, bronze, or stainless steel. The electrolyte is 2 highly conductive inorganic sale solution such as sodium chloride mixed in water or sodium nitrate. It is pumped at a high rate through the passages in the tool. A de power supply in the range of 5-25 V maintains current densities, which26.3 Electrochemical Machining 833 Pump for eiwulating electrolyte power supply] Teal coating FIGURE 26.5 cen ‘Schematic illustration of the electrochemical: ‘machining process. This process is the feverse of electroplating described in Section 33.8. Workpisce Electrolyte for most applications are 1.5—8 A/mm: (1000-5000 A/in.*) of active machined sur- face. Machines having current capacities as high as 40,000 A and as small as 3 A are available. The penetration rate of the tool is proportional to the current density, Because the metal removal rate is only a function of ion exchange rate, itis not affected by the strength, hardness, or toughness of the workpiece, which must be electrically conductive. Process capabilities. Electrochemical machining generally used for machining, complex cavities in high-strength materials, particularly in the aerospace industry for mass production of turbine blades, jet-engine parts, and nozzles (Fig. 26.7). Iris also used for machining forging-die cavities and producing small holes. The ECM process leaves a burr-free surface; in fact, it can also be used as adebur- ring process. It does not cause any thermal damage to the part, and the lack of tool forces prevents distortion of the part. Furthermore, there is no tool wear, and the process is capable of producing complex shapes as well as machining hard materials. However, the mechanical properties of components made by ECM should be com- pared carefully to those of other material-removal methods. Electrochemical machin- ing systems are now available as numerically controlled machining centers, with the capability for higher production rates, high flexibility, and maintenance of close tolerances. Design considerations. Because of the tendency for the electrolyte to erode away sharp profiles, electrochemical machining is not suited for producing sharp square corners or flat bottoms. Moreover, controlling the electrolyte flow is difficult, and irregular caviries may not be produced to the desired shape with acceptable dimensional accuracy. Designs should make provision for a small taper for holes and cavities.834 26 + Nontraditional Machining Processes a ‘Teleseoping Be Inasating layer Ram FIGURE] —_< Typical parts made by electro- chemical machining. {a} Turbi (Dyehotes 86mm ational. (b) Thin slots on a = TT : ai mS 4340-steel_roller-bearing cage. SS farm yi (6) Integral airfolls ona com- = 2/ pressor disk elt 26.4 Electrochemical Grinding Electrochemical grinding (ECG) combines electrochemical machining with conven- ional grinding, The equipment used in electrochemical grinding is similar to a con- ventional grinder, except that the wheel is a rotating cathode with abrasive particles (Fig. 26.8a), The wheel is metal-bonded with diamond or aluminum-oxide abrasives, and rotates at a surface speed of 1200-2000 m/min (4000-7000 ft/min). The abrasives serve as insulators between the wheel and the workpiece and mechanically remove electrolytic products from the working area. A flow of electeolyte, usually sodium nitrate, is provided for the electrochemical machining phase of the operation. The majority of metal removal in ECG is by electrolytic action, and typically less than 5 percent of metal is removed by the abrasive action of the wheel. ‘There fore, wheel wear is very low, and current densities range from 1-3 A/mm: (500- 2006 A/in.%). Finishing cuts are usually made by the grinding action but only to produce a surface with good finish and dimensional accuracy. This process is suitable for applications similar to those for milling, grinding, and sawing (Fig. 26.8b). It is not adaptable to cavity-sinking operations, such as die mak~ ing. The ECG process has been successfully applied to carbides and high-strength alloys. This process offers a distinct advantage over traditional diamond-wheel grind~ ing when processing very hard materials, where wheel wear can be high, ECG machines are now available with numerical controls, thus improving accuracy, repeat- ability, and increased productivity26.4 Electrochemical Grinding 835 Electrolyte rom pump oo, Inconet 9.020 in, Ain t3.1mme 8 mei ! + To level eonnection Insulating # it0.4 mm! ‘abrasive sas paricles pe TeeTeing | pee Work piece of) sheng | Sapp Work — i iat FIGURE 26.8 {al Schernatic ilustration ofthe electrochemical-grinding process. (b) Thin sot produced on a round ickel-alloytabe by this process Electrochemical honing combines the fine abrasive action of honing with elee- trochemical action. Although the equipment is costly, che process is as much as five simes faster than conventional honing and the tool lasts longer by as much as ten times. Ie is used primarily for finishing incernal cylindrical surfaces. Design considerations. In addition to those already listed for electrochemical machining, ECG requires two additional design considerations. Designs should avoid sharp inside radii. Tf flat surfaces are to be produced, the electrachemically ground surface should preferably be narrower than the width of the grinding wheel © Example: Electrochemical grinding of thin-walled tube —__——_——_— Three slots on a 3.18-mm (j-in.) diameter, 0.25-mm (0.010-in,) thick tube made of ‘Type 316 stainless steel were produced by electrochemical grinding (see Fig, 26.9). The slots were ground in one pass using a metal-bonded aluminum oxide wheel running at a surface speed of 1800 m/min (6000 ft/min). The ground parts were free from 318 FIGURE 26.9836 26 * Nontraditional Machining Processes distortion and the ground edges were free of burrs. Production rate was 12 pieces per hour. Source: ASM International. ° 26.5. Electrical-Discharge Machining ‘The principle of electrical-discharge machining (EDM), also called elecerodischarge or spark-erosion machining, is based on erosion of metals by spark discharges. We know that when two current-conducting wires are allowed to touch each other, an arc is produced. If we look closely at the point of contact between the two wires, we note that a small portion of the metal has been eroded away, leaving a small crater. Although this phenomenon has been known since the discovery of electricity, it was not until the 1940s that a machining process based on this prineiple was developed. ‘The EDM process has become one of the most important and widely accepted pro- duction technologies in manufacturing industries. Principle of operation. The EDM system (Fig. 26.10) consists of a shaped tool (electrode) and the workpiece, connected to a de power supply and placed in a dielec- tric electrically nonconducting) fluid. When the potential difference between the tool and the workpiece is sufficiently high, a transient spark discharges through the fluid, removing a very small amount of metal from the workpiece surface. The capacitor discharge is repeated at rates of between 50 kHz and 500 kHz, with voltages usually ranging between 50 V and 380 V, and currents from 0.1 A to 500 A. "The dielectric fluid (a) acts as an insulator until the potential is sufficiently high, (b) aces as a flushing medium and carries away the debris in the gap, and (c) provides a cooling medium. The gap between the tool and the workpiece (called overcut) is critical; thus the downward feed of the tool is controlled by a servomechanism, which automatically maintains a constant gap. The most common dielectric fluids are min- eral oils, although kerosene and distilled and deionized water may be used in special- Carrent Rectifier control Servo control < cl feyet $ Movable electrode Power supaly [TS FIGURE 26.10 Tank Schematic illustration of the electrical discharge machining process.26.5 Electrica!-Discharge Machining 837 ized applications. The workpiece is fixtured wichin the tanks containing the dielectric fluid, and its movements are controlled by numerically controlled systems. The machines ate equipped with a pump and filtering system for the dielectric fluid The EDM process can be used on any material chat is an electrical conductor, The melting point and latent heat of melting are important physical properties that deter- ‘mine the volume of metal removed per discharge. As these values increase, the rate of material removal slows, The volume of material removed per discharge is typically in the range of 10~* to 10-* mm! (10-!2 to 10-* in.*). Since the process doesn’t involve mechanical energy, the hardness, strength, and toughness of the workpiece material do not necessarily influence the removal rate. The frequency of discharge or the energy per discharge is usually varied to control the removal rate, as are the voltage and curcent, The rate and surface roughness inerease with increasing current densiey and decreasing frequency of sparks. Electrodes. Electrodes for EDM are usually made of graphite, although brass, copper, or copper-tungsten alloy may be used. The tools are shaped by forming, cast. ing, powder metallurgy, or machining. Electrodes as small as 0.1 mm (0.005 in.) in diameter have been used. Joo! wear is an important factor since it affects dimensional accuracy and the shape produced, Tool weat in EDM is related to the melting points ‘of the materials involved: the lower the melting point, the higher the wear rate. Con- sequently, graphite electrodes have the highest wear resistance. Tool wear can be minimized by reversing the polarity and using copper tools, a process called no- wear EDM. Process capabilities. Electrical-dischargemachining has numerous applications, such as producing die cavities for large automotive-body components (die sinking machining centers), small-diameter deep holes (see Fig. 26.1b) using tungsven wire as the electrode, narrow slots, turbine blades, and various intricate shapes (Figs. 26.1 1a and b), Stepped cavities can be produced by contvolling the relative movements of the a tb FIGURE 25.11 ee Workpiece {a] Examples of cavities produced by the electrical-discharge machining process, using shaped electrodes. Two round parts (rear) are the set of dies for extruding the aluminum piece shown in front (see also Fig. 15.96). Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd. (b) A spiral cavity produced by 2 rotating electrode, Source: American ‘Machinist \—~sectrode838 26 + Nontr Jitional Machining Processes FIGURE 26.12 RCS ‘Stepped cavities produced with a square electrode by EDM. The work- piace moves in the two principal horizontal directions, and its motion is synchronized with the downward movement of the electrode te produce various cavities. Also shown is 2 round electrode capable of producing round or elliptical cavities. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Lid, CUE. — Schematic illustration of producing an inner cavity by EDM, using a specially designed electrode with a hinged ti which is rotated along two axes to pro- duce the large cavity. Source: Luziesa France, workpiece in relation to the electrode (Fig. 26.12). In another setup, internal cavities are produced by a rotating electrode with a movable tip. The electrode is rotated mechanically during machining (Fig. 26.15). Metal removal rates usually range from 2 to 400 mm:/min, High rates produce a very rough finish, having a molten and cesolidified (recast) structure with poor surface integrity and low fatigue properties. Thus finishing cuts are made at low removal rates, or the recast layer is removed later by finishing operations. New techniques use an oscillating electrode which provides very fine surface finishes, requiring significantly less benchwork to improve lustrous cavities. Design considerations. Parts should be designed so that the required electrodes can be shaped properly and economically. Deep slots and narrow openings should be avoided, For economic production, the surface finish specified should not be too fine. In order to achieve a high production rate, the bulk of material removal may have to be done by conventional processes (roughing out). Blectrical-discharge grinding. The grinding wheel in electrical-discharge grinding (EDG) is made of graphite or brass and contains no abrasives. Material is26.6 Wire EDM 839 removed from the surface of the workpiece by repetitive spark discharges beeween the rotating wheel and the workpiece. The EDG process can be combined with electro- chemical grinding. The process is then called electrochemical-discharge grinding (ECDG). Material is removed by chemical action, with the electrical discharges from the graphite whee! breaking up the oxide film, and is washed away by the elecsrolyte flow. The processis used primarily for grinding carbide tools and dies but can also be used for fragile parts, such as surgical needles, thin-walled tubes, and honeycomb structures. The ECDG process is faster than EDG, but power consumption is higher. In sawing with EDM, a setup similar to a band or circular saw (but without any teeth) is used with the same electrical circuit as in EDM, Narrow cuts can be made at high rates of metal removal. Because cutting forces are negligible, the process can be used on slender components. 