339. Anodizing 1001 must be preplated by such processes as electroless nickel plating (see Section 33.8.2) Parts to be coated may be simple or complex, and size is not a limitation. 338.2 Electroless plating Electroless plating is carried our by chemical reactions, without the use of an external source of electricity. The most common application utilizes nickel, although copper is also used. In electroless nickel plating, nickel chloride (a metallic salt) is reduced— with sodium hypophosphite as the reducing agent—to nickel metal, which is then deposited on the workpiece. The hardness of nickel plating ranges between 425 HV and 575 HV, and can be heat treated to 1000 HV. The coating has excellent wear and corrosion resistance. Cavities, recesses, and the inner surfaces of tubes can be plated successfully. This process can also be used with nonconductive materials, such as plastics and ceramics. Electroless plating is more expensive than electroplating. However, unlike electroplat- ing, the coating thickness in electroless plating is uniform (see Fig, 33.8). 33.8.3 Electroforming A variation of electroplating is electroforming, which actually is a metal fabricating process, Metal is electrodeposited on a mandrel (also called mold or matrix), which is then removed. Thus the coating itself becomes the product. Simple and complex shapes can be produced by electroforming, with wall thicknesses as small as 0.025 mm (0.001 in,). Parts may weigh from a few grams to as much as 270 kg (600 Ib). Mandrels are made from a variety of metallic (such as zinc or aluminum) or non- metallic materials, which ean be made electrically conductive with proper coatings. Mandrels should be physically removable without damaging the clectroformed part. They may also be made of low-melting alloys, wax, or plastics, which can be melted away or dissolved with suitable chemicals. ‘The electroforming process is particularly suitable for low production quantities or intricate parts (such as molds, dies, waveguides, nozzles, and bellows) made of nickel, copper, gold, and silver. Its also suitable for aerospace, electronics,and electro- optics applications. Production rates car be increased with multiple mandrels 33.9 Anodizing Anodizing is an oxidation process (anodic oxidation) in which the workpiece surfaces are converted to 2 hard and porous oxide layer that provides corrosion resistance and a decorative finish. The workpiece is the anode in an electrolytic cell immersed in an acid bath, resulting in chemical adsorption of oxygen from the bath. Organic dyes of various colors (typically black, red, bronze, gold, gray) can be used to produce stable, durable surface films.1002 33 © Surface Treatment, Coating, and Cleaning Typical applications for anodizing are aluminum furnicure and utensils, architec- tural shapes, automobile trim, picture frames, keys, and sporting goods. Anodized surfaces also serve as a good base for painting, especially for aluminum, which other- swiseis difficult to paint 33.10 Conversion Coating Conversion coating, also called chemical reaction priming, is @ coating that forms on metal surfaces as a result of chemical or electrochemical reactions. Various metals, particularly steel, aluminum, and zinc, can be conversion coated. Oxides that naturally form on their surfaces are a form of conversion coating. Phosphates, chromates, and oxalates are used to produce these coatings. They are used for purposes such as cor- rosion protection, prepainting, and decorative finish. An important application is in conversion coating of workpieces as a lubricant carricr in cold forming operations (see Section 32.12). The two common methods of coating are immersion and spraying. The equipment involved depends on the method of application, the type of product, and considerations of qualicy. ‘As the name implies, coloring involves processes that alter the color of metals, alloys, and ceramics, It is caused by the conversion of surfaces (by chemical, electro chemical, or thermal processes) into chemical compounds, such as oxides, chromates, and phosphates. An example is blackening of iron and steels, a process that involves solutions of hot caustic soda, resulting in chemical reactions that produce a lustrous, black oxide film on surfaces. nt NEARER NO 33.11 Hot ipping In hot dipping, the workpiece, usually steel or iron, is dipped into a bath of molten metal, such as zinc (for galvanized-steel sheet and plumbing supplies), tin (for tinplate and tin cans for food containers), aluminum (ahiminizing), and terne (lead alloyed ‘with 10 to 20 percent tin). Hot-dipped coatings on discrete parts or sheet metal pro- vide long-term corrosion resistance to galvanized pipe, plumbing supplies, and many other products. ‘A typical continuous hot-dipped galvanizing line for steel sheet is shown in Fig, 33.9. The rolled sheet is first cleaned electrolytically and scrubbed by brushing. The sheet is then annealed in a continuous furnace with controlled atmosphere and temperature and dipped in molten zinc at about 450 °C. (840 °F). The thickness of the33.12 Porcelain Enameling, Ceramic Coating, and Organic Coatings 1003 FIGURE 33.9 eerememeceromecnteen je/@ [[o todbtadoa, Flowline for continuous hot-dip galvanizing oo 4 Accumulator BVolooo 8 | 86. istiecleaning and brash scrubbing poling tower OEE oe Fae e ee 2 Of sheet steal, The welder (upper left) is used Oh cajead Conlinuons annealing humane to weld the ends of coils to maintain continu- treatment Qusmaterial fon. Source: American tronand =| “actes’ ed zinc coating is controlled by a wiping action from a stream of air or steam, called air Anife (similar to air-drying cars in ear washes). The coating thickness is usually given in terms of coating weight per unit surface area of the sheet, typically 150-900 g/m? (05-3 o2/ft*), Service life depends on the thickness of the zinc coating and the envi- ronment to which it is exposed. Various precoated sheet steels are used extensively in automobile bodies. Proper draining to remove excess coating materials is an important consideration. 2 RNR ESSE 33.12 Porcelain Enameling, Ceramic Coating, and Organic Coatings Metals may be coated with a variety of glassy (vitreous) coatings to provide corrosion and electrical resistance and for service at elevated temperatures. These coatings are usually classified as porcelain enamels and generally include enamels and ceramics. ‘The word enamel is also used for glossy paints, indicating a smooth, hard coating. Porcelain enamels are glassy inorganic coatings consisting of various metal oxides. A fully developed art by the Middle Ages, enameling involves fusing the coating material on the substrate by heating them both to 425-1000 °C (800-1800 °F) to1004 Example: 33 + Surface Treatment, Coating, and Cleaning liquefy the oxides. Depending on their composition, enamels have varying resistances, to alkali, acids, detergents, cleansers, and water—and come in different colors, ‘Typical applications for porcelain enameling are household appliances, plumb- ing fixtures, chemical processing equipment, signs, cookware, and jewelry. Porcelain enamels are also used as protective coatings on jet-engine components. The coating may be applied by dipping, spraying, or electrodeposition, and thicknesses are usu ally 0.05-0.6 mm (0.002-0.025 in.). "Metals that are coated are typically steels, cast iron, and aluminum. Glasses are used as lining for chemical resistance, and the thick- ness is much greater than in enameling. Glazing is the application of glassy coatings on ceramic wares to give them decorative finishes and to make them impervious to moisture, Ceramic coatings such as aluminum oxide or zirconium oxide are applied, with the use of binders, to the substrate at room temperature, Such coatings act as thermal barriers and have been applied (generally by thermal spraying techaiques) to hot extrusion dies, turbine blades, and diesel engine components to extend their life. Metal surfaces may be coated or precoated with a variety of organic coatings, films, and laminates to improve appearance, eye appeal, and corrosion resistance. ‘Coatings are applied to the coil stock on continuous lines, with thicknesses generally ‘of 0.0025-0.2 mm (0.0001 0.008 in.). Such coatings have a wide range of properties flexibility, durability, hardness, resistance to abrasion and chemicals, color, texture, and gloss. Coated sheet metal is subsequently formed into various products, such as TV cabinets, appliance housings, paneling, shelving, residential building siding, gut- ters, and metal furniture More critical applications involve, for example, naval aireraft which are subjected 10 high humidity, rain, seawater, pollutants (such as from ship exhaust stacks), aviation fuel, deicing fluids, battery acid, and which are also impacted by particles such as dust, gravel, stones, and deicing salts. For aluminum structures, organic coatings have con- sisted typically of an epoxy primer and a poly urethane topcoat, witha lifetime of four to six years, Primer performance is very important for coating durability; conse- quently much research is being conducted to develop improved coating materials Ceramic coatings for high temperature applications Characteristics such as wear resistance and thermal and electrical insulation, particu- larly at elevated temperatures, can be imparted on products by ceramic coatings rather than imparting these properties to the base metals or materials themselves. Selecting materials with such bulk properties can be expensive or may not meet the structural strength requirements in a particular application. Thus, for example, a wear-resistance component does not have to be made completely from a wear-resistant material, since the properties of only a thin layer on the component’ surface are relevant for wear. Consequently, coatings have important applications. The table below shows various ceramic coatings and typical applications at elevated temperatures. These coatings may33.13 Diamond Coating 1005 be applied either singly or in layers, a is done in mubtiple-layer coated cutting vools {see Section 21.6). Property Type of Ceramic Applications Wear resistance Chromium oxide Pumps, turbine shafts, seals, compressor Aluminum oxide rods for the petroleum industry; plastics Aluminum titania extruder barrels: extrusion dies, Thermal insulation Zirconium oxide Fan blades, compressor blades, and seels for (yttriastabitized) {gas turbines; valves, pistons, and combustion heads for automotive engines, (calcia stabilized) Magnesium zirconate Electrical insulation — Magnesium aluminate Induction coils, brazing fixtures, general elec- Aluminum oxide trical applications, a ss—SS=" sorcerer ec eens 33.13 Diamond Coating The properties of diamond char are relevant to manufacturing engineering were described in Section 8.7. Important advances have been made in diamond coating of metals, glass, ceramics, and plastics, using various chemical and plasma-assisted vapor deposition processes and ion-beam enhanced deposition techniques. Techniques have also been developed to produce free-standing diamond films on the order of 1 mm (0.040 in.) thick and up to 125 mm (5 in.) in diameter, including smooth and optically clear diamond film (unlike the hazy gray diamond film formerly produced). Devel- opment of these techniques, combined with important properties of diamond sach as hardness, wear resistance, high thermal conductivity, and transparency to ultraviolet light and microwave frequencies, have enabled the production of various aerospace and electronic parts and components. Examples of diamond-coated products are scratchproof windows (such as for air- crafcand missile sensors to procect against sandstorms), sunglasses, cutting taols (such as drills and end mills), calipers, surgical knives, razors, electronic and infrared heat seekers and sensors, light-emitting diodes, diamond-coated speakers for stereo sys- tems, turbine blades, and fuel-injection nozzles. Studies are continuing on growing diamond films on crystalline copper substrate by implantation of carbon ions. Ax important application is in making computer chips. Diamond can be doped to form po and n-type ends on semiconductors to make transistors (see Chapter 34), and its high thermal conductivity allows closer packing of chips than silicon or gallium- arsenide chips, thus significantly increasing the speed of computers.1006 33 + Surface Treatment, Coating, and Cleaning tai Dip tins FIGURE 33.10 Conveyor Abi Paint outlet Bivctrostatic paint pray; ‘Methods of paint application: (a) dip coating, (b) flow coating, and (c} electrostatic spraying. Source: Society of Manu- facturing Engineers. 33.14 Painting Because ofits decorative and functional properties (such as environmental protection), low cost, relative ease of application, and the range of available colors, paint is widely cused asa surface coating. Engineering applications of painting range from all types of machinery to automobile bodies. Paints are classified as enamels, which produce a smooth coat and dry with a glossy or semiglossy appearance; lacquers, which form a film by evaporation of a solvent; and water-base paints, which are easily applied, but have a porous surface, absorb water, and are not as easily cleaned as other paints. Paints are now available with good resistance to abrasion, fading, and temperature extremes; they are easy to apply and dry quickly. Selection of a particular paint depends on specific requirements. Among these are resistance to mechanical actions (abrasion, marring, impact, and flexing) or to chemi- cal actions (acids, solvents, detergents, alkalis, fuels, staining, and general environmen- tal attack). Common methods of applying paint are dipping, brushing, and spraying (Fig. 33.10). In electrocoating or electrostatic spraying, paint particles are charged electrostatically and are attracted to the workpiece surfaces, producing 2 uniformly adherent coating, Unlike conventional spraying, in which as much as 70 percent of the paint may be lost, in electrostatic spraying the loss can be as low as 10 percent. How- ever, deep recesses and corners are difficult o coat by this method.jing Surtaces, 1007 i 33.15 surface Texturing As seen throughout the preceding chapters, each manufacturing process, such as cast- ing, forging, powder metallurgy, injection molding, machining, grinding, polishing, electrical-discharge machining, grit blasting, and wire brushing, produces a certain surface texture and appearance. Obviously some of these processes can be used to modify the surface produced by a previous process; for example, grinding some sur- faces of a cast part. However, manufactured surfaces can further be modified by see- ondary operations for technical, functional, optical, or aesthetic reasons. Called surface texturing, these additional processes generally consist of (a) etch- ing, using chemicals or sputtering techniques, (b) electric acs, and (c) atomic oxygen, which reacts with surfaces and produces fine conelike surface textures. The possible adverse effects of any of these processes on material properties and performance should be considered. ne 33.16 Cleaning Surfaces We have stressed the importance of surfaces and the influence of deposited or adsorbed layers of various elements and contaminants on surfaces. A clean surface can have both beneficial and detrimental effects. Although an unclean surface may reduce the ten- dency for adhesion and galling, in general cleanliness is essential for more effective application of metalworking fluids, coating and painting, adhesive bonding, welding, brazing, soldering, reliable functioning of manufactured pars in machinery, food and beverage containers, storage, and assembly operations. Cleaning involves removal of solid, semisolid, or liquid contaminants from a sur- face, and it is an important part of manufacturing operations and the economics of production. The word clean, or the degree of cleanliness of a surface, is somewhat difficult to define, How, for example, would you test the cleanliness of a fork or dinner plate? Two simple and common tests are based on: + Wiping with a clean cloth and observing any residues on the cloth, as we all have done at one time or another. + Observing whether water continuously coats the surface. If water collects as indi- Vidual droplets, the surface is not cleaa (woaterbreak test). Test this phenomenon yourself by wetting dinner plates that have been cleaned to varying degrees. The type of cleaning process required depends on the type of contaminants to be removed. Contaminants, also called soils, may consist of rust, scale, chips and other1008 33 + Surtace Tr stment, Coating, and Cleaning metallic and nonmetallic debris, metalworking fluids, solid lubricants, pigments, pol- ishing and lapping compounds, and general environmental elements. Cleaning processes. Basically there are two types of cleaning methods: mechani- cal and chemical. Mechanical cleaning methods consist of physically disturbing the contaminants, as with wire or fiber brashing, dry or wet abrasive blasting, tumbling, and steam jets, Many of these processes are particularly effective in removing rust, scale, and other solid contaminants, Ulirasonic cleaning may also be placed in this category. Chemical cleaning usually involves the removal of oil and grease from