26.6 Wire EDM A variation of EDM is wire EDM (Figs. 26.14a and b), or efectrical-discharge wire cutting. In this process, which is similar co contour cutting with a band saw a slowly moving wire travels along a prescribed path, cutting the workpiece, with the discharge sparks acting like cutting teeth, This process is used to cur plates as thick as 300 mm (12 in.), and for making punches, tools, and dies from hard metals. It can also cut intricate components for the electronics industry. The wire is usually made of brass, copper, or wngsten and is typically about 0.25 mm (0.01 in.) in diameter, making narrow cuts possible. Zine- or brass-coated and multi-coated wires are also used. The wire should have sufficient tensile strength and fracture toughness, as well as high electrical conductivity and capacity to flush avray the debris produced during cutting, The wire is generally used only once, as itis relatively inexpensive. It travels at a constant velocity in the range of 0.159 m/min (6~360 in./min), and a constant gap (kerf) is maintained during the cut. The cutting speed is generally given in terms of the cross-sectional area cut per unit time. Typical examples are; 18,000 mm?/hr (28 in.?/hr) for 50-mm (2-in.) thick D2 tool steel, and 45,000 mm’/hr (70 in#/hr) for 150-mm (6-in.) thick aluminum. These removal rates indicate a linear cutting speed of 18,000/50 = 360 mm/hr = 6 mm/min, and 45,000/ 150 = 300 mm/hr = 5 mm/min, respectively. Modern wire EDM machines (multi-axis EDM wire cutting machining centers) are equipped with (a) computer controls to control the cutting path of the wire (Fig. 26.140), (b) automatic self-threading features in case of wire breakage, (© multiheads for cutting two parts at the same time, (d) features such as controls that prevent wire breakage, and (e) programmed machining strategies, Two-axis computer- controlled machines can produce cylindzical shapes in a manner similar to a turning operation or cylindrical grinding,840 26 * Nontraditional Machining Process w& Dielectric analy Wire diameter sr Spark gap ' FIGURE 26.14 — (a) Schematic ‘lus tration of the wire EDM process. As much as 60 hours of machining can be performed with one reel of wire, which is ‘then discarded. (b) Cutting a thick plate with wire EDM. (c) A computer-controlled wire EDM machine. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd. 26.7 Laser-Beam Machining In laser-beam machining (LBM), the source of energy is a laser (an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation), which focuses optical energy on the surface of the workpiece (Fig. 26.15a). The highly focused, high-density ‘energy melts and evaporates portions of the workpiece in a controlled manner. This process, which does not require a vacuum, is used to machine a variety of metallic and nonmetallic materials, There are several types of lasers used in manufacturing operations: CO, (pulsed or continuous wave), Nd:YAG (neodymium: ytirium-aluminurn-gernet), Nd: glass, ruby, and excimer lasers. It is beyond the scope of this text to describe the principles of these lasers; however, their applications are outlined in Table 26.2.26.7 Laser-Beam Machining 841 @ Reflective end: Laser crystal Partially reflective Workpigce ef Flash lamp () Rubber 3.4-mm diameter ar u Power * supply | XN FIGURE 26.15 {al Schematic illustration of the laser-beam machining process. (b) and (c} Examples of holes produce: lic parts by LBM, nonmetal Important physical parameters in LBM are the reflectivity and thermal conduc- tivity of the workpiece surface and its specific heat and latent heats of melting and evapor: a. The lower these quantities, che more efficient the process. The surface produced by LBM is usually rough and has a heat-affected zone which, in critical applications, may have to be removed or heat treated. Kerf width is an important con- sideration, a it is in other cutting processes such as sawing, wire EDM, and electron- beam machining. De GENERAL APPLICATIONS OF LASERS IN MANUFACTURING Application Laser Type. Cutting Metals COs, CWCO,, NC:YAG, ruby Plastics 2 Ceramics PCO, Drilling Metals PCO,, Nd:YAG, Ne-glass, ruby Plastics Excimer Plastics Ceramics, Surface treatment, metals Welding, metals PCO, N&YAG cwco, PCO,, CWCO,, N&:VAG, Ne'glass, ruby Note’ P = pulses OW = continuous wave26 © Nontraditional Machining Processes Laser beams may be used in combination wich a gas stream, such as oxygen, nitto- gen, oF argon (laser-beam torch), for cutcing chin sheet materials. High-pressure inert- gas (nitrogen)~assisted laser cutting is used for stainless steel and aluminum, it leaves an oxide-free edge that can improve weldability. Gas streams also have the important function of blowing away molten and vaporized material from the workpiece surface. Process capabilities. Laser-beam machining is used widely in drilling and cut- ting metals, noametals, and composite materials (Eigs. 26.15b and c). The abrasive nature of composite materials and the cleanliness of the operation have made lasee- beam machining an attractive alternative to traditional machining methods. Holes as small 2s 0.005 mm (0.0002 in.), with hole depth-to-diameter ratios of $0 to | have been produced in various materials, although a more practical minimum is 0.025 mm (0.001 in), Extreme caution should be exercised with lasers, as even low-power lasers can cause damage to the retina of the eye if proper precautions are not observed Laser-beam machining is being used increasingly in the electronics and automo- tive industries. Bleeder holes for fuel-pump covers and lubrication holes in teansmis- sion hubs, for example, are being drilled wich lasers (Fig, 26.16). The part shown, with a hardness of 60 HRC, requires drilling three holes, 1.5 mm in diameter and 9.5 mm deep (0.060 in. and 0.38 in.), and at an angle of 35° to the curved surface. It takes 3.5 FIGURE 26.16 Lubrication hole being drilled in an automotive transmission hub, using a 250 W, Nd:YAG laser. Source: Courtesy of Coherent General, Inc.; Dr. David Roessler, General Motors Research Labo. ratory; end Mechanical Enginasring, April 1990, p. 41.Example: 26.7 Laser-Beam Machining 843 to drill each hole. Significant cost savings have been achieved by laser-beam machin- ing, 2 process that is competing with electrical-discharge machining. The cooling holes in the first stage vanes of the Boeing 747 jet engines are also produced by lasers Laser beams are also used for (a) welding (see Section 27.8), (b) small-scale heat treating of metals and ceramics to modify their surface mechanical and tribological properties, and (c) marking of parts such as letters, numbers, codes, etc. Marking can bedone by processes such as with ink; with mechanical devices such as panches, pins, stylus, scroll rolls, or stamping; by etching; and with lasers. Although the equipment is more expensive than for other methods, marking and engraving with lasers has become incressingly common due to its accuracy, reproducibility, flexibility, ease of automation, and on-line application in manufacturing. The inherent flexibility of the laser cutting process with fiber-optic beam delivery, simple fixturing, low setup times, the availability of multi-kW machines and 2-D and 3-D computer-controlled laser cutting systems are attractive features; thus laser cut- ting can compete successfully with cutting sheet metal using traditional punching pro- cesses described in Chapter 16. There are now efforts to combine the two processes for improved overall efficiency (see example below). Design considerations. Reflectivity of the workpiece surface is an important consideration, and because they reflect less, dull and unpolished surfaces are prefer- able. Designs with sharp corners should be avoided since they are difficlt to produce. Deep cuts produce tapers. Any adverse effects on the properties of the machined mare. rials caused by the high local temperatures and che heat-affected zone should be investigated ‘Combining laser cutting and punching of sheet metal me As we have seen, laser cutting and punching processes have their respective advantages and limitations regarding both technical and economic aspects. Laser cutting chatsec- teristics are generally smaller batches, flexibility of operation, wide range of thick- nesses, prototyping capability, materials and composites that may otherwise be cut with difficuley, and complex geometries chat can be programmed. Punching charactet- istics include large lot sizes, relatively simple parts, small range in part thickness, Axed and limited punch geometries even when using turrets, rapid production, and integra- tion with subsequent processing after punching. It is thus evident that the two pro- cesses cover different but complementary ranges. Considerations have been given to the possible benefits of combining the wo processes, taking advantage of their individual features to fill the range between the two processes. The purpose is to increase the overall eficiency and productivity of the manufacturing process for parts that are within the capabilities of each of the two processes, somewhat similar to the concept of the machining centers described in Section 24.2. Several factors have to be taken into accountiin such a combination with respect to the characteristics of each process: processing time; setup times; loading, fixturing, and unloading of parts; programming for cutting; process capabilities of844 26 + Nontraditional Machining Processes each including dynamic characteristics, vibrations, shock, ete ranges of sizes, thick~ nesses, and shapes to be produced and how they are to be nested; and several indi- Vidusl cost factors . Ivis not difficult to visualize parts with certain features that can be produced best by one process, and other features that are best produced by che other process. The combined machine should be designed and constructed in such a maaner that the processes and fixturing can be utilized jointly to their full extent but without interfer- ence with each others’ operational boundaries, During the past few years such special machines have been built and used successfully for specific applications, including rapid-response capabilities for product design changes and varying quantities. ° rn 26.8 Electron-Beam Machining and Plasma-Arc Cutting The source of energy in electron-beam machining (EBM) is high-velocity electrons, which strike the surface of the workpiece and generate heat (Fig. 26.17). Its applica~ tions are similar to those of laser-beam machining, except that EBM requires a vacuum. These machines utilize voltages in the range of 50-200 kV to accelerate the electrons to speeds of 50 to 80 percent of the speed of light. The interaction of the electron beam with the workpiece surface produces hazardous x-rays; consequently, the equipment should be used only by highly trained personnel. Electron-beam machining is used for very accurate cutting of a wide variety of metals. Surface finish High voltage eable (0 kV, de! Cathode rd Opies" | acon stesm viewing Magnetic lens: por y CSI) EIT peteton sats iewing S| | FIGURE. ——es PN : 1 Schematic ilusvaton of the elecvon beam ‘ecwumdamber Workpece -- machining process. Unlike LBM, this process ZZ High rogues" ‘acwur, Nence evigiose aes aig limited. pump263 Water-Jet Machining 845 is bewcer and kerf width is narrower than that for other thermal cutting processes (see also Section 27.7 on electron-beam welding). In plasma-arc cutting (PAC), plasma beams (ionized gas) are used for rapid cut- ting of nonferrous and stainless-steel plates (see also Section 27.5.3). The temperatures generated are very high (9400 °C or 17,000 °F in the torch for oxygen as a plasma gas); consequently, the process is fast, kerf width is small, and the surface finish is good. Material-removal rates are much higher than in the EDM and LBM processes, and parts can be machined with good reproducibility, Plasma-are cutting is highly auto- mated today, using programmable controls. Design considerations. The guidelines for LBM generally apply to EBM as well, Because vacuum chambers have limited capacity, part sizes should closely match the size of the vacuum chamber for a higher production rate per cycle. If a product requires electron-beam machining on only a small portion of the workpiece, consid- eration should be given to manufacturing the product as a number of smaller compo- nents and assembling them following electron-beam machining. ao 26.9 Water-Jet Machining We know that when we put our hand across a jet of water or air, we feel a consider- able concentrated force acting on it. This force results from the momentum change of the stream—and in fact is the principle on which the operation of water or gas tur- bines is based. In water-jet machining (WJM), also called hydrodynamic machining (Fig, 26.18), this force is utilized in cutting and deburring operations. ‘The water jet acts like a saw and cuts a narrow groove in the material. Although pressures as high as 1400 MPa (200 ksi) can be generated, a pressure level of about 400 MPa (60 ksi) is generally used for efficient operation. Jet-nozzle diameters usually range between 0.05 mm and 1 mm (0.002 in. and 0.040 in.). ‘A. water-jet cutting machine and its operation are shown in Fig, 26.18b. A vari ety of materials can be cut with this technique, including plastics, fabrics, rubber, wood products, paper, leather, insulating materials, brick, and composite materials (Fig. 26.19). Thicknesses range up to 25 mm (1 in.) and higher. Vinyl and foam cov- rings for some automobile dashboards, for example, are being cut using multiple- axis, robot-guided water-jet machining equipment. Because itis an efficient and clean operation compared with other cutting processes, its also used in the food processing industry for cutting and slicing food products. The advantages of this process are that cuts can be started at any location without the need for predrilled holes, no heat is produced, no deflection of the rest of the workpiece takes place (hence the process is suitable for flexible materials), little wetting of the workpiece takes place, and the burr produced is minimal. Itis also an environmentally safe manufacturing process.o FIGURE 26,18 —nown (a) Schematic illustration of waterjet machining. (b) A com: Puter-controlled, water jet cut- ting machine cutting @ granite plate. Source: Courtesy of Pos: sis Corporation. Accumulator Controls Pump. IL =) @ [Hydraulic unit Intensifer Valve Sapphire nozzle FIGURE 26.19 Example of various nonmetallic parts cut by a water- jet machine. Source: Courtesy of Possis Corporation.26.10 Abrasive-Jet Machining 847 Abrasive water-jet machining. In abrasive water-jet machining (AWJM), the water jet contains abrasive particles such as silicon carbide or aluminum oxide, thus increasing the material-removal rate over water-jet machining, Metallic, nonmetallic, and advanced composite materials of various thicknesses can be cut in single or imulti- layers, particularly heat-sensitive materials that cannot be machined by processes in which heat is produced. Cutting speeds are as high as 7.5 m/min (25 ft/min) for rein- forced plastics, but muck lower for metals. With raultiple-axis and robotie-control machines, complex three-dimensional parts can be machined to finish dimensions. Nozzie life has been improved by making them from rubies, sapphires, and carbide- base composite materials. 