surfaces. Ic consists of one or more of the following processes * Solution. The soil dissolves in the cleaning solution, + Saponification. A chemical reaction that converts animal or vegetable oils into a soap that is soluble in water. + Emulsification. The cleaning solution reacts with the soil or lubricant deposits and forms an emulsion. The soil and the emulsifier then become suspended in the emulsion. + Dispersion. The concentration of soil on the surface is decreased by surface-active materials in che cleaning solution. + Aggregation. Lubricants are removed from the surface by various agents in the cleaner and collect as large dirt particles. Some common cleaning fluids are used in conjunction with electrochemical pro- cesses for more effective cleaning. These fluids include: + Alkaline solutions axe a complex combination of water-soluble chemicals, They are the least expensive and most widely used in manufacturing operations. Small pparts may be cleaned in rotating drums or barrels. Most parts are cleaned on con- tinuous conveyors by spraying them with the solution and then rinsing them with water. + Emulsions generally consist of kerosene and cil in water and various types of emulsifiers. + The most common solvents are petroleum solvents, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and mineral spirits. Solvents are generally used for short runs; fire and toxicity are major hazards. + Parts are subjected to hot vapors of chlorinated solvents to remove oil, greases, and wax. The solvent is boiled in a container and then condensed. The process is simple and the cleaned parts are dry. + Various acids, salts, and organic compound mixtures are effective in cleaning parts covered with heavy paste or oily deposits and rust.Key Terms 1009 Cleaning discrete parts having complex shapes can be difficult. Design engineers should be aware of this difficulty and provide alrernative designs, such as avoiding deep blind holes, making several smaller components instead of one large component, that may be difficult to clean, and providing appropriate drain holes in the part to be cleaned. ‘The proper treatment and disposal of cleaning fluids, as well as the vatious fluids and waste materials from the processes described in this chapter, are among important, considerations for environmentally safe manufacturing operations. These factors are described in greater detail in Section 37.4. SUMMARY Surface tceatment is an important aspect of all manu- facturing processes. Itis used to impart certain physi- cal and mechanical properties, such as appearance and corrosion, friction, wear, and fatigue resistance. Sev- eral techniques are availabie for modifying surfaces. They include mechanical working and coating of sur- faces, heat treatment, deposition, plating, and coatings such as enamels, nonmetallic materials, and paints, TRENDS + The structure and properties of coatings, bonding to the substrate, surface preparation and modifica tion, porosity and coating densification, and coat- ing integrity are major areas of study. + Spalling or delamination of diamond films and their thickness limitation are also important areas of study. © Techniques are being developed to coat various metallic and nonmetallic materials with diamond, as well as preparing diamond film. KEY TERMS Anodizing Blackening Cladding Case hardening. Cleaning fluids Chemical cleaning Chemical vapor deposition Conversion coating Clean surfaces are important to further process- ing and use of the product, such as in coating, paint- ing, and welding. Cleaning can have a significant economic impact on manufacturing operations. Vari ous mechanical and chemical cleaning methods may be utilized. + Recently developed is a hybrid coating technique called dual ion-beam assisted (or enhanced) depo- sition, which combines physical vapor deposition with simultaneous ion-beam bombardment, with good adhesion on metals, ceramics, and ‘poly- ‘mers. Ceramic bearings and dental instruments are examples of applications of this technique. ‘+ Chemical vapor deposition is being modified incor- porating a fluidized bed, using powder; pares with various shapes and with close dimensional control have been fabricated by this method, Diffusion coating Electroforming Electroless plating Electroplating1010 Enameling Mechanical plating Explosive hardening Painting Glazing Physical vapor deposition Hoard facing Porcelain enamel Hos dipping Ion implantation BIBLIOGRAPHY ASM Handbook, Vol. 5: Susface Cleaning, Finishing, and Coating. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM Inter- nacional, 1994. Banov, A. (ed.), Paints and Coatings Handbook. New ‘York: McGraw-Hill, 982 Bhushan, B., and B.K. Gupta, Handbook of Tribol- ogy" Materials, Coatings, and Surface Treatments, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991 Bunshah,R.F, etal., Deposition Teelmologies for Fibs and Coatings Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publies- tions, 1982, Dennis, J. K, and T. E. Such, Nickel and Chromim Plating, 3c ed. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM Inter~ national, 1993. REVIEW QUESTIONS 33.1 Explain why susface treatmentof manufactured products may be necessary. ‘What are the advantages of cladding? Explain the difference berween ease hardening and hard facing State why you might want to coat parts with ceramics. Explain the principles of physical and cheini- cal vapor deposition. What applications do they have? What is doping? Why is it used? 332 333 BA 35 33.6 QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS 33.13 Explain how roller burnishing processes induce residual stresses on the surfaces of parts Roiler burnishing 33 + Surface Treatment, Coating, and Cleaning Shot peening Sputtering Surface cesturing ‘Thermal spraving Vapor deposition Nachtman, E. S., aud S. Kalpakjian, Lubricants and Lubrication in Metalworking Operations. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1935, Peterson, M. B., and W. O. Winer (eds.}, Wear Cons trol Handbook. New York: ASME, 1980, Schey, J. A., Tribology in Metalworking—Friction, Lubrication and Wear. Metals Park, Ohio: Amev- ican Society for Metals, 1983. Tootand Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, Athed., Vol. 3: Materials, Finishing and Costing. Dear bors, Mich. Society of Manufactuting Engineers, 1985: 33.7, What is the principie of electeoforming? What are its advantages? 33.8 Explain the difference becween electroplating and clectroless plating 33.9 How is hot dipping performed? 33.10 What is an air knife? 33.11 What tests are there to determine the cleanli- ness of surfaces? 33.12 Explain the common methods of cleaning and the solutions used for manufactured produezs, 33.14 Explain the principles involved in various tech- niques for application of paicts.33.15 Give examples of part designs that are suitable for hot-dip galvanizing, 33.16 Repeat Question 33.15, but for cleaning. 33.17 Refer co Table 33.1 and name two surface treatment processes chat are the most common, Why are they common? 33.18 Give some applications of mechanical surface treatment. 33.19 Te has been observed in practice chat a thin layer of chrome plating, such as on older-model automobile bumpers, is better than a thick layer. Explain why, considering the effect of (eee eeraee me QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS 33.22 You can simulate the shot peening process by using a ball-peen hammer (in which one of the heads is round). Using such a hamaser, make numerous indentations on the surface ofa piece of (a) 2-mm and (b) 10mm thick alumiauin plate, respectively, placed ona flat mecal surface such as an anvil, You will note that both pieces Synthesis and Design 1014 thickness on eracking cendency ancl the resule= ing corvosion 33.20 As we know, coatings may be removed or deplesed during the service life of coated com ponents, particularly ar elevated temperatures, Describe the fzctors involved in the steength of coatings and their durability 33.21 Because they evaporate, cleaning solutions suck as solvents have adverse environmental effects, Describe your thoughts ox what modifications could be made to make clesaing solutions more environmentally friendly. will develop curvatures, but in different direc- tions, Le. concave and convex. Describe your observations and explain the results. 33.23 How would you go about estimating the forces required for roller burnishing? Give a specific numerical example. SYNTHESIS AND DESIGN 33.24 Which surface treatments are functional and which are decorative? Name some that serve both functions. 33.25 List several applications of coated sheet metal. 33.26 Outline the reasons why the topics discussed in this chapter are important in manufacturing processes and operations. 33.27 List several products or components that could aot be niade property, or function effectively in service, without implementing che knowledge involved in this chapter. 33.28 Write a brief paper on which the processes described in this chapter are used in improving the corrosion resistance of an automobile 33.29 Solar energy is being used as an energy source for surface hardening and post-treatment of coatings and films. Maka sketch of an installa- tion that could use solar energy for this purpose. 33.30 Based on the information given in this chapter, make a comprehensive table summarizing the characteristics and applications of surface ereat- ‘ment and coating techniques. 33.31 Obtain several metal pieces, parts, components, cic. and perform the waterbreak test on them (Gee Section 33.16). Then clean the surfaces using various clesning fluids and repeat the test. Describe your observations. 33:32 Make a survey of available literature and pre- pare a brief report on the environmental con= siderations regarding the processes described in this chapter.Fabrication of Microelectronic Devices by Kent M. Kalpakjian 34.1 Introduction 34.7 Etching 34,2 Semiconductors and Silicon 34.8 Diffusion and lon Implantation 34.3 Crystal Growing and Wafer 34,9 Metallization and Testing Preparation 34.10 Bonding and Packaging 34.4 Film Deposition 34.11 Reliability and Yield 34.5 Oxidation 34.12 Printed Circuit Boards 34.6 Lithography 34,1 1012 Introduction Although semiconducting materials have been used in electronics since the early decades of this century, it was the invention of the transistor in 1948 that set the stage for what would become one of the greatest technological advancements in all of his- tory. Microelectronics has played an ever-increasing role in our lives since integrated circuit (IC) technology became the foundation for calculators, wrist watches, control of home appliances, information systems, telecommunications, automotive control, robotics, space travel, military weaponry, and personal computers. The major advantage of today’s ICs is their reduced size and cost. As fabrication technology becomes more advanced, the size of devices decreases. Consequently, more components can be put onto 2 chip (a small slice of semiconducting material on which the circuit is fabricated), thereby reducing cost. In addition, mass processing {also known as batch processing) and process automation have helped to reduce the cast of each completed circuit. The components fabricated include transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors. Typical chip sizes produced today range from 3 mm % 3 mm 10 20 mm X 20 mm. In the past no more than 100 devices could be fabricated on a single chip, but technology now allows densities in hundreds of thousands of devices per chip (Fig, 34.1). This scale of integration has been termed very large scale inte-34.2 Semiconductors and Silicon 1013 Die photograph of Cypress Semiconductor's 1 Megabit Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) ‘The chip measuras 10.3 mm x 3.7 mm (0.407 in. x 0.148 in.) and can access any one of its ond mitlion data cells in less than 12 nanoseconds. The chip contains over 6 million transistors with a minimum feature size of 0.8 microns. Source: Cypress Semiconductar Corporation, gration (VLSI). Some of the most advanced ICs may contain more than 10 million devices, Because of the minute scale of microelectronic devices, al] fabrication must take place in an extremely clean environment, Clean rooms are used for this purpose and are given ratings that refer to the maximum number of 0.5-im particles per cubic foot. ‘These ratings range from 10,000 down to 10—or even to 1 in some of the most advanced fabrication facilities. For comparison, the dust level in modern hospitals is on the order of 10,000 particles per cubic foot. This chapter describes the current processes used in fabricating microelectronic devices and integrated circuits, following the outline shown in Fig, 34,2. The major steps in fabricating a metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor, or MOSFET, which is one of the dominant devices used in IC technology, are shown in Fig. 34. ‘This chapter will first introduce you to the basic properties of semiconductors and the material properties of silicon, followed by a discussion of each of the major fabrica- tion steps. Finally, you'll learn about trends and expectations of the microelectronics industry. en rere 34.2 semiconductors and Silicon ‘As the name suggests, semiconductor materials have electrical properties that lie between those of conductors and insulators and exhibit resistivities between 10-2 Q-cm and 10* Q-cm. Semiconductors have become the foundation for electronic devicesSingle-crystal ee cousin I Wate | Sion N\ * soe r—-{ Oxidston Fi deposition it ted e Pe e Mask, Lithography Metaliization 3 H Bailden i : | ___fBtching Le Potysilicon | (89 TT SS. ‘a Phosphorus or arsenic Bonding —1 Pockaging I "Posting FIGURE 3¢ General fabrication sequence for integrated ircuits. FIGURE Cross-sectional views of the fabrication of a MOS transistor. Source: R. C. Jaeger. 1014343 Crystal Growing and Water Preparation 1015 because their electrical properties can be altered by adding controlled amounts of selected impurity atoms into their crystal structures. These impurity atoms, also known as dopants, either have one more valence electron (n-type dopant) or one less valence electron (p-type dopant) than the atoms in the semiconductor lattice, where n and p refer to negative and positive. For silicon, which is a group IV element, typical n-type and p-type dopants include phosphorus (group V) and boron (group IID), respectively. The electrical operation of semiconductor devices is controlled by creat- ing regions of different doping types and concentrations. Although the earliest electronic devices were fabricated on germanium, silicon has without a doubt become the industry standard. The abundance of silicon in its alter- native forms is second only to that of oxygen, making it economically attractive. Sili- con’s main advantage over germanium is its larger energy gap (1.1 eV) compared to that of germanium (0.66 eV). This allows silicon-based devices to operate at tempera- tures 150 °C (270 °F) higher than devices fabricated on germanium (~100 °C; 180 °F). Silicon’s important processing advantage is that its oxide, silicon dioxide, is an excellent insulator and is used for isolation and passivation purposes. Conversely, ger- manium oxide is water soluble and unsuitable for electronic devices. However, silicon has some limitations, which has encouraged the development of compound semiconductors. The most advanced and researched compound semicon- ductor to date is gallium arsenide. Its major advantage over silicon is its capability for light emission (allowing fabrication of devices such as lasers and light-emitting diodes, LEDs), in addition to having a larger energy gap (1.43 eV) and therefore a higher maximum operating temperature (=200 °C; 400 °F), Devices fabricated on gallium arsenide also have much higher operating speeds than those on silicon. Some of gal- lium arsenide’s disadvantages include its considerably higher cost, greater processing complications, and the difficulty of growing high-quality oxide layers, the need for 34.3 Crystal Growing and Wafer Preparation Silicon occurs naturally in the forms of silicon dioxide and various silicates. They must undergo 2 series of purification steps in order to become the high-quality, defect-free, and single-crystal material needed for semiconductor device fabrication. The process begins by heating silica and carbon together in an electric furnace, resulting in 95- to ‘98-percent pure polycrystalline silicon. This material is converted to an alternative form, commonly trichlorosilane, which in turn is purified and decomposed in a high- temperature hydrogen atmosphere. The resultis an extremely high-quality electronic- grade silicon (EGS). Single-crystal silicon is almost always obtained by using the Czochralski process. ‘This method utilizes a seed crystal that is dipped into a silicon melt and then slowly pulled out while being rotated (see Fig. 11.32a). At this point, controlled amounts of1616 34 + Fabrication of Microelectronic Devices impurities can be added to the system to obtain a uniformly doped crystal. Typical pull rates are on the order of 10 m/s. The result of this growing technique is a cylin- drical single-crystal ingot, typically 50-200 mm (2-8 in.) in diameter and over 1 m (40 in.) in length. Unfortunately, this technique does not allow exact control of the ingot diameter. Therefore, ingots are commonly grown a few millimerers larger than required and thea ground to a precise diameter. Next, the crystal is sliced into individual wafers by using an inner diamever blade. Tn this method a rotating blade with its cutting edge on the inner ring is utilized. While the depth needed for most electronics devices is no more than several microns, wafers are cut to a thickness of about 0.5 mm (0.02 in.), This thickness provides the necessary physical support to absorb temperature changes and strains during subsequent fabri- cation. One concern about the process is wastage. Since typical blade thicknesses range from 250 to 300 microns, approximately one-third of the silicon crystal is wasted as sawdust in the wafer-cutting process. Finally, the wafers must be polished and cleaned to remove surface damage caused by the cutting process. Device fabrication takes place over the entire wafer surface, and many identical circuits are generated at the same time, Because of decreasing device sizes and larger wafer diameters, hundreds of individual circuits can be put on one wafer. Once pro- cessing is finished, the wafer is sliced into individual “chips,” each containing one complete integrated circuit. 34.4 Film Deposition Films of many different types, particularly insulating and conducting types, are used extensively in microelectronic device processing. Common deposition films include polysilicon, silicon nitride, silicon dioxide, and conductive metals, In some instances, the wafers serve merely as a mechanical support on which custom layers are grown, The devices are then fabricated on the layers. The advantages of processing on these deposited films (instead of the actual wafers) include fewer impurities (notably carbon and oxygen), improved device performance, and tailored material properties not obtainable on the wafers themselves. Some of the major functions of deposited films are masking for, diffusion or implants and protection of the semiconductor surface. In masking applications, the film must effectively inhibie the passage of dopants while also displaying an ability to be etched into patterns of high resolution. Upon completion of device fabrication, films are applied to protect the underlying circuitry. Films used for masking and pro- tection include silicon dioxide, phosphosilicate glass (PSG), and silicon nitride, Each of these materials has distinct advantages, and they are often used in combination. Other films contain dopant impurities and are used as doping sources for the underlying substrate. Conductive films are used primarily for device interconnection. These films must be highly conductive, capable of carrying large currents, and able to34.4 Film Deposition 1017 connect to terminal packaging leads while maintaining their physical integrity. Gen- erally, gold and aluminum are used for this purpose. Increasing circuit complexity has required multiple levels of conductive layers, which must be separated by insulating films Films may be deposited by a number of techniques, which involve a variety of pressures, temperatures, and vacuum systems. One of the simplest and oldest methods is evaporation, which is used primarily for depositing metal films. In this process the metal is heated to its point of vaporization in a vacuum. Upon evaporation, the metal forms a thin layer on the substrate surface. The heat of evaporation is usually provided by a heating filament or electron beam. Another method of depositing metals is sputtering and involves bombarding a target with high-energy ions, usually argon (Ar*), in a vacuum, Sputtering systems usually include a de power source to obtain the energized ions. As the ions impinge ‘on the target, atoms are knocked off and subsequently deposited on wafers mounted within the system. Although some argon may be trapped within the film, this tech- nique provides very uniform coverage. Advances in this field include using a radio- frequency power source (RF sputtering) and introducing magnetic fields (magnetron sputtering). In one of the most common techniques, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), film deposition is achieved by the reaction and/or decomposition of gaseous compounds (see Section 33.5). Using this technique, silicon dioxide is routinely deposited by the oxidation of silane or a chlorosilane. Figure 34.4a shows a continuous CVD reactor that operates at atmospheric pressure. A similar method that operates at lower pres- sures, referred to as low-pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD), is shown in Fig. 34.4b. Capable of coating hundreds of wafers at a time, this method has a much higher production rate than atmospheric-pressure CVD and provides superior film uniformity with less consumption of carrier gases, This technique is commonly used aw Wafers ‘dezone Furnace fe — Pump FIGURE 34.4 ‘Schematic diagrams of (a) continuous, atmospheric-pressure CVD reactor and (b} low-pressure CVD. Source: S. M. Sze.1018 34 + Fabrication of Microelectronic Devices for depositing polysilicon, silicon nitride, and silicon dioxide. Plasma-enhanced chemi- cal vapor deposition (PECVD) involves placing wafers in an RF plasma containing the source gases and offers the advantage of maintaining low wafer temperature during deposition. Other deposition methods are categorized as epitaxy, in which the crystalline layer is formed using the substrate as a seed crystal, This is a very common method for growing layers of silicon. If the silicon is deposited from the gaseous phase, the process is known as vapor-phase epitaxy (VPE). In another variation, the heated sub- strate is brought into contact with a liquid solution containing the material to be deposited (liquid-phase epttaxy, or LPE). Another high-vacuum process utilizes evapo- ration to produce a thermal beam of molecules that deposit on the heated substrate This process, called molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), offers a very high degree of purity. In addition, since the films are grown one atomic layer at a time, excellent control of doping profiles is achieved, which is especially important in gallium arse- nide technology. Unfortunately, MBE suffers from relatively low growth rates and a lower production rate than other conventional film-deposition techniques, Recall that the term oxidation refers to the growth of an oxide layer by the reaction of ‘oxygen with the substrate material. Oxide films can also be formed by the previously described deposition techniques. The thermally grown oxides described in this section display a higher level of purity than deposited oxides because they are grown directly from the high-quality substrate, However, deposition methods must be used if the composition of the desired film is different from that of the substrate material. Silicon dioxide is the most widely used oxide in IC technology today, and its excellent char- acteristics are one of the major reasons for the widespread use of silicon. In addition to its functions of dopant masking, device isolation, and surface passivation, silicon dioxide is even used as an actual device component in some technologies. Silicon surfaces have an extremely high affinity for oxygen, and a freshly sawed slice of silicon will instantly acquire a thin layer of oxide no more than 40 A thick. Modern IC technology requires oxide thicknesses in the hundreds and thousands of angstroms. Dry oxidation is a relatively simple process and is accomplished by elevat- ing the substrate temperature typically to 900-1200 °C (1650-2200 °E), in an oxygen- rich environment. Asa layer of oxide forms, the oxidizing agents must be able to pass through the oxide and reach the silicon surface where the actual reaction takes place. Thus an oxide layer does not continue to grow on top of itself, but rather it grows from the silicon surface outward. Some of the silicon substrate is consumed in the oxidation process (Fig. 34.5), The ratio of oxide thickness to amount of silicon consumed is found to be 20.44. For example, to obtain an oxide layer 1000 A thick, roughly 440 A of silicon34.6 Lithography 1019 iO, surface FIGURE 345 oo Growth of silicon dioxide, showing consumption of silicon. Source: S. M. Sze. will be consumed. This does not present a problem, as substrates are always grown sufficiently thick. One important effect of this consumption of silicon is the rearrange- ment of dopants in the substrate near the interface, As different impurities have differ- ent mobilities in silicon dioxide, some dopants deplete away from the oxide interface while others pile up, and processing parameters have to be adjusted to compensate for this effect. Another oxidizing technique utilizes a water-vapor atmosphere as the agent and is appropriately called wet oxidation. This method offers « considerably higher growth rate than that of dry oxidation, but it suffers from a lower oxide density and therefore a lower dielectric strength. Common practice is to combine both dry and wer oxida- tion methods, growing an oxide in a three-part layer: dry, wet, dry. This approach combines the advantages of wet oxidation’s much higher growth rate and dry oxida- tion’s high quality. ‘These oxidation methods are useful primarily for coating the entire silicon surface with oxide, but itis also necessary to oxidize only certain portions of the substrate surface, This procedure is termed selective oxidation and uses silicon nitride, which inhibits the passage of oxygen and water vapor. Thus by masking certain areas with silicon nitride, the silicon under these areas remains unaffected while the uncovered areas are oxidized. 34.6 Lithography Lithography is the process by which the geometric patterns that define the devices are transferred from a mask to the substrate surface. In current practice, the lithographic process is applied to microelectronic circuits several times, cach time using 2 differ- ent mask to define the different areas of the working devices. Typically designed at 100-2000 times their final size, mask patterns then go through a series of reductions before being applied to a permanent glass plate. Computer-aided design (CAD) has1020 34 + Fabrication of Microelectronic Devices had a major impact on mask design and generation. Cleanliness is especially important in lithography, and many manufacturers are turning to robotics and specialized wafer~ handling apparatus in order to minimize dust and dirt contamination. Once the film deposition process is completed and the desired masking patterns have been generated, the wafer is cleaned and coated with an emulsion, called photo- resist (PR), which is sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) light. Photoresist layers of 0.5- 2.5 um (20-100 in.) thick are obtained by applying the PR to the substrate in liquid form and then spinning it at several thousand rpm for 30 or 60 seconds o give uniform coverage. “The next step in lithography is prebaking the wafer to remove the solvent from the PR and harden it. This step is carried out in an oven at around 100 °C for 10-30 min, The wafer is then aligned under the desited mask in a mask aligner. In this crucial step, called registration, the mask must be aligned correctly with the previous layer on the wafer. Once the wafer and mask are aligned, they are subjected to UV radiation. Upon development and removal of the exposed PR, a duplicate mask pat- tern will appear in the PR layer. Following the exposure and development sequence, postbaking the wafer tough- ‘ens and improves the adhesion of the remaining resist. In addition, a deep UV treat- ment (baking the wafer to 150-200 °C in ultraviolet light) can also be used to further toughen the resist against high-energy implants and dry etches. The underlying film not covered by the PR is then etched away (Section 34.7). Finally, the PR is stripped by dipping the wafer in a solvent solution (Fig, 34.6). The lithography process may be repeated as many as 25 times in the fabrication of the most advanced ICs. ‘One of the major issues in the area of lithography is linewidth, which refers to the width of the smallest feature obtainable on the silicon surface. As circuit densities have escalated over the years, device sizes and features have become smaller and smaller. Today, imum commercially feasible linewidths are 0.5 xm (20 pin.), but a @ (UV raiatin =) Fae thee Develpedinag sore elopedioage SiQz ‘Photomask CL Fé gS () SOaere aw) FIGURE SSS Pattern transfer by lithography. Source: After W. C. Till and J.T. Luxon, Photoresist removed347 Etching 1027 considerable research is being done concerning 0.35 um structures. However, pattern resolution —and therefore device miniaturization—is limited by the wavelength of the radiation source used. Thus the need has arisen to move to wavelengths shorter than those in the ultraviolet range. This problem has been solved through the use of shorter or “deep” UV wavelengths, electron beams, and x-rays. In these technologies, the photoresist is replaced by a similar resist that is sensitive to a specific range of shorter wavelengths. ce 34.7 Etching Etching is the process by which entire films or particular sections of films are removed, and it plays an important role in the fabrication sequence, One of the most important criteria in choosing an etchant s its selectivity, which refers to its ability to etch one material without etching another. In silicon technology, an etching process must effectively etch the silicon dioxide layer with minimal removal of the underlying silicon or the resist material. In addition, polysilicon and metals must be etched into high-resolution lines with vertical wall profiles and with minimal removal of the underlying insulating film. Typical etch rates range from hundreds to several thou- sands of angstroms per minute, and selectivities (defined 2s the ratio of the etch rates of the two films) can range from 1:1 to 100:1. One method involves immersing the wafers in a liquid solution (wet etching). If silicon dioxide is to be etched, this solution contains hydrofluoric acid, which etches silicon very slowly. The main drawback of this etching technique is that it is isottopic, meaning that the etch occurs equally in all directions. This condition leads to undercutting (Fig. 34.72), which in turn prohibits the transfer of very high resolu- tion patterns. The solution to this problem is dry etching, which involves the use of chemical reactants in a low-pressure system. In contrast to the wet process, dry etching has a high degree of directionality, resulting in highly anisotropic etches (Fig. 34.7b). The dry process also requires only small amounts of the reactant gases, whereas the aque- ‘ous solutions used in the wet process need to be refreshed periodically. However, a ay Resist] Teast) FIGURES] —— OZ OLA Etching profiles resulting from {a} isotropic wet etching and (b) si s anisotropic dry etching. Source: RC. Jasger.1022 34 + Fabrication of Microelectronic Devices complete dry-etching system can cost in excess of one million dollars. The most widely used dry-etching techniques include sputier etching, which removes material by bombarding it with noble gas ions, usually Ar*, and plasma etching, which utilizes a gaseous plasma of chlorine or fluorine ions generated by RF excitation. Reactive ion etching combines these two processes, using both momentum transfer and chemical reaction to remove material. 34.8 Diffusion and ton Implantation We should mention again that the electrical operation of microelectronic devices depends on regions of different doping types and concentrations. The electrical char- acter of these regions is altered by introducing dopants into the substrate, accom- plished by the diffusion and ion implantation processes. This step in the fabrication sequence is repeated several times, since many different regions of microelectronic devices must be defined. In the diffusion process, the movement of atoms results from thermal excitation. Dopants can be introduced to the substrate surface in the form of a deposited film, or the substrate can be placed in a vapor containing the dopant source. The process takes place at elevated temperatures, usually 800-1200 °C (1500-2200 °F). Dopant move- ment within the substrate is strictly a function of temperature, time, and the diffusion coefficient (or diffusivity) of the dopant species, 2s well as the type and quality of the substrate material Because of the nature of diffusion, the dopant concentration is very high at the substrate surface and drops off sharply away from the surface. To obtain a more uni- form concentration within the substrate, the wafer is heated further to drive in the dopants, a process called drive-in diffusion. The fact that diffusion, desired or unde- sired, will always occur at high temperatures is always taken into account during sub- sequent processing steps. Although the diffusion process is relatively inexpensive, i is highly isotropic, Ton implantation is a much more extensive process and requires specialized equipment (Fig. 34.8). Implantation is accomplished by accelerating ions through a high-voltage field of as much as one million electron-volts and then choosing the desired dopant by means of a mass separator. In a manner similar to that in cathode ray tubes, the beam is swept across the wafer by sets of deflection plates, chus ensuring uniform coverage of the substrate. The complete implantation system must be oper- aced in a vacuum. ‘The high-velocity impact of ions on the silicon surface damages the lattice struc- ture, resulting in lower electron mobilities. This condition is undesirable, but the dam- age can be fixed somewhat by an annealing step, which involves heating the substrate to relatively low temperatures, usually 400-800 °C (750-1500 °F), for 15-30 min. This provides the energy that the silicon lattice needs to rearrange and mend itself.34.8 Diffusion and Ion Implantation 1023 Aperture ‘Mass separator lonbeam ‘Target Acoele 7 Jon ‘seule fo.) 2 inexing xy beam GUESS —2— aetecor Apparatus for ion implantation Waters Source: J. A. Schey. Another impostant function of annealing is to drive in the implanted dopants. Implan- tation alone imbeds the dopants less chan half a micron below the silicon surface, and the annealing step enables the dopants to diffuse to 2 more desicable depth of a few microns, © Example: Processing of a p-type region in n-type silicon —_———_—_s—— Imagine you wished to create a p-type region within a sample of n-type silicon. Draw cross-sections of the sample at each processing step in order to accomplish this (see Fig. 34.9). SOLUTION Cross-Section Description a) CD abe ‘Sample of ntype silicon b) pee Grow silicon dioxide by oxidation e il Apply photoresist. resist a UY Light Expose photoresist using appropriate [ lithographic mask. Mask FIGURE 34.9 (continued)1024 34 + Fabrication af Microolectronic Devices Cross-Section Description e) pPeactaaed Develop photoresist. pa - Etch silicon dioxide. 