26.10 Abrasive-Jet Machining In abrasive-jet machining (AJM), a high-velocity jet of dry air, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide containing abrasive particles is aimed at the workpiece surface under con- trolled conditions (Fig, 26.20). The impact of the particles develops sufficient concen- trated force (see also Section 25.9) to perform operations such as (a) cutting small holes, slots, or intricate patterns in very kard or brittle metallic and nonmetallic mate- rials, (b) deburring or removing small flash from parts, (c) trimming and beveling, (d) removing oxides and other surface films, and (e) general cleaning of components with irregular surfaces. The gas supply pressure is on the order of 850 kPa (125 psi) and the abrasive-jet velocity can be as high as 300 m/s (100 ft/s) and is controlled by a valve. The hand- held nozzles are usually made of tungsten carbide or sapphire. The abrasive size is in the range of 10-50 jm (400-2000 pin.). Because che flow of the free abrasives tends Filers Powder supply. ndimict os > uf Exhoust prwwre Logit eur Hana folder Ges ‘ supply Vibrator Foot Waies FIGURE 26.20 oe ‘Schematic illustration of the abrasive jet machining process.848 26 # Nontraditional Machining Processas to round off corners, designs for abrasive-jet machining should avoid sharp corners also, holes made in metal parts tend to be tapered. Because of airborne particulates, there is some hazard involved in using this pro- cess. This problem can be avoided by using the abrasive water-jet machining process. 26.11 Economics of Nontraditional Machining Processes ‘We have shown that nontraditional processes have unique applications, particularly for difficult-ro-machine materials and complex internal and external profiles. The eco- nomic production run for a particular process depends on the cost of tooling and equipment, the material-removal rate, operating costs, and the level of operator skill required, as well as secondary and finishing operations that may be necessary. In chemical machining, an important factor is the cost of reagents, maskants, and dis- posal, together with the cost of cleaning the parts. In clectrical-discharge machining, the cost of electrodes and the need to replace them periodically are significant. ‘The rate of material removal, hence production rate, can vary significantly in these processes (see Table 26.1). The cost of tooling and equipment also varies significancly, as does the operator skill required. The high capital investment for machines such as electrical and high-energy beam machining should be justified in terms of the produc~ tion runs and the feasibility of manufacturing the same part by other means, if at all possible. SUMMARY Machining processes involve not only single-point or multipoint cools, but also other methods using chemi cal, electeical, and high-energy-beam sources of encrgy. The mechanical properties of the workpiece material are not significant because these processes rely on mechanisms that do not involve the strength, hardness, ductility, or toughness of the material. Rather, they involve physical, chemical, and electrical properties Chemical and electrical methods of machining are particularly suitable for hard materials and com= plex shapes. They do not produce forces (hencecan be used for slender and flexible workpieces), significant temperatures, or residual stresses, Hewever, the effects of these processes on surface integrity must be understood, as they ean damage suefaces considerably, thus reducing fatigue life TRENDS «The need for economical methods of material removal will increase further because of the devel- ‘opment of new materials and composites as well as complex shapes that will be difficult ¢o machine with traditional processes.# In spite of theiradvancages, the effects of these pr cesses on the properties and secvice life of work~ pieces are important considerations, particularly for critical applications. + The tend in the machinery for nontraditional machining processes is for computer controls, Review Questions B49 sing mulkipleaxis robots, as well as exploring possibilities for combining different processes for improved productivity ‘+ Laser-beam and elestrical-discharge machining of automotive componeass is being implemented at an increasing rate, KEY TERMS Abrasive-jer machining Abrasive water-jet machining Electrochemical grinding Electrochemical machining, No-wear EDM Photochemical blanking Chemical blanking Electrolyce Plasma beams Chemical machining Electron-beam machining Reagent Chemical milling Etchant ‘Wire EDM Dielectric Laser-beam machining Water-jet machining Electrical-discharge machining Maskant rn NR DEES SSIES BIBLIOGRAPHY Benedict, G. F, Nontraditional Manufacturing Pro- cesses, New York: Marcel Dekker, 1987. Crafer, R. C, and P. f Oakley, Laser Processing in Manufacturing, New York: Chapman and Hall, 1993 Jin, V. K,, and P. C. Pandey, Theory and Practice of Electrochemical Machining. New York: Wiley, 1993, Kalpakjian, S, (ed.), Tool and Die Failures: Source Book. Metals Park, Ohio: American Society for Metals, 1982. Lange, K. (ed.), Handbook of Metal Forming (Chapter 32, Die Manufacture). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985. Machinery'’s Handbook, revised periodically. New York: Industral Press, Machining Data Handbook, 3d ed. 2 vols. Cincin- nati: Machinability Data Cencer, 1980. MeGeough, J. A, Advanced Methods of Machining. London: Chapman and Hall, 1988. Metals Handbook, 9th ed., Vol. 16: Machining. Mate- rials Park, Ohio: ASM International, 1989. Sommer, C,, and S. Sommer, Wire EDM Handbook. Houston: Technical Advanced Publishing Co. 1992, Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, 4th ed, Vol I: Machining. Dearborn, Mich Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1983. EE REVIEW QUESTIONS 26.1 List the reasons for development of unconven- tional machining processes. 262 Name the processes involved in chemical ‘machining. Describe briefly thei principles. 263 What should be the properties of maskants? 264 Describechemical blanking and compare it with conventional blanking with dies. 265 Explain the difference between chemical machining and electrochemical machining, 266 What is the underlying principle of electro chemical grinding? 26.7 Why has electrical-discharge machining become 50 widely used?850 26 ® Nontraditional Machining Processes 26.8 Explainhow EDMiscapableof producingcom- 26.10 Describe the advantages of water-jet plex shapes. machining. 269 What are the capabilities of wire EDM? Coukt 26.11 Why is preshaping or premachining of parts this process be used co make tapered pieces? sometimes desirable in the processes described Explain. in this chaprer? QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS 26.12 Give possible technical and economic reasons (26.19 Describe your thoughts regarding laser why the processes described in this chapter machining of nonmetallic materials. Give sev- might be preferred, or even necessary, over eral possible applications, including their those described in the preceding chapters. advantages as compared with other cutting 26.13 Explain why the mechanical properties of processes. workpiece materials are not significant in most 26.20 Comment on the depth of material removed of the processes described in this chapter from a metal sucface by abrasive-jet machining. 26.14 Why has the wire EDM process become so 26.21 Do you think deburring operations are neces- widely accepted in industey? sary for nontraditional machining processes? 26.15 Why do material-removal processes affect the Give several examples. fatigue strength of materials t0 different 26.22 Do you think it should be possible to produce degrees? spur gears by nontraditional machining, start 26.16 Explain why producing sheep profiles and cor- ing with « round blank? Explain. ners with some of the processes described in 26.23 List and explain factors that contribute to poor this chapters diffeule. surface finish in the processes described in this 26.17 Which of the nontraditional machining pro- chapter cesses causes thermal damage? Whatis che con- 26.24 Make a survey of availble technical literature sequence of such damage to workpieces? and describe che types of surfaces produced by 26.18 Ta abrasive water-jet machining, at what stage is electron-beam, plasima-are, and laser eveting, the abrasive introduced in the water jet? Make asurvey of available literature, and draw a sche- matic outline of the equipment involved. QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS 26.25 A 100-mm-deep hole 15 mm in diameter is thick and 8 in, Long. 1f ehe kerf is & in. wide, being produced by electrochemical machining estimate the time eequired to perform this High production rate is more important than operation. machined surface quality. Estimate the maxi- 26.28 Studies have indicated that it is possible to ‘mum current and the time required to perform. develop quantitative relationships becween this operation material properties and. laser processing 26.26 If the operation in Problem 26.25 were per- parameters, leading to recommendations a5 t0 formed on an electrical-discharge machine, optimum cutting speeds. Make a survey of what would be the estimated machining time? available technical fteratwre regarding 2627 A.cutting off operation is being performed with aspect and describe your findings. a laser beam. The workpiece being cutis inSYNTHES!IS AND DESIGN 26.29 Would you consider designing x machine tool that combines in one machine ¢wo or more cof the processes described in this chapter? Explain. For what types of parts would such a machine be useful? Give @ preliminary skecch for such 1 machine. 26.30 Same as Problem 2629 bue combining pro- cesses described in (a) Chapters 13~16, (b) Chapters 22 and 23, and (e) Chapters 25 and 26, Give a preliminary sketch of a machine tor each of the three groups. How would you con- vinee a prospective customer of the merits of such machines? 26.31 Make a list of machining processes chat may be suitable for the following materials: {a} ceramics, (b) cast iron, (c) thermoplastics, (d) chermosets, (¢) diamond, and (f) annealed copper. 26.32 How would you manufacture a very thin, large-diameter round disk with s thickness that decreases nonlinearly from the center? 26.33 Describe the similarities and differences among, the various design guidelines presented in this chapter. 26.34 We have seen that there are several holemaking methods. Based on che topics covered in Pacts LIL and IV, make a comprehensive table of hholemaking processes. Describe the advantages and limitations of each method, comment on the quality and surface integrity of the holes produced, and give exemples of specific applications. 26.35 In Section 26.7, we have given an example of combining laser cutting and punching of sheet metal, Considering the relevant parameters involved, desiga a system whereby both pro- cesses can be used in combination to produce useful parts from sheet metal 26.36 Marking of surfaces with numbers and letters for part identification purposes can be done not only with labels but by various mechanical and nonmechanical methods. Based on the pro- cesses described throughout this text thus far, make 2 list of these methods, explaining Synthesis and Design 851 their advantages, limitations, and eypisal applications. 26.37 As you know, precision engineering is a term that is used to describe manufacturing. high- quality parts with close tolezances and good surface finish. Based on theie process capabili- ties, make a comprehensive list of machining processes, with decreasing order of quality of parts produced, Include brief commentary on cach method. 26.38 With appropriate sketches, describe the p ples of various fixturing methods and devices that can be used for the processes described in this chapeer. 26.39 Make 2 comprehensive table of the process capabilities of the nontraditional machining processes described in this chapcer. Use several columns describing the machines involved, type of tools and tool materials used, shapes of blanks and parts produced, typical maximum and minimum sizes, surface finish, tolerances, and production rates. 2649 One of the general conceens regarding nonzra- ditional machining processes is that, in spite of their many advantages, they are generally slower chan conventional machining. Make 4 survey of the speeds, machining times, and pro- duction rates involved and prepare a table com: pating their respective process capabilities. 26.41 We have seen that several of the processes described in Pact IV of this text can be ‘employed, either singly or in combination, to make or finish dies for metalworking opera- tions. Write a technical paper on these methods, describing advantages and limitations, and typical applications. Include a brief table, stum- marizing the contents of your cepott. 26.42 Would using the processes described in this chapter be difficult on various nonmetallic or rubberlike materials? Explain your choughts, commenting on the influeace of various physi= cal and mechanical properties of workpiece materials, part geometries, etc.Joining Processes and Equipment ‘Automation, ‘computer-integrated manufactur ring systems ‘Competitive aspects of manufacturing 8 VII Vol854 Joining Processes and Equipment INERODUCEHON ‘When we inspect the vast numbers of products around us, we soon realize that almost all of them are assemblages of components that were manufactured as individual parts. Even relatively simple products consist of at least wo different parts joined by various means, Some kitchen knives, for example, have wooden handles that are attached to the knife blade with metal fasteners. Cooking pots and pans have plastic or wooden handles and knobs that are attached by various means. The eraser of an ordinary pencil is attached with a brass sleeve. However, some products are made of only one com- ponent: bolts, nails, steel balls for bearings, staples, screws, paper clips, forks, and similar items. AAs you inspect more complex products, note the greater number of parts, their shapes, and the variety of materials used. Observe, for example, motorcycles, comput- ers, washing machines, power tools, and airplanes, and how their numerous compo- nents are assembled and joined so that they can function reliably and according to design specifications and service requirements. A typical aucomobile has 15,000 com- ponents, a few of which are shown in Fig. V.L, all of which must be assembled, using several joining methods. Soldered electrical circuitry FIGURE V.1 Bonding of windshield Spot-welded tales body pe ody Fasteners Welded pipes for ‘exhaust system Risin Adhesively Taal bonded fabric Assembled parts in a typical automobile using the processes described in Part V.Joining Processes and Equipment 855 FORE ‘A tubular part fabricated by joining Individual components. This product can- not be manufactured in one piece by any of the methods described in previ- ous chapters if it consists of thin-walled, large-diameter, tubular-shaped Jong arms, Joining is an all-inclusive term, covering processes such as welding, brazing, sol- dering, adhesive bonding, and mechanical fastening. These processes are an important and necessary aspect of manufacturing operations for the following reasons: * The productis impossible to manufacture as a single piece. Consider, for example, the tubular part shown in Fig, V.2. Assume that each of the arms of this product is 5 m (15 fe) long, the tubes are 100 mm (4 in.) in diameter, and their wall thick- ness is 1 mm (0.04 in.). Which of the processes described thus far can be used to produce such a part? After reviewing all those manufacturing processes, you would soon conclude that manufactaring this part in one piece would be impossible. + The product—such as a cooking pot with a handle—is easier and more economi cal to manufacture as individual components, which are then assembled. + Products such as automobile engines, hair dryers, printers, and soldered-joint clectronic devices may have to be taken apart for repair or maintenance during theie service lives. + Different properties may be desirable for functional purposes of the product. Sur- faces subjected to friction and wear, or corrosion and environmental attack, gen- erally require characteristics different from those of the component's bulk. Examples are carbide curting tips brazed to the shank of a drill and brake shoes or grinding wheels bonded to a metal backing. + Transporting the product in individual components and assembling them at home or at the customer's plant may be easier and less costly. Some bicycles and toys, most machine tools, and mechanical or hydraulic presses are assembled after the components have been transported to the appropriate site. Although there can be different ways of categorizing the wide variety of joining processes, this book will follow the latest classification by the American Welding Soci-855 Joining Processes and Equipment Ioining processes and equipment 4 Safety cavironmentl considerations The metallurgy of welding, vreiing dcsign, ‘process selection. ‘(Chapters 27-30) (Chapter 29) —_————_ Welding sve Mechanical : a (Grape 30) 7 Fasening Seaming [ Crimping Sticking Fusion Brazing & soldering Sold state a . (Chapter 30) (Chapter) [ Chemical Becta! Hlectical | Ghemical r T y t ‘Oxyfucl gas Resistance Diffusion Cold Thermit Explosion ection Ulrasonie (Chapter 28) (Chaprer27) FIGURE V3 ‘Outline of topies described in Part V. ety (AWS). Accordingly, joining processes fall into three major categories (Fig. V.3): welding, adhesive bonding, and mechanical fastening. Welding processes are, in turn, divided into three basic categories: fusion welding, solid-state welding, and brazing and soldering. Some types of welding processes can be classified in both fusion and solid-state categories, major examples of which are upset and resistance welding. The choice of a particular joining process depends on several factors, such as its application, joint design, the materials involved, and the thickness, size, and shape of the components to be joined (Fig. V.4). Other considerations are location of the joint, number of parts involved, operator skill required, and equipment and labor costs. ‘The following four chapters describe a wide variety of joining processes, equip- ment, and applications. Fusion welding processes and equipment are described in Chapter 27, followed by solid-state welding processes and equipment in Chapter 28.Joining Processes and Equipment 857 Butt joint ‘ Single square-groove weld Single fare bevel-groove weld EL > Cones Single aveV.grove wed Single Vigroove weld Se * Tint Double fare-Vagroove weld Bage joint UGG FIGURE V.4 ‘Some examples of joints that can be made by the various joining processes described in Part V. Because a welded joint undergoes important metallurgical and physical changes, these changes and their effects are described in Chapter 29, which also includes a discussion of weldability of metals, quality control, and welding design and process selection. Brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding, and mechanical fastening processes, equipment, and applications are described in Chapter 30Fusion Welding Processes 27.1 Introduction 27.6 Thermit Welding 27.2 Oxytuel Gas Welding 27.7 Electron-Beam Welding 27.3 Arc-Welding Processes: 27.8 Laser-Beam Welding Consumable Electrode 27.9 Cutting 21.4 Electrodes 27.10 Welding Safety 275 Arc-Welding Processes: Nonconsumable Electrode 27.1 858 Introduction The welding processes described in this chapter involve partial melting and fusion of the joint between two members. Here, fusion welding is defined as melting together and coalescing materials by means of heat. The thermal energy required for these welding operations is usually supplied by chemical or electrical means. Filler metals, which are metals added to the weld area during welding of the joint, may or may not be used. Fusion welds made without the addition of filler metals are known as autoge- nous welds. ‘This chapter describes major classes of fusion welding processes, presenting the basic principles of each welding process and the equipment used, their relative advan- tages, limitations, process capabilities, and economic considerations in their selection. These processes include oxyfuel, arc, Thermit, and high-energy beams; the latter usu- ally consists of electron-beam and lasee-beam welding processes which have important and unique applications in modern manufacturing,27.2 Oxytusl Gas Welding 853 27.2 Oxyfuet Gas Welding Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) is a general rerm used to describe any welding process that uses a fxel gas combined with oxygen to produce aflame, This flame is used as the source of heat to melt the metals at the joint. The most common gas welding process uses acetylene fuel, is known as oxyacetylene welding and is used typically for structural sheet-metal fabrication and automotive bodies and various other repair work. Developed in the early 1900s, this process utilizes the heat generated by the combustion of acetylene gas (C:H.) in a mixture with oxygen. The heat is generated in accordance with the following chemical reactions. The primary combustion process, which occurs in the inner core of the flame (Fig, 27.1), is GH, + O, > 2CO + H; + heat. (7A) This reaction dissociates the acetylene into carbon monoxide and hydrogen and pro- duces about one-third of the total heat generated in che flame. The second reaction is 2CO + H, + 1.50, > 2CO; + H,O + heat, 7.2) which results in burning of the hydrogen and combustion of the carbon monoxide, producing about two-thirds ofthe total heat. The temperatures developed inthe flame as a result of these reactions can reach 3300 °C (6000 °F). The reaction of hydrogen swith oxygen produces water vapor. 27.2.1 Types of flames The proportions of acetylene and oxygen in the gas mixture are an important factor in oxyfuel gas welding. Ara ratio of 11, that is, when there is no excess oxygen, itis ‘ 210°C (9800 °F) o Outer envelope | tee e200 (emall and narrow! Innercone Outer Inner cone 3040-3300 °C<5300-6000°F: envelope ‘pointed! © FIGURE 27.1 Acetylene feather Three types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxy fuel gas welding and cutting operations: {a) neutrai flame; (b) oxidizing flame; and {c) carburizing, or reducing, flame. The gas mi ture is basically equal volumes of oxygen and Bright luminous Blue envelope acetylene, inner cone860 27 « Fusion Welding Processes considered to be a neutral flame. With a greater oxygen supply, it becomes an oxidiz- ing flame. This flame is harmful, especially for steels, because it oxidizes che steel. Only in copper and copper-base alloys is an oxidizing flame desirable because a chin protective layer of slag forms over the molten metal. If the supply of oxygen is low- ered, it becomes a reducing or carburizing flame. The temperature of a reducing, or excess-acerylene, flame is lower. Hence it is suitable for applications requiring low heat, such as brazing, soldering, and flame hardening. Other fuel gases such as hydrogen and methylacetylene propadiene can be used in oxyfuel gas welding. However, the temperatures developed are low and hence they are used for welding metals with low melting points, such as lead, and parts that are thin and small. The flame wich hydrogen gas is colorless, making it difficult to adjust the flame by eyesight. Other gases, such as natural gases, propane, and butane, are not suitable for oxyfuel welding because of the low heat output or because the flame is zing. 27.2.2 Filler metals Filler metals are used to supply additional material to the weld zone during welding. “They are available as rods or wire, and are made of metals compatible with those to be welded. These consumable filler rods may be bare, or they may be coated with flax The purpose of the flux is to retard oxidation of the surfaces of the parts being welded, by generating a gaseous shield around the weld zone, The flux also helps dissolve and remove oxides and other substances from the workpiece, resulting in a stronger joint. The slag developed protects the molten puddle of metal against oxidation as it cools. 27.23 Welding practice and equipment ‘Oxyfuel gas welding can be used with most ferrous and nonferrous metals for any thickness of workpiece, but the relatively low heat input limits the process economi- cally to less than 6 mm (0.25 in.). A variety of joints can be produced by this method. ‘The details of welding procedures are given in various texts; the basic steps are sum- marized as follows: 1. Prepare the edges to be joined, and maintain their proper position using suitable clamps and fixcures. 2, Open the acetylene valve and ignite the gas at the tip of the torch. Open the oxy- gen valve and adjust the flame for the particular operation (Fig, 27.2). 3. Hold the torch at about 45° from the plane of the workpiece, with the inner flame near the workpiece and the filler rod at about 30°40". 