3 a Remove photoresist 1 Imalant boron, Va 7 h Ramove soon dioxide Pe n FIGURE 24. (continued) This simple device is known as a pn junction diode, and the physics of its operation is the foundation for most semiconductor devices. . 34.9 Metallization and Testing The preceding sections focused only on device fabrication. However, generating a complete and functional integrated circuit requires these devices to be intercon- nected. Interconnections are made by metals that exhibit low electrical resistance and good adhesion to dielectric insulator surfaces. Aluminum and aluminum-slicon- copper alloys arc the materials commonly used for this purpose in VLSI technology today. However, as device dimensions continue to shrink and circuit geomexties get tighter, aluminum has begun to exhibit poor step coverage over very extreme topog- raphies. This has prompted manufacturers to use tungsten, which displays excellent step coverage. The metal is deposited by standard deposition techniques, and interconnection patterns are generated by lithographic and etching processes. Modern ICs can typi-34.9 Metallization and Testing 1025 ow Via Second-ievei meta ULE LEP rr Go Ww S10: Gooy Cmtteel 0, FIGURE 34.10 {a) Scanning electron microscope photograph of a two-level metal interconnect. Note the varying surface topogra- phy, Source: National Semiconductor Corporation. (b) Schematic drawing of a two-level metal interconnect struc- ture. Source: R. C. Jaeger. cally have one to four layers of metallization, in which case each layer of metal is insulated by a dielectric. Layers of metal are connected together by vias and access to the devices on the substrate is achieved through contacts (Fig, 34.10). In recent years, as devices have become smaller and faster, the size and speed of some chips have become dominated by the metallization. ‘Wafer processing is complete upon application of a passivation layer, and the next step is to test each of the individual circuits on the wafer. Each chip, also referred to as. die, is tested with a computer-controlled probe platform chat contains needlelike probes to access the aluminum pads on the die. The platform steps across the wafer, testing whether each circuit functions properly with compucer-generated simulations. If a defective chip is encountered, it is marked with a drop of ink. After completion of this preliminary testing, each die is separated from the wafer. Diamond sawing is a commonly used separation technique and results in very straight edges, with minimal chipping and cracking damage. Another method cuts the waler only partially and then separates the chips by applying pressure to the scribed lines, which crack and break slong the crystallographic planes of the crystal. The chips are then sorted, with those damaged during sawing and those with ink dots being discarded.1026 34.18 Bonding and Packaging 34» Fabrication of Microelectronic De ‘The working dice must be attiched to a more rugged foundation to ensure reliability. One simple method is to fasten a dic to its packaging material with an epoxy cement. Another method uses a eutectic bond, made by heating metal-alloy systems. One widely used mixture is 96.4 percent gold and 3.6 percent silicon, which has a eutectic point at 370°C (700 °F). When the chip has been attached to the substrate, it must be accessible to electrical connections from the package feads. Bonding pads are located around the perimeter of the die and are typically 100-125 jm {0.004—-0.005 in.) on a side. The most widely used method of attaching these pads is by wire bonding, which utilizes very thin (25 um diameter; 0.001 in.) gold or aluminum wire. The pads are attached by thermo- compression, ultrasonic, ot thermosonic techniques. ‘The connected circuit is now ready for final packaging. The packaging process largely determines the overall cost of each completed IC, since the circuits are mass produced on the wafer but then packaged individually. Packages are available in a variery of styles, and selecting the appropriate one must reflect operating require- ments. Consideration of a circuit's package includes chip size, number of external leads, operating environment, heat dissipation, and power requirements. For example, ICs that are used for military and industrial applications need packages of particularly high strength, toughness, and temperature resistance. The most common style used today is the dual-in-line package (DIP), shown schematically in Fig. 34.114, Characterized by low cost and ease of handling, DIP packages are made of thermoplastic, epoxy, or ceramic and can have from 2 to 500 external leads, Ceramic packages are designed for use over a broader temperature range and in high-reliability and high-performance situations, although they are con- siderably more expensive than plastic packages. Figure 34.11b shows a flat ceramic package in which the package and all the leads are in the same plane. This package style docs not offer the ease of handling or the modular design of the DIP package. Thus it is usually permanently affixed to a multiple-level circuit board in which the low profile of the flat pack is necessary. ‘After the chip has been sealed in the package, it undergoes final testing, Because one of the main purposes of packaging is isolation from the environment, testing at this stage usually encompasses heat, humidity, mechanical shock, corrosion, and vibration. Destructive tests are also performed to investigate the effectiveness of sealing, 34.11 Reliability and Vield The major concern about completed ICs is their reliability and failure rate, since no device has an infinite lifetime. Statistical methods are used to characterize the expected. lifetimes and failure rates of microelectronic devices. The unit for failure rate is the34.11 Reliability and Viole 1027 FIGURES {a) A micrometer being used to measure the di ameter of round rods. Source: L. S. Startett Co. (b) Vernier on the sleeve and thimbie of a microme- ter, Upper one reads .200 + .075 + .010 = 285 in; lower one reads 200 + .050 + 020 + .0003 = 2703 in. These dimensions are read in a manner Similar to that described in the caption for Fig, 35.2. (c) A digital micrometer with a range of 0-1 in. (0-25 mm) and a resolution of 0.00005 jin, (0.00% mm), Note how much easier itis to read dimensions on this instrument as compared to the analog micrometer shown in (a). However, such instru: ments should be handled carefully. Source: Mitutoyo Corp.1040 35 + Engineering Metrology and Instrumentation Direction of travel FIGURES. ———— Measurement of very smaltlinear displacements by fringes (moiré fringes). Note the shift the fringe patterns. Gratings can typically be 40 lines/mm (1909 linesfin.), They, too, can be integrated with miniprocessors for statistical process and quality control (see Chapter 36). Diffraction gratings. Diffraction gratings consist of two flat optical glasses with closely spaced parallel lines scribed on their surfaces (Fig. 35.4). The grating on the shorter glass i inclined slightly. As a result, interference fringes develop when it is viewed over the longer glass. The position of these fringes depends on the relative position of the two sets of glasses. With modern equipment, using electronic counters and photoelectric sensors, sensitivities of 2.5 pm (0.0001 in.) can be obtained with gratings having 40 lines/mm (1000 lines/in.). 35.3.2 Linear measurements (indirect reading) Indirect-reading instruments are typically calipers and dividers without any graduated scales. They are used to transfer the size measured to a direct-reading instrument, such as alle, After adjusting the legs to contact the part atthe desired location, the instru- ment is held against a graduated rule, and the dimension is read. Because of the expe- rience required in using them and their dependence on graduated scales, the accuracy of this type of indirect measurement is limited. Telescoping gages are available for indirect measurement of holes or cavities. 35.3.3 Angle-measuring instruments Angles are measured by the methods described below, either in degrees or radians. Because of the geometry involved, angles are usually more difficult to measure than are linear dimensions.35.3 Line-Graduated Instruments 1041 FIGURE 35.5 —— (a) Schematic illustration of 9 bevel protractor for (b) Vernier for angular measurement, indicating 14° 30’, @ i measuring angles, Bevel protractor. A bevel protractor is a direct-reading instrument similar to a common protractor, except that it has a movable member (Fig, 35.5a), The two blades of the protractor are placed in contact with the pare being measured, and the angle is read directly on the vernier scale. The sensitivity of the instrument depends on the graduations of the vernier (Fig. 35.5b). Another type of bevel protractor is the com- ination square, which is a steel rule equipped with devices for measuring 45° and 90° angles. Sine bar. Measuring with a sine bar involves placing the part onan inclined bar ot plate and adjusting the angle by placing gage blocks on a surface plate (Eig, 35.6). After the partis placed on the sine bar, a dial indicator (Section 35.4.1) is used to scan the top surface of the part. Gage blocks (see Section 35.7.1) are added or removed as ‘necessary until the top surface is parallel ro the surface plate. The angle on the partis then calculated from trigonometric relationships. Surface plates are made of cast iron or natural stones, such as granite, and are used extensively in engineering metrology. Granite surface plates have the desirable prop- exties of resistance to corrosion, nonmagnetic, and low thermal expansion, Other methods. Angles can also be measured using angle gage blocks. These are blocks with different tapers that can be assembled in various combinations and ‘sed in a manner similar to sine bars. Angles on small parts can be measured through FIGURE 35.6 ‘Setup showing the use of a sine bar for precision measurement of work piece angies.1042 35 « Engineoring Metrology and Instrumentation microscopes, with graduated eyepieces, or with optical projectors (Section 35.5.6) Inclination angles can also be measured with a digital electronic instrument 35.4 Comparative Length-Measuring Instruments Unlike che instruments just described, instruments used for measuring comparative lengths, also called deviation-type instruments, amplify and measure variations or deviations in distance between two or more surfaces. These instruments compare dimensions, hence the word comparative, Described below are common types of instruments used for making comparative measuremeats. 35.4.1 Dial indicators Dial indicators are simple mechanical devices that convert linear displacements of « pointer to rotation of an indicator on a circular dial (Fig, 35.7). The indicator is set to zero at a certain reference surface, and the instrument or the surface 10 be mea~ sured—either external or internal—is brought into contact with the pointer. The movement of the indicator is read divectly on the circular dial—either plus or minus— to accuracies as high as 1 pm (40 yuin.). Dial indicators of several designs are available for use as portable or benchtop units, The basic design consists of a rack-and-pinion and a gear-train mechanism that convert linear motion to rotary motion with large amplifications. These instruments are also used for multiple-dimension gaging of parts (Fig. 35.7c). Instruments with electrical and fluidic amplification mechanisms and with digital readout are also available. 35.4.2 Electronic gages Unlike mechanical systems, electronic gages sense the movement of the contacting pointer through changes in the electrical resistance of a strain gage or through indue- S FIGURE 35.7 wo Dial indicator Three uses for dia! indicators: a} roundness, (b) depth, and (c] multiple-dimension gaging of a part.35.4 Comparative Length-Measuring Instruments 1043 FIGURES ‘An electronic gage for measuring bore diameters. The measuring head is equipped with three carbide-tipped steel pins for wear resistance. The LED display reads 29.158 mm. Source: Courtesy of TESA SA, tance or capacitance. The electrical signals are then converted and dieplayed digitally as linear dimensions (digital readout). A digital micrometer is shown in Fig. 35.3¢. A hand-held electronic gage for measuring bore diameters is shown in Fig, 35.8. The tool is inserted into the bore by squeezing the handle slightly, and the bore diameter is read dicectly (shown in millimeters in Fig. 35.8). A microprocessor-assisted electronic gage for measuring vertical length is shown in Fig, 35.9. A commonly used electronic FIGURE 25,1044 35 + Engineering Metrology and Instrumentation (a) Direct measurement of diameter, D (b) Run oxt of shaft in rotation v Laser « FIGURES5.10 —ee beam Two types of measurement made Later with & laser scan micrometer. beam ‘Source: Mitutoyo Corp. gage is the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), used extensively for mea- suring small displacements. Although they are more expensive than other types, electronic gages have advan- tages such as ease of operation, rapid response, digital readout, less possibility of human error, versatility, flexibility, and the capability to be integrated into automated systems through microprocessors and computers (Section 36.11), However, because they are more fragile, clectronic gages and instruments should be handled carefully (certainly not dropped) and their calibration should be checked frequently. Electronic caliper gages with diamond-coated edges are now available. The CVD coating (see Section 33.5.2) has wear resistance superior to steel or tungsten carbide edges and resists chemicals. 35.43 Laser scan micrometers A more recent development is the use of laser beams for noncontact measurements (Fig. 35.10). In this particular instrument, the laser beam scans the workpiece at a speed of 350 times per second. Such micrometers are capable of resolutions as high as 0.125 jum (5 yin.) and are suitable for on-line measuring of stationary, rotating, or vibrating parts, as well as parts that are at high temperature or are too elastic or brittle 35.5 Measuring Straightness, Flatness, Roundness, and Profile The geometric features of straightness, flatness, roundness, and profile are important aspects of engineering design and manufacturing. For example, piston rods, instru- ment components, and machine-tool slideways should all meet certain requirements, with regard to these characteristics in order to function properly. Consequently, their accurate measurement is essential.35.5 Measuring Straightness, Flatness, Roundness, and Pr 1045, * __Ditinentr ron / AGURE?S.11 —— Measuring saighiness wth akifeadge ule and (2 infetor attached fo 8 movanieatané resting on 3 fan / surface plate, Source: F. T. ‘Surloce plas Farago. 35.5.1 Straightness Straightness can be checked with straight edges or with dial indicators (Figs. 35.11a and b). Autocollimators, resembling a telescope with a light beam that bounces back from the object, are used for accurately measuring small angular deviations on a flat surface. Optical means such as transits and laser beams are used for aligning individual machine elements in the assembly of machine components. 