4. Touch the filler rod to the joint and control its movement along the joint length by observing the rate of melting and filling of the joint. Small joints may consist of a single weld bead, as shown in Fig. V.4. Deep V groove joints are made in multiple passes. Cleaning the surface of each weld bead prior to depositing a second layer is important for joint strength and avoiding defects (see Chapter 29). Hand or power wire brushes may be used for this purpose.27.2 Oxyfuel Gas Welding 861 @ FIGURE 27.2. emmeccenees {al General view and (b) cross- section of a torch used in oxy- acetylene welding. The acetylene Torch head. vaive is opened first, the gas is lit with 2 spark lighter or a pilot light, and then the oxygen valve is opened and the flame adjusted, Oxygen Union nut Mixer Tip The equipment for oxyfuel gas welding basically consists of a welding torch, which is available in various sizes and shapes, connected by hoses to high-pressure gas cylinders and equipped with pressure gages and regulators (Fig. 27.3). The use of safety equipment such as goggles with shaded lenses, face shields, gloves, and protec tive clothing is important. Proper connection of hoses to the cylinders is also an imposcant factor in safety. Oxygen and acetylene cylinders have different threads, so hoses cannot be connected to the wrong cylinders. Gas cylinders should be anchored securely and should not be dropped or mishandled Process capabilities. The low cost of the equipment, usually less than $500 for smaller units, is an attractive feature of oxyfuel gas welding. Although it can be mecha- nized, this welding operation is essentially manual and hence slow, and is used typi- FIGURES — Basic equipment used in oxyfuel gas welding. Other equipment includes safety shields, goggles, gloves, end protective clothing, To ensure correct Welding connections, all threads on acetylene fittings ere left-handed, and those for oxygen ara. righthanded. Oxygen pliner regulators are usually painted green, Combusibie and acetylene regulators red sascylinder Oxygen862 27 + Fusion Walding Processes cally for fabrication and repair work. [t has the advantages of being portable, versatile, and economical for low-quantity and simple work. Proper operator training and skill are essential 27.3 Are-Weldin ig Processes: Consumable Electrode In are welding, developed in the mid-1800s, che heat required is obtained through electrical energy. Using either a consumable or nonconsumable electrade (rod ot wire), an are is produced between the tip of the electrode and the workpiece to be welded, using ac or de power supplies. This arc produces temperatures in the range of 30,000 °C (54,000 °F), which is much higher than those developed in oxyfuel gas weld- ing, Arc welding includes various welding processes, which are described below. 27.3.1 Shielded metal-arc welding Shielded metal-arc welding (SMAW) is one of the oldest, simplest, and most versatile joining processes. Currently, about 50 percent of all industrial and maintenance weld- ing is performed by this process, The electric ac is generated by touching the tip of a coated electrode against the workpiece and then withdrawing it quickly to a distance sufficient to maintain the arc (Fig. 27.4). The electrodes are in the shape of thin, long sticks (see Section 27.4), so this process is also known as stick welding, The heat generated melts a portion of the tp of the electrode, its coating, and the base metal in the immediate area of the arc. A weld forms after the molten metal—a mixture of the base metal (workpiece), electrode metal, and substances from the coat- ing on the electrode—solidifies in the weld area. The electrode coating denwidizes and provides a shielding gas in the weld area to protectit from oxygen in the environment. Coating Solidified slag Electrode | [_,* | Shielding gas FIGURE 2 ‘Schematic illustration of the shielded me arc welding process. About 50 percent of all large-scale industrial welding operations use this process, Are27.3 Arc-Welding Processes: Consumable Electrode 863 , Welding machine ss r de / power source and controls Blectrode holder jon of the shielded ™ Work cable metal-arc welding operation, also known as stick welding because the ‘electrode is in the shape of a stick. Electrode cable A bare section at the end of the electrode is clamped to one terminal of the power source, while the other terminal is connected to the workpiece being welded (Fig. 27.5). The current usually ranges between 50 A and 300 A, with power require- ments generally less than 10 kW. The current may be ac or de, and the polarity of the electrode may be positive (reverse polarity) or negative (straight polarity). The choice depends on the type of electrode, type of metals to be welded, and depth of the heated zone. Too low a current causes incomplete fusion, and coo high a current can damage the electrode coating and reduce its effectiveness, Process capabilities. The SMAW process has the advantage of being relatively simple and versatile, requiring a relatively small variety of electrodes. The equipment consists of a power supply, power cables, and elecwode holder, and the total cost of equipment is typically below $1500. The use of safety equipment, similar to that used with oxyfuel gas welding, is essential. This process is commonly used in general construction, shipbuilding, and pipe- lines, as well as for maintenance work, since the equipment is portable and can be easily maintained. Ic is especially useful for work in remote areas where portable fuel- powered generators can be used as the power supply. The SMAW process is best suited for workpiece thicknesses of 3-19 mm (0.12-0.75 in.}, although this range can be easily extended using multiple-pass techniques (Fig, 27.6) and highly skilled opers- tors. This process requires that slag be cleaned after each weld bead. Unless removed ESE Ty WU SB CURE 27 weld zone showing the buildup sequence of individual TS4 weld beads in deep welds Vz864 27 © Fusion Welding Processes completely, che solidified slag can cause severe corrosion of the weld area and lead to failure of che weld. Slag should also be complevely removed, such as by wire brushing, before another weld is applied for multiple-pass welding, Thus labor costs are high, as are material costs. 27.3.2 Submerged are welding In submerged arc welding (SAW), the weld arc is shielded by granular flux, consisting of lime, siliea, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and other elements. The flux is fed into the weld zone by gravity flow through a nozzle (Fig, 27.7). The thick layer of flux completely covers the molten metal and prevents spatter and sparks—and without the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes of the SMAW process. The flux also acts as a thermal insulator, allowing deep penetration of heat into the workpiece. The welder must wear gloves, but other than tinted safety glasses, face shields generally are unnecessary, The consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire 15-10 mm (4-#in.) in diameter, and is fed automatically through a tube (welding gun). Electric currents usually range berwcen 300 A and 2000 A. The power supplies are usually connected to standard single- or three-phase power lines with a primary rating up to 440 V. Process capabilities. Because the flux is fed by gravity, the SAW process is somewhat limited co welds in a flat or horizontal position with backup piece. Circular welds can be made on pipes, provided that they are rotated during welding. As Fig. 27.7 shows, the unfused flux can be recovered, treated, and reused. Developed in the 1940s, the SAW process can be automated for greater economy. Total cost for a welding system usually ranges from $2000 to $10,000, but it can be FIGURE? 7 — ‘Schematic illustration of the sub- merged arc welding process and equipment. Unfused flux is Workpi recovered and reused. Source: Voltage and current tontrol ‘optional) Ground ‘American Welding Society. Weld backing27.3 Arc-Welding Processes: Consumable Electrode. 865 considerably higher for larger systems with multiple electrodes. This process is used co weld a variety of carbon and alloy steel and stainless steel sheet or plate, at speeds as high as 5 m/min (16 ft/min). The quality of the weld is very high, with good tough- ness, ductility, and uniformity of properties. The SAW process provides very high welding productivity, depositing 4~ 10 times the amount of weld metal per hour as the SMAW process. Typical applications include thick plate welding for shipbuilding and pressure vessels. 27.3.3. Gas metel-arc welding In gas metal-arc welding (GMAW), the weld area is shielded by an external source, such as argon, helium, carbon dioxide, or various other gas mixtures (Fig. 27.8). The consumable bare wire is fed automatically through a nozzle into the weld arc (Fig. 27.9). In addition to the use of inert shielding gases, deoxidizers are usually pres- ent in the electrode metal itself, in order to prevent oxidation of the molten weld puddle, Multiple weld layers can be deposited at the joint. Metal can be transferred three ways in the GMAW process: spray, globular, and short circuiting, In spray transfer, small droplets of molten metal from the electrode are transferred to che weld area at rates of several hundred droplets per second. The transfer is spatter-free and very stable, High de current and voltages and large- diameter electrodes are used, with argon or argon-rich gas mixtures used as the shield- ing gas. The average current required in this process can be reduced by pulsed arcs, FIGURE 27S ——ee Gas metal-arc welding process, for- Solid wire ‘electrode Shielding gas Current conductor Wire guide and ‘contact tube vont siti on shin yy Are. a merly known as MIG (for metal inert Molten weld gas). metal866 27 © Fusion Welding Processes Feed control Control system Gas out Work, Guneontrs) Gus, Wire Shielding. & Basel fos Voltage control wirefeed~ | nov_l| (fa rive motor | supply’ 3, FIGURE 27.9 —encacomcceenessa = Basic equipment used in gas metal-are welding Contactor Ning operations. Source: American Welding Society. control machine which are high-amplitude pulses superimposed over a low, steady current, and the process can be used in all welding positions. Tn globular transfer, carbon-dioxide rich gases are uilized, and globules propelled by the forces of the elecivic are transfer the mecal, resulting in considerable spatter. High welding currents are used, with grester weld penetration and welding speed than in spray transfer. Heavier sections axe commonly joined by this method. In short circuiting, the metal is transferred in individual droplets, at rates of more than 50 per second, as the electrode tip zouches the molten weld mecal and short cireuits. Low currents and voltages are utilized, with earbon-dioxide rich gases and electrodes made of small-diameter wire. The power required is about 2 kW. The tem- peratures involved are relatively low. Thus this method is suitable only for thin sheets and sections (less than 6 mm 0.25 in.) otherwise, incomplete fusion may occu. This process is very easy to use and may be the most popular for welding ferrous metals in thin sections, However, pulsed-arc systems are gaining wide usage for thin ferrous and nonferrous metals. Process capabilities. The GMAW process was developed in the 1950s and was formerly called metal inert-gas (MIG) welding. It is suitable for welding 2 vasiety of ferrous and nonferrous metals and is used extensively in the metal-fabrication indus~ tty. Because of the relatively simple nature of the process, ttaining operators is easy This process is rapid, versatile, and economical; welding productivity is double that of the SMAW process. The cost of equipment usually ranges from $1000 to $3000. ‘The GMAW process can easily be automated and lends itself readily to robotics and flexible manufaevuring systems (Chapters 38 and 39). 27.3.4 Flux-cored arc welding ‘The flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) process (Fig, 27.10) is similar to gas metal-are welding, with the exception that the electrode is tubular in shape and is filled with flux (hence the term flux cored). Cored electrodes produce a more stable arc, improve weld27.3 Are-Welding Processes: Consumable Electrode 867 sume fp —— tne eens Powdered metal, vapor-or gas- ~ forming materials, dessidizers and scavengers ‘Are shield composed of vaporiaed and slag-forming. compounds protects metal \ transfer through are Solidified slag~— Molten slag ‘Metal droplets covered with “— thin slag coating forming molten puddle Solidified weld metal FIGURE 27.10 ‘Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc welding process. This operation is similar to gas metal-are welding shown in Fig. 27.8. contour, and improve the mechanical properties of the weld metal. The flux in these electrodes is much more flexible than the brittle coating used on SMAW electrodes. ‘Thus the tubular electrode can be provided in long coited lengths. The electrodes are usually 0.5-4 mm (0.020-0.15 in.) in diameter. The power required is about 20 kW. Self-shielded cored electrodes are also available. These electrodes do not require ‘external gas shielding because they contain emissive fluxes that shield the weld area against the surrounding atmosphere. Advances in manufacturing of electrodes for FCAW, as well as in the chemistey of the flux, have made this process the fastest grow- ing in welding, Small-diameter electrodes have made welding of thinner materials not only possible but often desirable. Also, small-diameter electrodes make it relatively easy to weld parts out of position, and the flux chemistry enables welding of many bbase metals. Process capabilities. The flux-cored arc welding process combines the versa- tility of SMAW with the continuous and automatic electrode-feeding feature of GMAW. Icis economical and is used for welding a variety of joints, mainly with steels, stainless steels, and nickel alloys. The higher weld metal deposition rate of the FCAW868 27 + Fusion Welding Processes process, over that of GMAW, has led to its use in joining sections of all thicknesses. Recent development of urbular electrodes with very small diameters las extended the use of this process to smaller workpiece section sizes. A major advantage of FCAW is the ease with which specific weld metal chemis- tries can be developed. By adding alloys to the flux core, virtually any alloy composi- tion can be developed. This process is easy to automate and is readily adaptable to Alexible manufacturing systems and robotics. The cost of equipment is generaly inthe range of $1000 to $3000. 27.3.5 Electrogas welding Electrogas welding (EGW) is used primarily for welding the edges of sections verti- cally in one pass with the pieces placed edge to edge (butt) Ie is classified a5 2 machine. welding process because it requires special equipment (Fig. 27.11). The weld metal is deposited into a weld cavity between the two pieces to be joined. The space is enclosed by two water-cooled copper dams (shoes) to prevent the molten slag from running off. Mechanical drives move the shoes upward. Circumferential welds such as on pipes are also possible, with the workpiece rotating. Single or multiple electrodes are fed through a conduit and a continuous arc is maintained, using flux-cored electrodes at up to 750 A, or solid electrodes at 400 A. Power requirements are about 20 kW. Shielding is by inert gas, such as carbon dioxide. argon, or helium, depending on the type of material being welded. The gas may be Electrode Welding Drive FIGURE 27.1) — ‘Schematic illustration of the electro. Fixed Primary Supplementary gas welding process. Source: Ameri- shor shielding Shielding ‘can Welding Society, Es Po27.3. Arc-Welding Processes: Consumable Electrode provided from an external source, or it may be produced froma flux-cored electrode, or both. Process capabilities, The equipment for electrogas welding is reliable, and train- ing operators is relatively simple, Weld thickness ranges from 12 mm to 75 mm (0.5 in. to 3 in.) on steels, titanium, and aluminum alloys. Typical applications are in the con struction of bridges, pressure vessels, thick-walled and large-diameter pipes, storage tanks, and ships. The cost of machines typically ranges trom $15,000 to $25,009, although portable machines with less power cost as little as $5000. 27.3.6 Electroslag welding Developed in the 1950s, electroslag welding (ESW) and its applications are similar to electrogas welding (Fig 27.12). The main difference is that the arc is started between the electrode tip and the bottom of the pare to be welded. Flux is added and melted by the heat of the arc. After the molten slag reaches the tip of the electrode, the arc is extinguished, Energy is supplied continuously through the electrical resistance of the molten slag, Thus because the arc is extinguished, ESW is not strictly an arc welding process. Single or multiple solid as well as flux-cored electrodes may be used. The guide may be nonconsumable (conventional method) or consumable. Power source & Work ‘ground? lead, FIGURE 272 ————— Equipment used for electrosiag welding opera- tions. Source: American Welding Society 2 {[Sosiaon tons Water out870 27 + Fusion Welding Processes Process capabilities. Electroslag welding is capable of welding plates with thick- nesses ranging from 50 mm to more than 900 mm (2 in. to more than 36 in.). Welding is done in one pass. The current required is about 600 A at 49-50 V, although higher currents are used for thick plates. Travel speed of the weld is 12-36 mm/min (0.5~1.5 in./min). The weld quality is good and the process is used for heavy struc tural steel sections, such as heavy machinery and nuclear-reactor vessels. The cost of a typical ESW system ranges from $15,000 to $25,000, and higher for multiple-electrode units. 27.4 Electrodes Electrodes for the consumable arc-welding processes described are classified accord- ing to the strength of the deposited weld metal, current (ac or * de), and the type of, coating. Electrodes are identified by numbers and letters (Table 27.1) or by color code, particularly if they are too smal! co imprint with identification. Typical coated elec- trode dimensions are 150-460 mm (6-18 in.) long and 1.5~8 mm (4—#in.) in diame- ter. The thinner the sections to be welded and the lower the current required, the smaller the diameter of the electrode should be. RE DESIGNATIONS FOR MILD STEEL COATED ELECTRODES: The prefix “E” designates arc welding electrode. ‘The first two digits of four-digit numbers and the first three digits of five-digit numbers indicate minimum tensile strength: E6OXx 60,000 psi minimum tensile strength E7OXX 70,000 psi minimum tensite strength E110XX 110,000 psi minimum tensile strength ‘The next-to-last digit indicates position: EXX1X All positions EXX2x Flat position and horizontal filets ‘The last two digits together indicate the type of covering and the current to be used. ‘The suffix (Example: EXXXX-A1} indicates the eaproximate alloy in the weld deposit: Al 0.5% Mo. —8 0.5% Cr, 0.5% Mo —82 1.28% Cr, 0.5% Mo —B3 2.25% Cr, 1% Mo —B4 2% Cr, 0.5% Mo 85 0.5% Cr, 1% Mo —c1 2.5% Ni C2 3.25% Ni =o 1% Ni, 0.35% Mo, 0.15% Cr —DiandD2 ——0.25-0.45% Mo, 1.75% Ma -G 10.5% min. Ni, 0.3% min. Cr, 0.2% min. Mo, 0.1% min. V, 1% min. Ma (only one element required)27.5 Arc-Welding Processes: Nanconsumable Electrode 871 The specifications for electrodes and filler metals, including tolerances, quality control procedures, and processes, are stated by the American Welding Society (AWS) and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), and in the Aerospace Mate- tials Specifications (AMS) by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). Among others, the specifications require that the wire diameter not vary more than 0.05 mm (0.002 in.) from nominal size, and that the coatings be concentric with the wire. Elec- trodes are sold by weight and are available in a wide variety of sizes and specifications. Selection and recommendations for electrodes for a particular metal and its application can be found in supplier literature and various handbooks and references listed at the end of this chapter. Electrode coatings, Electrodes are coated with claylike materials that include silicate binders and powdered materials such as oxides, carbonates, fluorides, metal alloys, and cellulose (cotton cellulose and wood flour). The coating, which is brittle and has complex interactions during welding, has the following basic functions: * Stabilize the are. + Generate gases to act as a shield against the surrounding atmosphere. The gases produced are carbon dioxide and water vapor, and carbon monoxide and hydro- gen in small amounts. * Control the rate at which the electrode melts. + Actas a flux to protect the weld against formation of oxides, nitrides, and other inclusions, and with the resulting slag, protect the molten weld pool. + Add alloying elements to the weld zone to enhance the properties of the weld, including deoxidizers to prevent the weld from becoming brittle. The deposited electrode costing or slag must be removed after each pass in order to ensure a good weld. A manual or power wire brush can be used for this purpose. Bare electrodes and wire, made of stainless steels and aluminum alloys, are also avail- able. They are used as filler metals in various welding operations. sore ts nn EERE ERE ASS 27.5 Arc-Welding Processes: Nonconsumable Electrode Unlike the arc-welding processes that use consumable electrodes, which were described in Section 27.3, nonconsumable-electrode processes typically use a tungsten electrode. As one pole of the arc, it generates the heat required for welding, A shielding gs is supplied from an external source. Described below are the advantages, limita tions, and typical applications of these processes.372 27 « Fusion Welding Processes FIGURE. Gas tungsten-arc_welding process, formerly Molten weld Pravel ii Tee pa ng gas known as TIG (for tungsten inert gas). metal 27.5.1 Gas tungsten-are welding In gas tungsten-arc welding (GTAW), formerly known as TIG welding (for tungsten inert gas) the filler metal is supplied from a filler wire (Fig. 27.13). Because the tung- sten electrode is not consumed in this operation, a constant and stable arc gap is main- tained at a constant current level. The filler metals are similar to the metals to be welded, and flux is not used. The shielding gas is usually argon or helium, or a mixture of the two. Welding with GTAW may be done without filler metals, as in welding close-ft joints. ‘The power supply (Fig. 27.14) is either de at 200 A, or ac at 500 A, depending on the metals to be welded. In general, ac is preferred for aluminum and magnesium because the cleaning action of ac removes oxides and improves weld quality. Thorium or zirconium may be used in the tungsten electrodes to improve their electron emis- sion characteristics. Power requirements range from 8 kW to 20 IW. Contamination of the tungsten electrode by the molten metal can be a significant problem, particu larly in critical applications, as ic ean cause discontinuities in the weld. Thus contact of the electrode with the molten metal pool should be avoided, Process capabilities. The GTAW process is used for a wide variety of metals and applications, particularly aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and refractory metals, [tis especially suitable for thin metals. The cost of the inert gas makes this process more expensive than SMAW, but it provides welds with very high quality and surface finish. It is used in a variety of critical applications with a wide range of workpiece thick- nesses and shapes, The equipment is portable and typically costs from $1000 to $5000.27.5 Arc-Welding Processes: Nonconsumable Electrode 873 Inectgas ag sly Cooling RPP corde welder water supply Filler red Work FIGURE 77.14 e556 pedal Equipment for gas tungsten-arc welding operations. optional Source: American Welding Society. 27.5.2 Atomic hydrogen welding Atomic hydrogen welding (AHW) uses an arc in a shielding atmosphere of hydro- gen. The arc is between ewo tungsten or carbon electrodes, Thus the workpiece is not part of the electrical circuit, as it is in GTAW. The hydrogen gas also cools the electrodes, 27.5.3 Plasma-arc welding In plasma-are welding (PAW), developed in the 1960s, a concentrated plasma arc is produced and aimed at the weld area. The arc is stable and reaches temperatures as high as 33,000 °C (60,000 °F). A plasmra is ionized hot gas, composed of nearly equal numbers of electrons and ions. The plasma is initiated between the tungsten electrode and the orifice, using a low-curvent pilot arc. Unlike other processes, the plasma arc is concentrated because it is forced through a relatively small orifice. Operating currents are usually below 190 A, but they can be higher for special applications. When a filler metal is used, itis fed into the arc, as in GTAW. Arc and weld-zone shielding is sup- plied through an outer shielding ring by gases such as argon, helium, or mixtures. There are two methods of plasma-are welding. In the transferred-arc method (Fig. 27.45a), the workpiece being welded is part of the electrical circuit. The arc thus transfers from the electrode to the workpiece—hence the term transferred, In the non- transferred method (Fig, 27.15b), the arc is between the electrode and the nozzle, and the heat is carried to the workpiece by the plasma gas. The thermal transfer mechanism is similar to that for oxyfuel flame. Process capabilities. Compared to other arc-welding processes, plasma-arc welding has greater energy concentration (hence deeper and narrower welds can be made), better arc stability, ess thermal distortion, and higher welding speeds, such as 120-1000 mm/min (5~40 in./min). A variety of mecals can be welded, with part thicknesses generally less than 6 mm (0.25 in.). The high heat concentration can pene-874 27 » Fusion Welding Processes: @ tb ‘Tungsten electrode * Power supply Power FIGURE 27.15 — supply ‘Two types of plasma-are weld- ing processes: {a} transferred and (b} nontransferred. Deep and narrow welds are made by this process at high welding speeds. trate completely through the joint (keyhole cechnique), with thicknesses as much as 20 mm (0.75 in.) for some titanium and aluminum alloys, In the keyhole technique, the force of the plasma arc displaces the molten metal and produces a hole at the leading edge of the weld pool. Plasina-are welding, rather than the G'TAW process, is often used for bute and lap joints because of higher energy concentration, better are stability, and higher welding speeds. Equipment costs are typically in the range of $3000-$6000. Proper training and skill are essential for operators who use this equipment. Safety considerations include protection against glare, spatter, and noise from the plasma arc 27.6 Thermit Welding Thermit welding (TW) gets its name from thermite, which is based on the word therm meaning heat; the word Thermitis a registered trademark. The process involves exothermic (heat producing) reactions between metal oxides and metallic reducing agents. The heat of the reaction is then utilized in welding. This process dates back to the early 1900s. The most common mixture of materials used in welding steel and cast iron is finely divided particles of iron oxide (Fe,O,), aluminum oxide (Al,O;), iron, and alv- minum. The basic reactions are iFe,0, + 2Al 3 $Fe + Al,O, + heat; (27.1) 3FeO + 2A 3 3Fe + ALLO, + heat; (27.2) Fe,O, + 