35.5.2 Flatness Flatness can be measured by mechanical means using a surface plate and a dial indi- cator. This method can be used for measuring perpendicularity, which can also be measured with the use of precision steel squares. The instrument shown in Fig. 35.9 can also be used for measuring perpendicularity. Interferometry. Another method for measuring flatness is by interferometry, using an optical flat. The device—a glass or fused quartz disk with parallel flat sur- faces—is placed on the surface of the workpiece (Fig. 35.12a). When a monochromatic (one wavelength) light beam is aimed at the surface at an angle, the optical flat splits it into two beams, appearing as light and dark bands to the naked eye (Fig. 35.12b). ‘The number of fringes that appear is related to the distance between the surface of the part and the bottom surface of the optical flat (Fig. 35.12c). Consequently, a truly flat workpiece surface (that is, when the angle between the two surfaces in Fig, 35.124 is zero) will not split the light beam and fringes will not appear. When surfaces are not flat, fringes are curved (Fig, 35.12d). The interferometry method is also used for observing surface textures and scratches (Fig. 35.12¢) through micro- scopes for better visibility. 35.5.3 Roundness Roundness is usually described as deviations from true roundness (mathematically, a circle). The term out of roundness (ovality) is actually more descriptive of the shape of1048 35 + Engineering Metrology and Instrumentation, FIGURE 35.12 —_—e (a) Interferometry method for mea- suring flatness using an optical flat. (b) Fringes on a flat inclined surface An optical flat resting on a perfectly flat workpiece surface will not split the light beam, and no fringes will be present. (c) Fringes on a surface with two inclinations. Note: the greater the incline, the closer the fringes. (4) Curved fringe patterns indicate cur- vatures on the workpiece surface. {e) Fringe pattern indicating a scratch ‘onthe surface. \ i omum, ff ce — ca ‘Workpiece e) it Workpiece the part (} 35,132). Roundness is very important to the proper functioning of rotat- ing shafts, bearing races, pistons and cylinders, and steel balls in bearings. “The several methods of measuring roundness basically fall into two categories. In the first, the round partis placed on a V-block or berween centers (Figs. 35.13b and c, respectively) and is rotated, with the point of a di indicator in contact with the sur- face. After a full rotation of the workpiece, the difference between the maximum and minimum readings on the dial is noted. This difference is called the total indicator ww or Diat indicator FIGURE 35.13, (a) Schematic illustration of out of roundness (exaggerated). Measu {(b) V-block and dial indicator, (c) part supported on centers and rotated, © entering lamps 1g roundness using 1nd (2) circular tracing, with part being rotated on a vertical axis. Source: After F. T. Farago.355 Measuring Straightness, Flatness, Roundness, and Profile 1047 reading (TIR) or full indicator movement. This method is also used for measuring the straightness (squareness) of shaft end faces. Inthe second method, called circular eracing, the partis placed on 2 platform, and its roundness is measured by rotating the platform (Fig. 35.13d). Conversely, the probe can be rotated around a stationary part to make the measurement. 35.5.4 Profile Profile may be measured by several methods. In one method, 2 surface is compared ‘with a template or profile gage to check shape conformity, Radii or fillets can be mea- sured by this method (Fig. 35.14a). Profile may also be measured with a number of dial indicators or similar instruments (Fig. 35.14b). Profile-tracing instruments are the Tatest development (Section 35.6). 35.5.5 Measuring screw threads and gear teeth Threads and gear teeth have several features with specific dimensions and tolerances (ee Figs. 22.16 and 23.33). These dimensions must be produced accurately for smooth ‘operation of gears, reducing wear and noise level, and part interchangeability. These features are measured basically by means of thread gages of various designs that com- pare the thread produced against a standard thread. Some of the gages used are threaded plug gages, screw-pitch gages (similar to radius gages; see Fig. 35.142), micrometers with cone-shaped points, and snap gages (Section 35.7) with anvils in the shape of threads. Gear teeth are measured with instruments that are similar to dial indicators, with calipers (Fig, 35.152), and with micrometers using pins or balls of various diameters (Fig. 35.15b). Special profile-measuring equipment is also available, including optical projectors and coordinate measuring machines. 35.5.6 Optical contour projectors Optical contour projectors, also called optical comparators, were first developed in the 1940s to check the geometry of cutting tools for machining screw threads, but are now used for checking all profiles (Fig. 35.16). The part is mounted on a table, or ry N N N rue. — Messuring prefiles with (a) radius \s Pat gages and (b) dial indicators.1048 35 * Engineering Metrology and instrumentation fa fb (FE | catper Invlanbatintabny aly FIGURES. — Measuring geartooth thickness and fs Profile with (a) 2 gear-tooth caliper and (b) pins or balls and a micrometer. Source: American Gear Manufacturers Association, FIGURE 35.16 ee A bench model horizontal-beam contour projector with a 16 in.-diameter screen with 150-W tungsten halogen illumination. Source: Courtesy of L. S. Starrett Company, Precision Optical Division,35.6 Coordinate Measuring and Layout Machines 1049 becween centers, and the image is projected on a screen at magnifications up to 100 or higher. Linear and angular measurements are made directly on the screen, which is equipped with reference lines and circles. The screen can be rotated to allow angular ‘measurements as smal] as 1 min, using verniers such as that shown in Fig, 35.5b. erent 35.6 Coordinate Measuring and Layout Machines Coordinate measuring and layout machines are relatively recent developments in mea- surement technology. Basically, they consist of a platform on which the workpiece being measured is placed and moved linearly or rotated. A probe, attached to a head capable of lateral and vertical movements, records all measurements (Fig. 35.17). Coordinate measuring machines (CMM), also called measuring machines, are ver- satile in their capability to record measurements of complex profiles with high sensi- tivity (0.25 pam; 10 pin.) and speed. o Z-axis fine feed knob X-axis fine feed knob Probe adapter Clamp knobs for X.Yyand Z aces FIGURE 35.17 — (a) Schematic illustration of one robe ch type of “coordinate measuring = amp machine. “(b}. Corsponents of Snather type of coordinate suring machine. These machines are avelable in various sizes and favels of automation and with & Variety of probes (attached to the probe adapter, and arecapabie of essuring several features. of part, Source: Mitutoyo Corp, Machine stand Operational panel ‘Yeaxis fine feed knob1050 35 + Engineering Metrology and instrumentation FIGURE 35.13 A coordinate measuring machine, measuring dimen- sions on an engine block. Source: Courtesy of Shet field Measurement Division, Warner & Swasey Company. FIGURE 5.19 A layout machine capable of 2-axis measurement. Source: Cour- tesy of Sheffield Measurement Division, Warner & Swasey Company.35.6 Coordinate Measuring and Layout Machines 1051 These machines are built rigidly and are very precise, They are equipped with digital readout or can be linked to computers for on-line inspection of parts (Section 35.9). These machines can be placed close to machine tools for efficient inspection and rapid feedback for correction of processing parameters before the next partis made. They are also being made more rugged to resist environmental effects in ‘manufacturing plants, such as temperature variations, vibration, and dirt. A coordinate measuring machine for inspection of an engine block is shown in Fig. 35.18. Dimensions of large parts are measured by layout machines, which are equipped with digital readout, Figure 35.19 shows a layout machine in the process of measur- ing the dimensions of an automobile door. ‘These machines are equipped with scrib- ing tools for marking dimensions on large parts, with a sensitivity of £0.04 mim (0.0016 in.). © Example: Checking dimensions with CMM —_——-—_—e Figure 35.20 shows a process sheet, indicating the dimensions to be checked on a beating seal for an aircraft jet engine. The function of the seal is to keep the lubricant in while keeping contaminants out of the bearing area. Alll the dimensions shown in the figure can be checked in about 2.5 minutes with a coordinate measuring machine All measurements can be graphically represented. (Figure reprinted with permission from Mechanical Engineering, Dec. 1989, p. 55.) 4.681 2 0.002- 04.641 2 0,002. ° #4601 = 0,002--~" 64.561 = 0.002: - FIGURE 35.20 —sS=E"E1052 35 « Engineering Metrology and Instrumentation, a RRR 35.7 Gages ‘Thus far the word gage has been used to describe some types of measuring instru- ments, such as a caliper gage, depth gage, telescoping gage, electronic gage, strain gage, and radius gage. The reason is that the words instrument and gage (also spelled gauge} have traditionally been used interchangeably. However, gage has a variety of meanings, such as pressure gage, gage length of a tension-test specimen, and gages for sheet metal, wire, railroad rail, and the bore of shotguns. This section describes several com- mon gages that have simple solid shapes and cannot be classified as instruments. 35.7.1 Gage blocks Gage blocks are individual square, rectangular, or round metal blocks of various sizes (see the gage blocks in Fig. 35.6), made very precisely from heat-treated and stress- relieved alloy steels or from carbides, Their surfaces are lapped and are fla and parallel within a range of 0.02-0.12 um (1-5 jsin.). Zirconia ceramic gage blocks are also available. First developed by C. B. Johansson in the early 1900s, gage blocks are available in sets of various sizes, some sets containing almost a hundred gage blocks. The blocks can be assembled in many combinations to obtain desired lengths. Dimensional accu- racy can be as high as 0.05 um (2 in.). Environmental temperature control is impor- tant in using gages for high-precision measurements. “The individual gage blocks are assembled by wringing, which is a sliding and twisting motion. The adsorbed films of moisture and oil between the gage blocks develop negative pressure at the interface, thus allowing the blocks to adhere to each other under external (atmospheric) pressure, This phenomenon is similar to the ten- dency for papers to stick together in a humid environment. “Although their use requires some skill, gage-block assemblies are commonly util- ized in industry as an accurate reference length. Angle blocks are made similarly and are available for angular gaging. Worn or damaged gage blocks should not be used when highly accurate measurements are required, although they may still beused when less accuracy is needed. The four basic grades of gage blocks, in decreasing order of accuracy, are: + Grade 0.5 (formerly AAA)—reference gages, for very high precision work. + Grade 1 (AA)—laboratory grade, for calibration of instruments and other gages. + Grade 2 (A+)—precision grade, for toolrooms and inspection. + Grade 3 (A and B)—working grade, for use in production. 35.7.2 Fixed gages Fixed gages are replicas of the shapes of the parts to be measured. Plug gages are commonly used for holes (Figs. 35.212 and ). The GO gage is smaller than the NOT35.7 Gages 1053 » NOTGO GO NOTGO a Pr co FIGURE 95.21 eer woroo {a} Plug gage for holes, (b) Plug gage wit gages for gaging surfaces to identify the two gages. (d) Snap gage with adjustable anvils. GO-NOT GO on opposite ends. tn GO-NOT GO on one end. (c} Piain ring round rods. Note the differance in knurled GO (or NO GO) gage and slides into any hole whose smallest dimension is less than the diameter of the gage. The NOT GO gage must not go into the hole. Two gages are required for such measurements, although both may be on the same device, either at opposite ends or in two steps at one end (step-type gage). Plug gages are also available for measuring internal tapers (in which deviations between the gage and the part are indicated by the looseness of the gage), splines, and threads (in which the GO gage mast screw into the threaded hole). Ring gages (Fig. 35.21c) are used to measure shafts and similar round parts. Ring thread gages are used to measure external threads. The GO and NOT GO features on these gages are identified by the type of knurling on the outside diameters of the rings, as shown in the figure. Snap gages (Fig. 35.21d) are commonly used to measure external dimensions. They are made with adjustable gaging surfaces for use with parts having different dimensions. One of the gaging surfaces may be set at a different gap from the other, thus making a one-unit GO-NOT GO gage. Although fixed gages are easy to use and inexpensive, they only indicate whether 4 part is too small or too large, compared to an established standard. They do not measure actual dimensions. 36.7.3 Pneumatic gages Although there are several types of pneumatic gages, also called air gages, their basic operation is shown in Fig. 35.22. The gage head has holes through which pressurized air, supplied by a constant-pressuce line, escapes. The smaller the gap between the gage1054 35 + Engineering Metrology and instrumentation Pressure gage Pog Te Air supply Controls FIGURE 35.22 nse Gage head Schematic illustration ef one type of pneumatic gage. ‘Air filter and the hole, the more difficult i is for the air to eseape, and hence the back pressure is higher. The back pressure, sensed and indicated by a pressure gage, is calibrated to read dimensional variations of holes. You can observe the principle of air gages by blowing air through a soda straw while holding itat different distances from a perpen- dicular surface. 35.8 Optical Instruments Microscopes are optical instruments used to view and measure very fine details, shapes, and dimensions on small and medium-sized tools, dies, and workpieces. The most common and versatile microscope used in tool rooms is the toolmaker’s micro- scope. It is equipped with a stage that is movable in two principal directions and can be read to 2.5 jam (0.0001 in.), Several models of microscopes are available with various features for specialized inspection, inchading models with digital readout. Optical inspection and measuring systems are being advanced further so that objects or surfaces that are too inaccessible, far from the instrument, delicate, or dif- ficult to illuminate can be visually inspected. Among these instruments are fiberscopes (flexible fiber-optic probes, as long as 6 m and as small as 0.6 mm in diameter, that can be snaked through passages), and borescopes (as small as 1.2 mm in diameter, for small and deep internal surfaces), These devices are coupled with a variety of video and computer-based enhancement equipment with software for data storage and analysis capabilities. Light section microscope. ‘The light section microscope is used to measure small surface details, such as scratches, and the thickness of deposited films and coatings. A thin light band is applied obliquely to the surface and the reflection is viewed at 90°, showing surface roughness, contours, and other features.35.9 Automated Measurement. 1055 Scanning electron microscope. Unlike ordinzry optical microscopes, the scan- ning electron microscope (SEM) has excellent depth of field, As a result, all regions of a complex part are in focus and can be viewed and photographed to show extremely fine detail, Although it cannot be used for metrology. this type of microscope is par- ticularly useful for studying surface textures and fracture patterns, Such microscopes are capable of magnifications greater than 100,000 x. rT 35.9 Automated Measurement ‘With increasing automation in all aspects of manufacturing processes and operations, the need for automated measurement (also called automated inspection; Section 36.11) has become much more apparent, Flexible manufacturing systems and manufacturing cells (Chapter 39) have led to the adoption of advanced measurement techniques and systems. In fact, installation and utilization of these systems is now a necessary—-not an optional —manufacturing technology. Traditionally, a batch of parts was manufactured and sent for measurement in a separate quality-control room, and if they passed measurement inspection, they were put into inventory. Automated inspection, however, is based on various on-line sensor systems that monitor the dimensions of parts while being made and use these mea- surements to correct the process (see Section 38.8). ‘To appreciate the importance of on-line monitoring of dimensions, let’ find the answer to the following question: If'a machine has been producing a certain part with acceptable dimensions, what factors contribute to subsequent deviation in the dimen- sions of the same part produced by the same machine? There are technical as well as human factors involved. In all measurements, human errors and miscalculations are important factors to consider, The major technical factors are: + Static and dynamic deflections of the machine because of vibrations and fluctuat- ing forces, caused by variations such as in the properties and dimensions of the incoming material. * Deformation of the machine because of thermal effects. These effects include changes in temperatures of the environment, metalworking fluids, and machine bearings and components. + Wear of tools and dies, which, in turn, affects the dimensions of the parts produced. As a result of these factors, the dimensions of parts produced will vary, necessi- tating monitoring of dimensions during production. In-process workpiece control is accomplished by special gaging and is used in a variety of applications, such as high- quantity machining and grinding.1056 eens re SN Se ntarmonerency 3 36 * Engineering Metrology and Instrumentation 5.10 General Characteristics and Selection of Measuring Instruments “The characteristics and quality of measuring instruments are generally deseribed by certain specific terms, These terms, in alphabetical order, are defined as follows, Accuracy, The degree of agreement of the measured dimension with its true magnitude. Amplification. See Magnification, Calibration. Adjusting or setting an instrument to give readings that are accurate within a reference standard. Drift. See Stability. Linearity, The accuracy of the readings of an instrument over its fall working range, Magnification. The ratio of instrument output to the input dimension. Precision. Degree to which an instrument gives repeated measurement of the same standard. Repeat accuracy. Same as accuracy, but repeated many times. Resolution. Smallest dimension that can be read on an instrument, Rale of 10 (Gage Maker's rule). An instrument or gage should be 10 times more securate than the dimensional tolerances of the part being measured. Similarly. 