2Al -9 2Fe + ALLO, + heat, (27.3)27.7 Electron-Beam Welding 875 This nonexplosive mixture produces a maximum theoretical temperature of 3200 °C (5800 °F) within less than a miaute. In practice, however, this temperature is only abour 2200-2400 °C (4000-4350 °F). The mixture may also contain other mate- rials to impart special properties co the weld, The reaction is started by applying a magnesium fuse to special compounds of peroxides, chlorates, or chromates, known as oxidizing agents, with an ignition temperature of about 1200°C (2200 °F). Welding copper, brasses, and bronzes, and copper alloys to steels, involves the following reactions: 3CuO + 2Al > 3Cu + ALO; + heass 7.4) 3Cu,O + 2A] > 6Cu + ALO, + heat, (75) Oxides of copper, nickel, chromium, and manganese are also used in Thermit welding, resulting in temperatures ranging up to 5000 °C. (9000 °E). Process capabilities. ‘Thermic welding involves aligning the parts to be joined but witha gap berween them (usually filled with wax), around which a sand or ceramic mold is built. If the parts are thick, the mold cavity may be preheated to improve welding and to dry the mold. Drying the mold is very important; otherwise super heated steam trapped in the mold can cause explosions. The superheated products of the reaction are allowed to flow into the gap, melting the edges of the parts being joined. After the weld cools, excess material is removed by machining, grinding, or other methods, Thermit welding is suitable for welding and repairing large forgings and castings. it can also be used to weld thick stee! structural sections, railroad rails, and pipe ERE 27.7 Etectron-Beam Welding In electron-beam welding (EBW), heat is generated by high-velocity narrow-beam electrons. The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into heat as they strike the workpiece. This process requires special equipment to focus the beam on the work- piece in a vacuum. The higher the vacuum, the more the beam penetrates and the greater the depth-to-wideh ratio is. Almost any metal can be welded by EBW, with workpiece thicknesses ranging from foil co plate. The intense energy is also capable of producing holes in the workpiece (keyhole; Section 27.5.3). Generally, no shielding 825, flux, or filler metal is required. Capacities of electron beam guns range to 100 kW. Process capabilities. Developed in the 1960s, EBW has the capability to make high-quality welds that are almost paralel sided, are deep and narrow, and have small heat-affected zones (see Section 29.2). Depth-to-width ratios range between 10 and 30. The size of welds made by EBW and conventional processes are compared in876 27 » Fusion Welding Processes FIGURE 27.16 Comparison of the size of weld beads in con- ventional {tungsten-arc) and electron-beam and laser-beam welding, Cross-section of Cross-section of conventional weld _—, slectron-beam or at Jaser-beam weld bead Fig, 27.16. Using servo controls, parameters can be controlled accurately, with weld- ing speeds as high as 12 m/min (40 ft/min). Almost any metal can be butt or lap welded with this process, with thicknesses to as much as 150 mm (6 in). Distortion and shrinkage in the weld arca is minimal, Weld quality is good, with very high purity, and typical applications include welding of aircraft, missile, nuclear, and electronic components, as well as gears and shafts in the aucomotive industry, Electron-beam welding equipment generates x-rays, and hence proper monitoring and periodic maintenance are important. The cost of equipment ranges from about $75,000 to over $1 million, depending on capacity. 27.8 Laser-Beam Welding Laser-beam welding (LBW) utilizes a high-power laser beam as the source of heat (sce Fig. 26.15, Table 26.1, and Section 26.7) to produce a fusion weld. Because the beam can be focused to a very small area, it has high-energy density and, therefore, has deep penetrating capability. The beam can be directed, shaped, and focused pre- cisely on the workpiece. Consequently, this process is particularly suitable for welding deep and narrow joints (see Fig. 27.16), with depth-to-width ratios typically ranging from 4 to 10. The laser beam may be pulsed (milliseconds) for applications such a5 spot welding of thin materials, with power levels up to 100 kW. Continuous multi-kW laser systems are used for deep welds on thick sections. Process capabilities, Lascr-beam welding produces welds of good quality, with minimum shrinkage and distortion. Laser welds have good strength and are generally ductile and free of porosity. The LBW process can be automated and used successfully on a variety of materials with thicknesses of up to 25 mm (I in,), and is particularly effective on thin workpieces. Typical metals and alloys welded include aluminum, tita- nium, ferrous metals, copper, superalloys, and refractory metals. Welding speeds range from 2.5 m/min (8 ft/min) to as high as 80 m/min (250 ft/min) for thin metals.877 Because of the nature of the process, welding can be done in otherwise inacces- sible locations. Safety is a particularly important consideration in laser-beam welding because of the extreme hazards to the eye as well as the skin, Solid-state (YAG) lasers are particularly dangerous. In the automotive industry, welding of transmission com- ponents is the most widespread application. Among numerous other applications is the welding of thin parts for electronic components, The major advantages of LBW over EBW are: + The beam can be transmitted through air, so a vacuum is not required. + Because laser beams can be shaped, manipulated, and focused optically (using fiber optics), the process can easily be automated, + The beams do not generate x-rays as compared to EBW. + The quality of the weld is better, with less tendency for incomplete fusion, spatter and porosity, and less distortion. The cost of equipment for LBW usvally ranges from $40,000 to almost $1 million. As in other, similar automated welding systems, the operator shill required is minimal, Laser welding of razor blades, —_metee Figure 27.17 shows a closeup of the Gillette Sensor razor cartridge. Each of the two narrow, high-strength blades has 13 pinpoint welds, 11 of which can be seen (as darker spots, about 0.5 mm in diameter) on each blade in the photograph. The welds are made FIGURE 27.17878 27 + Fusion Welding Processes with a Nd:YAG laser equipped with fiber-optic delivery, thus providing very flexible beam manipulation to the exact locations along the length of che blade. With a set of these machines, production is at a rate of 3 million welds per hour, with accurate and consistent weld quality. Note: The student is encouraged to inspect the welds on these blades with a magnifying glass or microscope. Source: Courtesy of Lumonics Cor- poration, Industrial Products Division. ees“ —— 27.9 Cutting A piece of metal can be separated into two or more pieces, or into various contours, not only by mechanical means such as sawing (see Fig. 23.29), but also by a source of heat that removes a narrow zone in the workpiece. The sources of heat that have been described thus far, namely, torches and electric arcs, can be used for this purpose. 27.9.1 Oxyfuel gas cutting Oxyfuel gas cutting (OFC) is similar to oxyfuel welding, but the heat source is now used to remove a narrow zone from a metal plate or sheet (Fig. 27.18a). This process is particularly suitable for steels. The basic reactions with steel are: Fe + O ~ FeO + hea 07.6) 3Fe + 20; + Fe,O, + heat; @77) 4Fe + 30, — 2Fe,O, + heat. (27.8) The highest heat is generated in the second reaction, resulting in a temperature rise of about 870 °C (1600 °F). However, this temperature is not sufficiently high to cut steels, s0 the workpiece is preheated with fuel gas, and oxygen is introduced later (see nozzle cross-section in Fig. 27.184). The higher the carbon content of the steel, the higher the preheating temperature must be. Cutting occurs mainly by oxidation and burning of the steel, with some melting taking place. Cast irons and steel castings can also be cut by this method. The process generates a kerf, similar to that produced by sawing with a saw blade (Section 23.6). Process capabilities. The maximum thickness that can be cut by OFC depends mainly on the gases used, With oxyacetylene gas, the maximum thickness is about 300-350 mm (12-14 in.); with oxyhydrogen, about 600 mm (24 in.). Kerf widths range from about 1.5 mm to 10 mm (0.06 to 0.4 in.), with reasonably good control of tolerances. The flame leaves drag lines on the cut surface (Fig. 27.18b), which is rougher than surfaces produced by sawing, blanking, or other operations using cut-27.9 Cutting 879 ws Torch o Oxygen Preheat flames (oxyacetylene) - Plate x Slag (iron and iron oxide) FIGURE 27.18. {a} Flame cutting of steel plate with oxyacetylene torch and cross-section of torch nozzle. {b) Cross-section of flame: cut plate showing drag lines. ting tools. Distortion caused by uneven temperature distribution can be a problem in OFC. Alchough long used for salvage and repair work, oxyfuel gas cutting has become an important manufacturing process. Torches may be guided along various paths manually, mechanically, or by automatic machines using programmable controllers and robots. Underwater cutting is done with specially designed torches that produce a blanket of compressed air between the flame and the surrounding water. 27.9.2 Arceutting ‘Arc-cutting processes are based on the same principles as are-welding processes. A variety of materials can be cut at high speeds by arc cutting. As in welding, arc-cutting processes also leave a heat-affected zone (described in Chapter 29) which should be considered, particularly for critical applications, In air carbon-are cutting (CAC-A), a carbon electrode is used, and the molten metal is blown away by a high-velocity air jet. Thus the metal being cut doesn't have to oxidize. This process is used especially for gouging and scarfing (removal of metal from a surface). However, the process is noisy, and the molten metal can be blown substantial distances, eausing safety hazards. Plasma-arc cutting (PAC) produces the highest temperatures. It is used for rapid cutting of nonferrous and stainless-steel plates. The cutting productivity of this pro-880 27 = Fusion Welding Processes cess is higher than that of oxyfuel gas methods, It produces good surface finish and narrow kerfs. [t also is the most popular cutting process utilizing programmable con- trollers that is used in manufacturing today. Lasers and electron beams (see Sections 26,7 and 26.8) are used for very accu- rately cutting a wide variety of metals, Surface finish is better and kerf wideh is nar- rower than that for other thermal cutting processes. Proper safety precautions are important, 27.10 Welding Safety As in all manufactusing operations, there are certain hazards in welding and cutting. Although safety considerations are mentioned throughout Chaptecs 27 and 28, this section summarizes the major hazards that are present where welding is done and safe welding practices to counteract them. Some of the hazards are related to the machin- ery and equipment involved, and others are related to the welding processes them- selves (see also Chapter 37). Because of the heat sources, such as open flames, arcs, sparks, and hot metal, used in welding and related operations, fre and explosion hazards are always present in the work area. Thus welding processes should be cartied out away from all combustible materials, including flammable fluids, vapors, gases, fuel, wood, and textiles, Floors, partitions, platforms, and ceilings may also have been made of flammable materials aad thus present potential safety hazards. Fires and explosions can cause serious injury and even fatality, Protection of the operator's eyes, face, and body against sparks, spatter, and infrared and ultraviolet radiation is essential, Several types of safety equipment and protective clothing are available and should be used. Excessive and prolonged noise generated by welding or cutting operations can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss. Ear protection devices should be used. Welding and related methods and machinery that use electricity as a source of energy also present hazards. Proper installation and maintenance of equipment and training of personnel are essential. Not only are various shielding gases used during welding operations, but many processes emit fumes and gases. Overexposure to these, some of which are toxic, can be hazardous to health. Proper ventilation systems must be installed and maintained. In addition to the foregoing considerations and safe welding practices, an equally important consideration is the environmental issues involved in the use of welding processes and the impact of welding on the environment. Among the factors to be considered are the fumes and gases evolved during welding; the proper disposal of used electrodes, luxes, and slag; and the proper handling and disposal of some of the highly toxic chemicals used in surface preparation prior to welding.Trends 881 SUMMARY Oxyfuel ges, arc, and high-energy beam welding are among the mast commonly used joining operations Gas welding uses chemical energy, whereas aze and high-energy beam welding use eleccrical energy to supply the necessary heat for welding, In all these processes, heat is used to bring the joint being welded toa liquid scate. Shielding gases are used to protect che ‘molten weld pool and weld area against oxidation, Fil- ler rods may or may not be used in oxyfuel gas and are welding to fill the weld area. ‘The selection of welding process for a particular operation depends on the workpiece material, its thickness and size, shape complexity, type of joint, strength required, and change in product appearance caused by welding. A variety of equipment is avail- able, much of which is now computer controlled with progcammable features. ‘Cutting metals is also done with processes whose principles are based on oxyfuel gas and arc welding, Cutting of steels occurs mainly by oxidation and burning. The highest temperatures for cutting are obtained by plasma-are cutting, st TH SUMMARY TABLE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF JOINING PROCESSES Skill Cost of Level Welding Current Equip- Process Operation Advantage Required Position Type ment SMAW Manual Portable High All acjdo 1102 Low and flexible SAW Automatic High Low to Flat and ac.do © 1to2 Medium deposition medium horizontal GMAW Semiautomatic Most Low to All de 2103 Medium or automatic metals high to high GTAW —Manuat or Most Low to All acd 203 = Medium automatic metals ‘high FCAW Semiautomatic High Low to All de 1103 Medium ‘or automatic deposition high orw Manual Portable High All - 2104 Low and flexible cew, Semiautomatic Most Medium to All = 3105 High Law or automatic metals high 1 highest 5, lowest. rrr SE TRENDS + The trend is to automate welding processes in order to control process variables accurately and repeatedly and reduce the need for skilled labor. + Computer controls and programmabie robots are being used excensively for maay welding opera- tions. These developmencs are being further882 27 » Fusion Welding Processes enhanced by the use of appropriate sensors, such as infrared, to rack the weld joint. They monitor the conditions during welding and with feedback controls, make necessary adjustments to maintain sweld quality and integrity. «Due to advances made during the past few years, the flux-cored arc welding process has advanced far beyond gas metal-are welding in replacing shielded-metal-are welding, © Pulsed-are gas metal-are welding is gaining wide usage for thin ferrous and nonferrous metals. ‘+ High-cnorgy beam welding processes will con- tinue to be prominent in joining operations. Efforts ave continuing in increasing the depth and speed of welding # Laser welding of flax sheet metal for automotive bodies (butt welding) prior to stamping is now in production. The thickness capability of laser-beam welding is being increased with che use of filler mecils, cus extending its applications to heavy steel fabriea- tion, pipelines, shipbuilding, and nuclear’ reactor components KEY TERMS Are cutting Filler rod Are welding Flux-cored are welding Atomic hydrogen welding. Fusion welding Carburizing flame Drag lines Electrodes Electrogas welding Electeon-beam welding Eleccroslag welding Filler metals Kerf ‘Neutral flame Oxidizing flame Gas meral-are welding Gas tungsten-are welding Laser-beam welding Oxyfuel gas cutting Osyfuel gas welding Plasma-are welding Reducing flame Shielded metal-are welding Shag Submerged are welding Thermit welding Welding torch ee EE STE BIBLIOGRAPHY ASM Handbook, Vol. 6: Welding, Brazing, and Sol- dering. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International, 1993, Bowditch, W. A. and K. E. Bowditch, Welding Tech- nology Fundamentals. South Holland, Tk: Goodheart-Willeox, 1991 Cary, H. B., Modern Welding Technology, 24 ed Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Eall, 1989. Davies, A. C., The Science and Practice of Welding, 2 vols. 10th ed. New York: Cambridge Univer- sicy Press, 1993, Galyen, J, G. Sear, and C. Tuttle, Welding: Fanda- mental: and Procedures. New York: Wiley, 1984 Jeffus, LF, Welding Principles and Applications. Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers, 1992. Koellhoffer, L., Welding Processes and Practices Englewood Clifis, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1588, Minnick, W. H., Gas Metal Arc Welding Handbook. South Holland, Hl: Goodheart-Willeox, 1991 Principles of Industrial Welding. Cleveland: The James E Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, 1978. Robert, H., and J Robert, Welding and Cutting. New York: Industsial Press, 1989 Safety in Welding and Cutting. Miami: American Welding Society, 1988.Tool anut Manufacturing Engineers Handbaok, Vol. 4, Quality Control and Assembly. Dearborn, Mich. Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1986. Problems 833 Quatitati Welding Handbook, 8th ed., 3 vols. Miami: American ‘Welding Soviety, 1987. ee te EY REVIEW QUESTIONS 27.1 Explain fusion as it relates to welding oper- ations. 27.2 Describe the reactions that take place in an oxy- fuel gas torch. What is the level of cemperaruces generated? 27.3 Explain the features of neutral, reducing, and oxidizing flames. Why is i called reducing? 27.4 Why is an oxidizing flame desirable in welding copper alloys? 27.5 Describe the procedure ro be followed in an oxy fuel gas welding operation, 27.6 Explain the basic principles of are welding processes. 27.7 Why is shiclded metal-are welding a commonly used pracess? Why is icalso ealled stick welding? 27.8 Why is the quality of submerged are welding very good? 27.9 Describe the features of three types of arcs in gas metal-are welding. Why has it been called MIG welding? 27.10 Describe the functions and characteristics of electrodes. What functions do coatings have? How are electrodes classified? 27.1 What are the similarities and differences berween consumable and nonconsumable electrodes? 27.12 Explain how cutting takes place using an oxy- fuel gas torch. How is underwater catting done? eT QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS 27.13 Explain why so many different welding pro- cesses have been developed. 27.14 What is the effect of the thermal conductivity of the workpiece on kerf width in oxyfuel gas cutting? 2745 Describe the differences between oxyfuel gos cuting of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. 27.16 Could you use oxyfuel gas cutting for a stack of sheet metals (seack cutting)? Explain BAT Discuss the need and role of fixtures in holding workpieces in the welding operations described inthis chapter. 27.18 Could plasma arc cutting be used for nonme- tallic materials? If so, would you select a trans- ferred or nontransferred type of arc? Explain. 27.19 What factors influence the size of the two weld beads in Fig. 27.16? 27.20 Discuss the need and role of fixtures in holding workpieces in the welding operations described in this chapter. 27.21 How close would you hold the oxyacetylene flame to the surfaces to be welded? Explain. 27.22 Comment on your observations regarding Fig. 27.6, 27.23 What determines whether a certain welding process can be used for workpieces in horizon- tal, vertical, or upside down positions, or all? Explain, giving appropriate examples. 27.24 Explain the factors involved in electrode selec- tion in arc-welding processes. 27.25 In the Summary Table at the end of this chap- cer, there is « column on the distortion of welded components, ranging from lowest «0 highest. Explain why the degree of distortion varies among different welding processes,884 27 + Fusion Welding Processes SYNTHESIS AND DESIGN 27.26 27.27 27.28 Comment on workpiece size and shape limita~ tions, if any, for each of the processes described in this chapter. Make 2 summaty table outlining the principles cof the processes described in this chapter, together with examples of their applications Prepare a table of the processes described in this chapter and give the range of welding speeds as a function of workpiece material and thicknesses. 27.29 27.30 Make a table comparing the quality of cuts made by che processes described in this chapter and those made by others described in Part IV. Section 27.10 describes the general guidelines for safery in welding operations. For each of the ‘operstions described in this chapter, prepare a poster which effectively and concisely gives specific instructions for safe practices in weld- ing. Consult the references at the end of ‘Chapter 37 and the various publications of the National Safety CouncilSolid-State Welding Processes 28.1 Introduction 28.5 Resistance Welding 28.2 Cold Welding 28.6 Explosion Welding 28.3 Ultrasonic Welding 28.7 Diffusion Bonding (Welding? 28.4 Friction Welding SES 28.1 Introdu n This chapter describes processes in which joining takes place without fusion (melting) of the workpieces. Unlike the processes described in Chapter 27, no liquid (molten) phase is present in the joint. The principle of solid-state welding is best demonstrated with the following example. If two clean surfaces are brought into atomic contact with each other under sufficient pressure—and in the absence of oxide films and other contaminants (see Section 31.2)—they form bonds and produce a strong joint. Heat and some movement of the mating surfaces by plastic deformation may be employed to improve the strength of the joint. Applying external heat improves the bond by diffusion. Small interfacial move- ‘ments on the faying surfaces (contacting surfaces of the two pieces to be joined) dis- turb the surfaces, breaking up oxide films and generating new and clean surfaces, thus improving the strength of the bond. Heat may also be generated by friction, which is utilized in friction welding. Electrie-resistance heating is utilized extensively in resis- tance welding processes with numerous applications. In explosion welding, very high contact pressures are developed, causing welding of the interface. This chapter concludes our coverage of welding processes. The topics of the met- allurgy of welding, welding design, weld quality, and welding process selection are described in Chapter 29. Other joining processes such as brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding, and mechanical fastening methods are covered in Chapter 30. 885886 28 + Solid-State Welding Processes Cladding metal FIGURE 28.1 ene: ‘Schematic illustration of the roll bonding, or cladding, process. —_—_—_— 28.2 Cold Welding Example: In cold welding (CW), pressure is applied to the workpieces, either through dies or rolls. Because of the plastic deformation involved, it is necessary that at least one, but preferably both, of the mating parts be ductile, The incerface is usually cleaned by ‘wire brushing prior to welding However, in joining two dissimilar metals that are mutually soluble, brittle inter- metallic compounds may form (see Section 4.2.2), resulting in a weak and brittle joint. An example is the bonding of aluminum and steel, where a brittle intermetallic com. pound is formed at the interface. The best bond strength and ductility is obtained with two similar materials. Cold welding can be used to join small workpieces made of soft, ductile metals. Applications include electrical connections and welding wire stock. Roll bonding, “The pressure required for cold welding can be applied through a pair of rolls (Fig. 28.1). Hence the process is called roll bonding. Developed in the 1960s, roll bonding is used for manufacturing certain US. coins. The process can be carried out at elevated temperatures (hot roll Bonding). Typical examples are cladding pure aluminum over aluminum-alloy sheet and stainless steel over mild steel for cor. rosion resistance. Roll bonding of the U.S. quarter eens The technique used for manufacturing composite US. quartersis roll bonding of two outer layers of 75 percent copper-25 percent nickel (cupronickel), each 1.2 mm (0.048 in.) thick, with an inner layer of pure copper 5.1 mm (0.20 in.) thick. To obtain good bond strength, the faying surfaces are chemically cleaned and wire brushed. The strips are first rolled to a thickness of 2.29 mm (0.090 in,). A second rolling operation reduces the final thickness to 1.36 mm (0.0535 in). The strips thus undergo a total reduction in thickness of 82 percent, Since volume constancy is maintained in plastic deformation, there is a major increase in the surface area bervreen the layers, thus gen- erating clean interfacial surfaces. This extension in surface area under the high pressure28.3. Ultrasonic Welding 887 of the rolls, combined with the solid solubility of nickel in copper (see Section 4.2.1), produces z strong bond. ° 28.3 Ultrasonic Welding In ultrasonic welding (USW), the faying surfaces of the wo members are subjected to a static normal force and oscillating shearing (tangential) stresses, The shearing stresses are applied by the tip of a-transducer (Fig. 28.2:), similar to that used for ultrasonic machining (see Fig. 25.26a). The frequency of oscillation generally ranges from 10 kHz to 75 KHz, although both lower and higher frequencies than these can bbe employed. ‘The energy required increases wich the thickness and hardness of the materials being joined. Proper coupling between the transducer and the tip (called sonotrode, from the word sonic, as contrasted to electrode) is important for efficient operation. The shearing stresses cause plastic deformation at the workpiece interfaces, break- ing up oxide films and contaminants and thus allowing good contact and producing a strong solid-state bond. Temperatures generated in the weld zone are usually in the @ Force b) Mass ‘Transducer de [polarization Coupling [supply rystem, ep a ao power supply Workpiece i Anvil “Direction of vibration OE (al Components of an ultrasonic weiding machine for lap welds. The lateral vibrations of the too! tip cause plastic

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