1 factor of 4 is known as the Mil Standard rule Sensitivity. Smallest difference in dimension that an instrument can distinguish or detect. Speed of response, How rapidly an instrumentindicaces the measurement, particu- larly when a number of parts are measured in rapid succession. Stabili. An instroment’s capability to maintain its calibration over a petiod of time (also called drift). Selection of an appropriate measuring instrument for a particular application depends on the foregoing considerations. In addition, the size and type of pars wo be measured, the environment (temperature, humidity, dust, and 50 on), operator skills required, and costs have to be considered in the purchase of such equipment,1057 35.11 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Individually manufactured parts and components are eventually assembled into prod- ucts, We take it for granted that when, for example, a thousand lawnmowers are manu- factured and assembled, each pact of this product will mate properly with another component. For example, the wheels of the lawnmower will slip easily into their axles, or the pistons will fit properly into the cylinders, being neither too tight nor too loose. Likewise, when we replace a broken or worn bolt on an old machine, all we have to do is to purchase an identical bolt. We are confident that, from similar experiences in the past, the new bolt will fit properly in the machine. The reason why we feel confident is that the bolt is manufactured according to certain standards and that the dimensions of all similar bolts vary by only a specified small amount, In other words, the bolts are manufactured within a certain range of dimensional tolerance. Thus all similar bolts are interchangeable. We also expect that the new bolt, unless abused or misused, will function satisfactorily for a period of time, Bolts are tested periodically during their production to make sure that their quality is within specified ranges (see Chapter 36). Dimensional tolerance is defined as the permissible or acceptable variation in the dimensions (height, width, depth, diameter, angles) of a part. The root of the word tolerance is the Latin tolerare, meaning to endure or put up with. Tolerances are unavoidable because it is virtually impossible (and unnecessary) to manufacture two parts that have precisely the same dimensions. Furthermore, because close tolerances substantially increase the product cost, a narrow tolerance range is undesirable eco- nomically. However, for some parts, close tolerances are necessary for proper func- tioning, and are therefore worth the added expense associated with narrow tolerance ranges, Recent surveys by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) have shown that the dimensional tolerances on state-of-the-art manufactured parts are shrinking by a factor of 3 every 10 years, and thar this trend will continue. It is esti- ‘mated that by the year 2000, accuracies of conventional milling and turning machines will rise from the present 7.5 jum to 1 jm, diamond-wheel wafer-slicing machines for semiconductor fabricationto 0.25 jum, precision diamond tumingmachinesto0.01 ym, and ultraprecision ion-beam machining to less than 0.001 4m, Measuring tolerances and part features efficiently and reliably can be a challenging task. For example, each of the 6 million parts on a Boeing 747-400 aircraft requires measurement of about 25 features, a total of 150 million measurements. 35.11.1 Importance of tolerance control Tolerances become important only when a part is to be assembled or mated with another past. Surfaces that are free and not functional do nor need close tolerance control. Thus, for example, the accuracies of the holes and the distance between the1058 35 + Engineering Metrology and Instrumentation : is P Zero line or y ff Pinan Shaft Jum diameter FIGURE 35.23 — Basie size, deviation, and toler- ance on a shaft, according to the ISO system, Maximum diameter inimmur diamater Miningum rameter holes for a connecting rod are far more critical than the rod’s width and thickness at various locations along its length (see Fig. 14.8). By reviewing the figures throughout this text, you can determine which dimensions and features of the parts illustrated are more critical than others. To appreciate the importance of dimensional tolerances, let's assemble a simple shaft (axle) and a wheel with a hole, assuming that we want the axle’s diameter to be 1 in, (Fig. 35.23). We go to the hardware store and purchase a I-in. round rod and a wheel with a 1-in, hole. Will the rod fit into the hole without forcing it, or will it be loose in the hole? The 1-in. dimension is the nominal size of the shaft. If we purchase such a rod from different stores or at different times—or select one randomly from a lot of, say, 50 shafts—the chances are that each rod will have a slightly different diame- ter. Machines may, with the same setup, produce rods of slightly different diameters, depending on a oumber of factors, such as speed of operation, temperature, lubrica- tion, variations in the incoming material, and similar variables. If we now specify 2 range of diameters for both the rod and the hole of the wheel, we can predict correctly the type of fit that we will have after assembly. Certain ter~ minology has been established to clearly define these geometric quantities, such as the 1SO (International Organization for Standardization) system shown in Fig. 35.23. Note that both the shaft and the hole have minimum and maximum diameters, respec- tively, the difference being the tolerance for each member. A proper engineering draw- ing would specify these parameters wich numerical values, as shown in Fig, 35.24 The range of tolerances obtained in manufacturing processes is given in Figs. 22.14, 26.4, 35.25, and Summary Table at the end of Chapter 23. See also various chapters for tolerances obtained in other processes. There is a general relationship between tolerances and surface finish of parts manufactured by various processes (Fig. 35.26). Note the wide range of tolerances and35.11 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing 1059 oo ; » ; yi (0.05 +0,00 sm Buawerr | SOOP2G GB mm antaerat | OSES) t ae leeral |___-00 slerance | T575+0.007 T577+0.000 2 “D008 ‘ 1 oy — 4005 Limit sae3m™ FIGURE 35.24 dimensions | 232° Various methods of assigning tolerances on 2 1908 shaft. Source: L.E. Deyie. jb ___ 100,244 1 10 100 1 Fy : 04 & fy ‘ ¢ S06 gsi z ayo SHR E owl as 3 sat gal 2 oe 3 “ 001 5 oF uae got oa - i se see oe aon é al so Eeaink gd & eine ae a gor 10.00 0.01 FIGURE 35.25 ———n Tolerances 28 function of com ponent size for various manu- facturing processes. Note that, 0.0001 fmany’ factors are involved, therais a broad range nt % ae a ‘leo for tolerances. See also Figs. 22.14 and 26.4 ‘Typical part dimension em)Ni_NZ NG Ni NS NS NT NS NB NIO NII NISONe 00250008 01 02 04 08 16 32 63 125 25 Sum 0.100, oe 10 os 7 o0n9 2 org z E : 0.05, & 0001 FIGURE 35.26 —meo oor Tolerances and surface rough- ness obtained in various 0.008 manufacturing provesses. Po 0,001) it eae tama 05 1 2 4 8 16 32 63 125 250 500 1000 2000uin. Sion. Source: J. A. Sehey. Sarface roughness (R) a iby Basic, or exact dimension Deol] eect | charaneriatic | Symbot = Himes = Datum feature symbol individual) Straightness = @ (eedatum| Form Creulancy coundnessi | ©. Maximum material onion Cybndricity a Regardless of feature size Tndivdaal) pg, | Prefleta ine a o orrelated nie Profile ofa surface cS ‘Least material condition Perpendielarity z e Orientation "Anatlarty z © st tolerance tone Related Parallels 7 reference cyngq [Position = Diamecrical cylindrica tolerance zoneor feature required) Concentricity o Circular unos f aout Feature contro frame Ranout Total runout “a Datum carget symbol FIGURE 35.27 Geometric characteristic symbols to be indicated on engineering drawings of parts to be manufactured. Source: The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 106035.11 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing 1061 surface finishes obrained. Also, the larger the part, the greater the obtainable tolerance range becomes. 35.1.2 Definitions Several termsare used to describe features of dimensional relationships between mating parts. Details of these definitions are available in the ANSI B4.2, ANSI Y14.5, and ISO/TC10/SCS standards. Because of the complex geometric relationships involved between parts to be assembled, the definitions of these terms can inevitably be some- what confusing. The symbols commonly used to indicate geometric characteristicsare shown in Fig, 35.27. We define the important terms on dimensions briefly below, in alphabetical order. + Allowance. The specified difference in dimensions between mating parts; also called functional dimension or sum dimension. * Basic size. Dimension from which limits of size are derived, using tolerances and allowances. + Bilateral tolerance, Deviation—plus or minus—from the basic size. + Clearance, The space between mating parts. + Clearance fi. Fit that allows for rotation or sliding between mating parts. + Datum, A theoretically exact axis, point line, or plane + Feature. Physically identifiable portion of a part, such as hole, slot, pin, of chamfer. + Fit, The range of looseness or tightness that may result from the application of a specific combination of allowance and tolerance in the design of mating parc features. + Geometric tolerancing. Tolerances that involve shape features of the part. * — Hole-basis system. Tolerances based on a zero line on the hole; also called stan- dard hole practice ot basic hole syste. + Interference. Negative clearance. + Interference it. A fit having limits of size so prescribed that an interference always results wher mating parts are assembled. + International tolerance grade (IT), A group of tolerances that vary depending on the basic size, but provide the same relative level of accuracy within a grade. * Limit dimensions. The maximum and minimum dimensions of a part; also called limits, * Maximum material condition (MMC). The condition where a feature of size con- tains the maximum amount of material within the stated limits of size.1062 35 © Engineering Metrology and instrumentation + Nominal size, An approximate dimension that is used for the purpose of general identification. + Positional tolerancing. A system of specifying the true position, size, and form of the features of a part, including allowabie variations. + Shaft-basis system. Tolerances based on a zero line on the shaft; also called stan dard shaft practice or basic shaft system. + Standard size. Nominal size in integers and common subdivisions of length. + Transition fie, Fit with small clearance or interference that allows for accurate loca sion of mating parts, * Unilateral iolerancing. Deviation in one direction only from the nominal dimension. + Zero line. Reference line along the basic size from which a range of tolerances and deviations are specified Because the dimensions of holes are more difficult to control than those of shafts, the hole-basis system is commonly used for specifying tolerances in shaft and hole assemblies. The symbols commonly used to indicate geometric characteristics are shown in Figs. 35.27a and b. 35.113 mits and fits Limits and fits are important in specifying dimensions for holes and shafts. There are two standards on limits and fits, as described by the American National Standards Institute (see ANSI B4.1, B4.2, and B43), One standard is based on the traditional inch unig; the otheris based on the metric unitand has been developed in greater detail. In these standards, capital letcers always refer to the hole and lowercase lerters to the shaft. In the ich units, fits are divided into the following general classifications; each of these classes has limits of clearances with the hole size as the basic size. + Running and sliding fits, which are subdivided into the following classes: Class RCI. Close-sliding fits, for accurate location of parts to be assembled without perceptible play: Class RC2. Sliding fits, for parts that turn and move easily Class RC3, Precision-running fits, for precision work at low speeds and light pressures. Class RC4, Close-running fits, for accurate machinery with moderate speeds and pressures. Class RCS and RC6, Medinm-running fits, for higher speeds and high pressures. Class RC?. Free-running fits, where accuracy is not important. Class RC8 and RC9. Loose-running fits.‘Summary, 1063 + Locational clearance fits, for stationary parts t0 be freely assembled and disassembled, + Locational transition fits, where accuracy of location is important. + Locational interference fis, where accuracy of location is very important and for parts requiring rigidity and proper alignment. + Force and shrink fits, which are subdivided into the fotlowing classes: Class EN1. Light-drive fits, for assembly requiring light pressures. Class FN2. Medium-drive fits, for ordinary parts and shrink fits on light sections. Class FN3, Heavy-drive fits, for heavier parts and shrink fits on medium sections. Class FN4 and FNS. Force fits, for parts that are to be highly stressed. In the metric system, fits are classified in a similar manner by ISO and are outlined below, + Clearance fits Loose running Free running Close running Sliding Locational clearance + Transition fics Locational transition (accurate) Locational transition (more accurate) © Interference fits Locational interference Medium drive Force fits 180 symbol Hole basis Shaft basis Hil/ett CLI/AtL H9/d9 D9/h9 H8/f7 F8/h7 H7/¢6 G7/h6 H7/é H7/h6 H7/k6 K7/h6 H7/n6 N7/hé H7/p6 P7/h6 H7/s6 S7/h6 H7/u6 U7 er nA EE SUMMARY In modern manufacturing technology, many parts are made with a high degree of precision, thus requiring measuring instrumentation with several features and characteristics. A variety of devices ate available, from simple gage blocks to electronic gages with high sen- sitivity. The selection of a particular measuring in- strument depends on factors such as the type of measuremer, the environment, and the accuracy of ‘measurement. Gages must be checked against reliable standard. Humidity, heat, cold, vibration, and dirt can Ihave adverse effects on the accuracy and reliability of measurements. Operator skill required and cost of instrumentation are also important considerations. Great advances have been made in automated measurement, linking them to microprocessors and ‘computers for accurate in-process control of manufac- suring operations. Reliable linking, monitoring, dis- play, distribution, and manipulation of data obtained1064 35 + Engineering Metrology and Instrumentation are important factors, as are the significant costs involved in doing so Dimensional tolerances and their selection are important factors in manufacturing. Tolerances not cally affect the accuracy and operation of all types of machinery and equipment, but can also sigaificantly influence product cost. The smaller the range of voler~ ances specified, known as tight colecances, the greater becomes the cost of achieving it. Consequently, toler ances should be as broad as possible, while maintain- ing the operational requirements of the product. ee SUMMARY TABLE ‘TYPES OF MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTS USED Sensitivity Measurement Instrument xm in. Linear Steel rule 05mm Bin. Vernier caliper 25 000 Micrometer, with vernier 25, 100 Diffraction grating 1 40 ‘Angle Bevel protractor, with vernicr 5 min Sine bar Comparative length Dial indicator 1 0 Electronic gage on 4 Gage biocks 0.05 2 Steaightness Autocollimator 23 100 Transit 0.2 mmim 0.902 int Laser beam 28 100 Flatness Imerferometry 0.03 1 Roundness Diat indicator Circular tracing 0.03 1 Profile Radius or fillt gage Dial indicator 1 40 ‘Optical comparator 125 5000 Coordinate measuring machines 0.25 10 GoNnorGo Plug gage Ring gage Snap gage Microscopes Toolmaker’s 25 100 Light section 4 40 Scanning electron 0.001 0.04 Laser scan oa 5 TRENDS + Studies are continually being madeia the accuracy, reliability, and speed of measuring instruments and coordinate measuring machines, used either indi- Vidually or as elements in computer-integrated manufacturing systems,+ Auromated measurement and inspection will con- tinue to be an essential part of all manufacturing operations. + Dimensional tolerances and their control during manufacturing processes continue to be an impor- tant activity in product quality and for reliable use and operation of products. Bibliography 1065 + Electronic measuring instruments, such as digital ‘micrometers and coordinate measuring machines, ace now being integrated with vatious software for statistical process control of manufacturing processes. KEY TERMS Autocollimator Gage Resolution Bevel protractor Gage block Ring gage Coordinate measuring machine Interferometry Sensitivity ial indicator Layout machine Sine bar iffraction grating Miecomerer Snap gage Digital readour Optical contour projector Tolerance Dimensional tolerance Optical flac Toolmaker's microscope Electronic gage Plug gage Total indicator reading Engincering metrology Fics Precision BIBLIOGRAPHY Bentley, J.P, Principles of Measurement Systems, 2d ed, New York: Wiley, 1988, Bjorke, O., Computer-Aided Tolerancing, 2d ed. New ‘York: ASME Press, 1992. Farago, FT, and M. A. Curtis, Handbook of Dimen- sional Measurement, 3d ed, New York: Industrial Press, 1994, Kennedy, C. W., and $.D. Bond, dnspection and Gag- ing, 6th ed. New York: Industrial Peess, 1987. Lange, J. C., Design Dimensioning with Computer Graphics Applications. New York: Marcel Dek- ker, 1984, Liggett, J V, Dimensional Variation Management ‘Handbook: A Guide for Quality, Design, and Manufacturing Engineers. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1993. Lowell, W. F, Modern Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing, 2d ed. Fort Washington, Md. National Tooling and Machining Association, 1982. Preumatic gage Vernier caliper Machinery’s Handbook. New York: Industrial Press (revised periodically). Murphy, S. D. (ed.), /n-Process Measurement and Control. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1990. Puncochar, D. E., Interpretation of Geometric Dimen- sioning and Tolerancing. New York: Industial Press, 1990, Spots, M. F, Dimensioning and Tolerancing for Quantity Production. Englewood Cliffs, Ni: Prentice-Hall, 1983. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, 4th ed,, Vol. 4: Quality Control and Assembly. Dear- bora, Mich. Society of Manufacturing Engi- neers, 1987, Warnecke, H. [, and W. Dueschke (eds.), Metrology in Manufacturing Technology. Berlin: Springer, 1984,1066 REVIEW QUESTIONS 35.1 Explain what is meant by standards. for measurement. 35.2. Why is it important to control cemperature during measurement of dimensions? 35.3. Explain the difference between direct- and indirect-ceading linear measurements. Name the instruments used in each category. 354 Describe the principle ofa vernier. 35.5 Explain how diffraction grating works. 35.6 Explain what is meant by comparative length measurement. 35.7 Describe the atribures of electronic gages. 35.8 Explain how flatness is measured. What is an optical flat? 35.9 Describe the priaciple of aa optical comparator. 35 * Engineering Metrology and Instrumentation 35.40 Why have coordinate measuring machines become important inscruments? 35.11 Why are there different grades of gage blocks? 35,12 Whar is che difference beeween a plug gage and aring gage? 35.13 Describe what is meant by automated inspection. 35.14 List and explain che general characteristics of measuring instruments. 35.15 What are dimensional colerances? Why is their control important? 35.16 Explain the difference between tolerance and allowance. 35.17 Explain what is meant by ft of mating parts QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS 35.18 Why ave the words accuracy and precision so often incorrectly interchanged? 35.19 Explain why an instrument may not have suffi- cient precision. 35.20 Explain how the presence of moisture and oil between gage blocks develops negative pressure. 35.21 Why do manufacturing processes produce parts with such 2 wide range of tolerances? 35.22 Explain the need for automated inspection. 35.23 Tolerances for nonmetallic stock are usually wider. Explain why. 35.24 Comment on your observations regarding Fig, 35.26. Why does tolerance increase with increasing sucface roughness? 35.25 Can the gages shown in Fig. 35.21 be auto- mated vo be used in high production facility? Give examples, 35.26 We stated in Section 357.1 that zirconia ceramic gage blocks are now being made. What would be the advantages and limitations of such gages? 35.27 How would you go about specifying tolerances in the layout machine application shown in Fig. 35.19 concerning an automobile door? What would be the consequences of exceeding these limits? 35.28 Review Fig. 35.25 and comment on the range of tolerances and part dimensions produced by various manufacturing processes. 35.29 Describe your thoughts on the merits and limi- tations of analog vs. digital measuring equip- ment, Give specific examples, QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS 35.30 Assume that a steel rule expands by 2 percent because of an increase in environmental tem- perature, What will be the indicated diameter of a shaft whose diameter at room temperature was 2,000 in.?35.31 Sketch a vernier similar to the ones shown in Fig. 38.36 to read 0.106 in. for the upper ilius- tration and 0.3997 in, for the lower illustration. 35.32 Sketch a vernier similac to the one shown in Fig. 35.5b to read (a) 17°24" and (b) 1°36". SYNTHESIS AND DESIGN 38.34 Make some simple sketches of various form- ing and custing machine tools and integrate the type of equipment described in this chapter. ‘Comment on the possible difficulties involved. ‘Synthesis and Design 1067 35.33 Calculate the included angle of the part being measured in Fig. 35.6 if che height of the age blocks is 4.1400 in. and the distance between the centers of the round bars under the sine bar is 5.00 in, 35.35 Give several engineering examples for the fs described in this chapter. Comment on your selection of fits fora particular application.Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection 36.1 Introduction 36.7 Acceptance Sampling and 36.2 Product Quality Control 36.3 Quality Assurance 36.8 Reliability 36.4 Total Quality Management 36.9 Nondestructive Testing 365 Statistical Methods of Quality 36.10 Destructive Testing Controt 36.11 Automated Inspection 36.6 Statistical Process Control 36.1 1068 Introduction ‘Throughout this text you have noted that a manufactured product develops certain external and internal characteristics, which result in part from the production pro- cesses used, External characteristics involve surface finish and surface integrity, such as surface damage from cutting tools or friction during processing of the workpiece in dies. Internal characteristics include various defects, such as porosity, impurities, inclusions, phase transformations, embrittlement, cracks, debonding of laminations, and harmful residual stresses. Some of these defects may exist in che original stock, or they may be induced or introduced during the manufacturing operation. Before they are marketed, manufactured parts and products are inspected for sev- eral characteristis, This inspection routine is particularly important for products or components whose failure or malfunction has potentially serious implications, such as bodily injury or fatality. Typical examples are cables breaking, switches malfunc- tioning, brakes failing, grinding wheels breaking, railroad wheels fracturing, turbine blades failing, pressure vessels bursting, and weld joints failing, This chapter identifies and describes the various methods that are commonly used to inspect manufactured products. Product quality has always been one of the most important elements in manufac turing operations. In view of the present global economy and competition, continuous36.2 Product Quality 1069 improvement in quality has become a major priority, particularly for major coxpo- fations in the US. as well as other industrialized countries. In Japan, for example, the single term kaizen is used, meaning never-ending improvement. This chapter describes in detail the important factors involved in continuous quality assurance of manufactured products. Prevention of defects in products and on-line inspection are now major goals in all manufacturing activities. We again emphasize that quality must be buile nco a prod- et and not metely checked after the product has been made. Thus close cooperation and communication between design and manufacturing engineers and direct involve- ment and encouragement from the management are essential. Important advances in quality engineering and productivity have been made, largely because of the efforts of quality experts such as Deming, Taguchi, and Juran. The importance of quality, reli- ability, and safety of products in a global economy is now being recognized interna tionaly by the establishment of the ISO 9000 quality standard, and in the U.S. by the presentation of the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award. —— 36.2 Product Quality We have all used terms like “poor quality” or “high quality” to describe a certain product, a certain store, or the products of a certain company. What is quality? Alchough we may know it when we see or use a product, quality, unlike most technical terms, is difficult to define precisely. Quality has been defined as (a) a product’ fitness for use, and (b) the totality of features and characteristics that bear on a product's ability to satisfy 2 given need. More recently, several dimensions of quality have been identified, including the product’s performance, features, conformance, durability, reliability, serviceability, aesthetics, and perceived quality. Quality is a broadbased characteristic or property, and it not only consists of several well-defined technical considerations, but also can be quite subjective. A handle on a kitchen utensil that has been installed crooked, a product whose walls are so thin thar it-warps when subjected to small forces or temperature variations, and a machine tool that cannot maintain accuracy of the workpiece because of lack of stifi- ness oF poor construction—all lead us to believe that the product is of low quality. A calculator or weighing scale that functions erratically and an arm rest on an automo- bile door that repeatedly comes loose are further examples of what we think of as low- quality products. The public's perception is that a high-quality product is one that performs its functions reliably over 2 long period of time, without breaking down or requicing repairs, A few examples of this type of product are “good quality” refrigerators, wash- ing machines, automobiles, bicycles, and kitchen knives, On the other hand, if che stem of a screwdriver bends, its handle discolors or cracks, or its tip wears off more rapidly than we had expected, we say that this screwdriver is of low quality.1070 36 + Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection Note that, in describing good- or poor-quality products, this text has not yer stated the lifetimes of products o any of their technical specifications. Throughout this text you have seen that design and manufacturing engineers have the freedom and responsibility to select and specify materials for the products to be made, Thus when selecting the metal for a screwdriver stem, you can specify materials that have high strength and high resistance to wear and corrosion. As a result, the screwdriver will perform better and last longer than one made of materials with inferior properties. You must recognize, however, that materials possessing better properties also are generally more expensive and may be more difficult to process than those with poorer properties. Moreover, because the range of available materials and properties is so broad, manufacturers in the past have usually been forced to set some limit on expected useful product life. For example, automobile disk brakes under normal use are generally designed and manufactured to last an average of about 65,000 km (40,000 miles), mufflers 50,000 km (30,000 miles), batteries 4 years, and tires 65,000— 100,000 km (40,000-60,000 miles). Similarly, a typical water heater for homes is expected to last about 10 years; a dollar bill, 18 months; a hair dryer, five years; a vacuum cleaner, 10 years; central air conditioning, 15 years; and a nuclear reactor, 40 years. The level of quality that a manufacturer chooses for its products may be market- dependent. For example, low-cost, low-quality tools have their own market niche. Even this sort of product, however, has its own degree of required quality perfor- mance, Quality standards are essentially trade-offs among several considerations. As you will see in Chapter 40, the total product cost depends on several variables, includ- ing the level of automation in the manufacturing plant. Thus the engineer has many opportunities to review and modify overall product design and manufacturing pro- cesses in order to minimize costs without sacrificing quality. Contrary to general pub- lic perception, quality products do not necessarily cost more, In fact, you will see that higher quality actually means lower cost when you consider that poor quality has significant built-in costs of customer dissatisfaction, difficulties in assembling and maintaining components, and need for in-field repair. 36.3 Quality Assurance Quality assurance is the total effort by a manufacturer to ensure that its products conform to a detailed set of specifications and standards. These standards cover several parameters, such as dimensions, surface finish, tolerances, composition, color, and mechanical, physical, and chemical properties, In addition, standards are usually writ- ten to ensure proper assembly using interchangeable, defect-free components and a product that performs as intended by its designers. assurance is the responsibility of everyone involved with design and manufacturing. The often-repeated statement that quality must be built into a product,36.4 Total Quality Management 1071 reflects this important concept. Although « finished productcan be inspected for qual= ity, quality cannot bs inspected inco a finished product. Although product quality has always beena crucial issue, increased domesticand global competition has caused qual- ity assurance to become even more important. Every aspect of design and manulac- turing operations, such as material selection, production, and assembly, is now being analyzed in decal to ensure that quality is truly buile into the final product An important aspect of quality assurance is the capability to analyze defects and promptly eliminate them or reduce them to acceptable levels. In an even broader sense, quality assurance involves evaluating the product and customer satisfaction. The sum total of all these activites is referred t0 a8 total quality control (TQC), and ina larger sense, total quality management. From the discussion so far, you should realize that in order to control quality you have to be able to (a) measure quantitatively che level of quality, and (b) identify all the material and process variables that can be controlled. The level of quality obtained during production can then be established by inspecting the product to determine whether it meets the specifications for tolerances, susface finish, defects, and other characteristics. The identification of material and process variables and their effect on product quality is now possible through the extensive knowledge gained from research and development activities in all spects of manufacturing. 36.4 Total Quality Management ‘The total quality management (TQM) concepts a management system emphasizing the fact that quality must be designed and built into a product, Defect preventiont rather than defect detection, isthe major goal. Total quality management a systems approach in that both management and workers make an integrated effort to man. facture high-quality products consistently. Leadership and teamwork in the organi- ation are essential to ensure the never-ending goal of continous improvement of all aspects of manufacturing operations, to reduce product variability, and to improve customer satisfaction, All tasks concerning quality improvements and responsibilities should be clearly identified. The TQM concept also requires you to control processes, and not the parts produced, so that no defective parts are allowed to continue through the production line. A related concept is the quality circle. This activity consists of regular meetings by groups of workers who discuss how to improve and maintain product quality at all stages of the manufacturing peocess. Worker involvement and responsibility are emphasized. Comprehensive training is provided so that the worker can become capable of analyzing statistical data, identifying causes of poor quality, and taking immediate action to correct the situation. Putting this concept into practice recognizes the importance of quality assurance as a major company-wide management policy, affecting all personnel and all aspects of production.1072 36 * Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection In recognition of the importance of quality in manufacturing in the United States, the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award was established in 1988. Named after a former US. secretary of commerce, the purposes of this award are: (a) To pro- mote awareness and understanding of the importance of quality improvement to the nation’s economy, (b) to recognize companies for outstanding quality management and achievement, and (c) to share non-proprietary information on suecessful quality strategies. The award’s main criteria concern two key competitiveness thrusts: delivery of ever-improving value to customers, and systematic and continued improvement of a company’s overall operational performance. 36.4.1 Quality engineering as a philosophy Many of the quality-control concepts and methods discussed thus far have been put into larger perspective by certain experts in quality coatrol, Notable among these experts are Deming, Taguchi, and Juran, whose philosophies of quality and product cost have had a major impact on modern manufacturing. Their philosophies of quality engineering are outlined in this section. Deming methods. During World War II, W. E. Deming (1900-1993) and several others developed new methods of statistical process control in manufacturing plants for wartime industry. The need for statistical control arose from the recognition that there ‘were variations in the performance of machines and people and the quality and dimen sions of raw materials, Their eforts, however, involved not only statistical methods of analysis, but a new way of looking at manufacturing operations to improve quality and lower costs. Deming recognized that manufacturing organizations are systems of management, workers, machines, and products. His basic ideas are: * Define management’s commitment to product quality and productivity. Making profits is essential, but it is not the organization's only purpose. Emphasize the continuity and consistency of the organization’s reason for being. + Recognize that high quality does not necessarily mean high cost. Making a defect- free part actually costs less. * Avoid traditional adversarial relationships between management and workers. Encourage open communication among all groups in the organization and prob- Jem solving through teamwork. Break down barriers in communication between various departments in the organization. + Require that managers clearly identify those problems that are caused by the workers and those that are caused by the system. Make continued efforts to iden- tify problems in the system and find ways to solve them. + Recognize that workers know where potential improvements are possible. In addition to performing their jobs, workers are intelligent and capable of generat- ing creative ideas and providing insight.36.4 Total Quality Management 1073 + Recognize pride of workmanship and provide the techniques and tools to enable workers to improve their performance. Avoid slogans, posters, mumerical goals, and production quotas. + Do not allow commonly accepted levels of defective materials, delays, and defec- tive parts, Reduce the number of suppliers and purchase materials on a statistical basis, not price. + Use modern statistical methods and teach chem to the workers to enable them to identify problems and improve quality and productivity. + Institute training programs for advancing the education of employees, allow- ing them to keep abreast of new developments in materials, processes, and technologies. Note that Deming places great emphasis on communication, direce worker involvement, and education in statistics and modern manufacturing technology. His ideas have been widely accepted in Japan since the end of World War if but only recently in some segments of the U.S. manufacturing community. Taguchi methods. In the G. Taguchi (1924—~_) methods, high quality and low costs are achieved by combining engineering and statistical methods to optimize prod- uct design aad manufacturing processes. Loss of quality is defined as the financial loss to society after the product is shipped, with the following results: a) Poor quality leads to customer dissatisfaction, b) Costs are incurred in servicing and repairing defective products, some in the field. ©) The manufacturer's credibility is diminished in the marketplace. 4d) The manufacturer eventually loses its share of the market. The Taguchi methods of quality engineering emphasize the importance of: + Enhancing cross-functional team interaction. In this interaction, design engineers and process or manufacturing engineers communicate with each other in a com- mon language. They quantify the relationships between design requirements and the manufacturing process. + Implementing experimental design, in which the factors involved in 3 process or ‘operation and their interactions are studied simultaneously. In experimental design, the effects of controllable and uncontrollable variables on the product are identified. This approach minimizes variations in product dimen- sions and properties, bringing the mean to the desired level. The methods used for experimental design are complex, involving the use of fractional factorial design and orthogonal arrays, which reduce the number of experiments required. These methods are also capable of identifying the effect on the product of variables that cannot be controlled (called noise), such as changes in environmental conditions. The use of these methods allows rapid identification of the controlling variables and determination of the best method of process control. These variables are then1074 Example: 36 + Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspé controlled, without the need for costly new equipment or major modifications to existing equipment. For example, variables affecting colerances in machining a particu- lar component can be readily identified, and the correct cutting speed, feed, cutting tool, and cutting fluids can be specified. Juran methods. A contemporary of Deming, J. M. Juran (1904) emphasizes recognizing quality at all levels in an organization, including upper management; fos- tering a responsive corporate culture; and training all personnel in how to plan, con- trol, and improve quality. The concern of the top management in an organization is with business and management, whereas those in quality control are concerned with technology. These different worlds are often at odds and lead to quality problems. The planners determine who the customers are and what their needs are. An organization's customers may be external (the end users who purchase the product or service), or they may be internal (the different parts of an organization that rely on other parts of the organization to supply them with products and services). The plan- ners then develop product and process designs to respond to the customer's needs. ‘The plans are then turned over to those in charge of operations, who have the respon- sibility for quality control and continued improvement in quality Increasing quality without increasing the cost of a product A manufacturer of clay tiles notices that, because of temperature variations in the kila used to fire the tiles, excessive scrap was being produced, adversely affecting the com- pany’s profits. The manufacturer first considered purchasing new kilns having better temperature controls. This solution, however, would require a major capital invest- ment. A study was then undertaken to determine whether modifications could be made in the composition of the tile so that it became less sensitive to temperature fluctuations during firing, Based on factorial design of experiments, in which the fac~ tors involved in a process and their interactions are studied simultaneously, it was found that increasing the lime content of the tiles made them less sensitive to tempera ture variations during firing, This modification, which was also the low-cost alterna- tive, was implemented, reducing the scrap substantially and improving tile quality. 36.4.2 The ISO 9000 standard With increasing international trade, global manufacturing, and price-sensitive co petition, a wide choice of industrial and consumer products are now becoming avail- able, Also, customers are increasingly demanding high-quality products and services at low prices, and are looking for suppliers that can respond to this demand consis- tently and reliably. This strong trend, in tara, has created the need for international conformity and consensus regarding the establishment of quality control methods and reliability and safety of the products made in different countries and traded internationally.36.4 Total Quality Management 1075 First issued in 1987 (wich 2 1994 revision), the ISO 9000 standard (Quality Man- agement and Quality Assurance Standards) isa delibecately generic series of quality system management standards. By 1993, more than 50 countries (industrial ag well a6 developing) had alceady adopted it asa national industry standard. It has permanently influenced the way manufacturing companies conduct business in world trade and io tapidly becoming the world standaed for quality. The ISO 9000 series includes the following standards: * 180 9001: Quality systems— Model for quality assurance in design/development, production, installation, and servicing. * ISO 9002: Quality systems—Model for quality assurance in production and installation. * ISO 9005: Quality systems—Model for quality assurance in final inspection and test. + 180.9004: Quality management and quality system elements-—Guidelines. Companies voluntarily register for these standards and are issued certificates. As of 1994, registration may be sought generally for ISO 9001 or 9002, although some companies have registration to ISO 9003. The 9004 standard is simply a guideline and fot a model or basis for registration, For certification, a company’s plants are visited and audited by accredited and independent third-party teams to eerufy that the stan- dard’s 20 key elements are in place and functioning properly. Depending on the extent to which a company does not meet the requirements of the standard, registration may or may not be recommended at that time. The audit team does not advise or consult with the company oa how to fix discrepancies, but merely describes the narure of the noncompliance. Periodic audits are required to maintain certification, The certifies tion process can take from six months to a year or more, and can cost tens of thou. sands of dollars, depending on the size, number of plants, end product line of the ‘company. The ISO 9000 standard is not a product certification but a quality process cer- fication. Although the 1987 standard makes no reference to continuous quality improvement, the 1994 revision has a section on quality planning and implicitly addresses the need for improvement. Companies establish ther own eriteria and prac. tices for quality. However, the documented quality system must be in compliance with the ISO 9000 standard; thus 2 company cannot write into the system any criteria which opposes the intent of the standard, Registration means conformity to consistent practices, aspecified by the compa- y's own quality system (such as quality in design, development, production, installa. Hon, and servicing), including proper documentation of such practice. Thus customers, including government agencies, are assured that specified pracices are being followed by the supplier of the product or service (which may or maynot be within the seme country), In fact, manufacturing companies are themselves asured of such practice regarding their own suppliers who have ISO 9000 registrationithey may even demand that their suppliers be registered.1076 36 + Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection re 36.5 Statistical Methods of Quality Control Statistics deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of large amounts of numerical data. The use of statistical techniques in modern manufscturing operations is essential because of the large number of material and process variables involved. For example: + Cutting tools, dies, and molds are subject to wear. Thus part dimensions vary over aperiod of time. + Machinery performs differently depending on its age, condition, and mainte- nance, Thus older machines tend to vibrate, are difficult to adjust, and do not maintain tolerances as well as new machines do. + Metalworking fluids perform differently as they degrade. Thus surface finish of the workpiece, tool life, and forces are affected. + Environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and air quality in the plant may change from one hour to the next, affecting machines, workspaces, and employees. + Different shipments of raw materials may have significantly different dimensions, properties, and surface characteristics. + Operator skill and attention may vary during the day (for example, the operator may pick up the wrong stock), from machine to machine, or among operators. In the preceding list, those events that occur randomly, that is, without any par- ticular trend or pattern, are called chance variations. Those that can be traced to spe- cific causes are called assignable variations. The existence of variability in production operations has been recognized for centuries, but Eli Whitney (1765-1825) first grasped its full significance when he found that interchangeable parts were indispen- sible to the mass production of firearms. Modern statistical concepts relevant to manu- facturing engineering were first developed in the early 1900s, notably through the work of W. A. Shewhart (1891-1967). 365.1 Stati To understand statistical quality control (SQC), you'll first need to learn some of the terms that are commonly used in this field. ical quality control ‘+ Sample size. The number of parts to be inspected in a sample, whose properties are studied to gain information about the whole population. + Random sampling. Taking a sample from a population or lot in which each item has an equal chance of being included in the sample. Thus when taking samples from a large bin, the inspector does not take only those that happen to be within reach.36.5 Statistical Methods of Quality Control 1077 + Population. The total number of individual parts of the same design from which samples are taken (also called the universe). + Lot size. A subset of population. A lot or several lots can be considered subsets of the population and may be treated as representative of the population. The sample is inspected for certain characteristics and features, such as tolerances, surface finish, and defects, with rhe instruments and techniques described in Chap- ter 35 and Sections 36.9 and 36.10. These characteristics fall into two categories: those thar can be measured quantitatively (method of variables) and those that are qualitative (method of attributes). The method of variables is the quantitative measurement of characteristics such as dimensions, tolerances, surface finish, or physical or mechanical properties. Such measurements are made for each of the units in the group under consideration, and the results are compared against specifications. ‘The method of attributes involves observing the presence or absence of qualits- tive characteristics (such as external or internal defects in machined, formed, or welded parts or dents in sheet-metal products) for each of the units in the group under con- sideration. Sample size for attributes-type data is generally larger chan for variables- type data. During the inspection process, measurement results will vary. For example, assume that you are measuring the diameter of turned shafts as they are produced on a lathe, using a micrometer as shown in Fig. 35.3. You soon note that their diameters vary, even though ideally you want all the shafts to be exactly the same size. Let's now tun to consideration of statistical quality-control techniques, which allow us to evalu- ate these variations and set limits for the acceptance of parts. If you list the measured diameters of the turned shafts ina given population, you will note that one or more parts have the smallest diameter, and one or more have the largest diameter. The majority of the turned shafts have diameters that lie berween these extremes. If you group these diameters and plot them, the plot consists of a bar graph representing the number of parts in each diameter group (Fig. 36.1). The bars Frequency of ccurrence (number of shafts) FIGURE 36) A plot of the number of shafts measured and their L respective diameters. This type of curve is called a fre- 16.00 73.05 quency distribution. Diameter of shafts (mm) 5 a1078 36 + Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection FOUR ————— A normal distribution curve indicating areas within each range of standard deviation. Note: The greater the range, the Frequency of occurrence higher the percentage of parts that fall within it -@ 5 show a distribution, also called a spread or dispersion, of the shaft-diamezer measure- ments. The bell-shaped curve in Fig. 36.1 is called a frequency distribution, or the frequency with which parts within each diameter group are being produced. Data from manufacturing processes often fit curves represented by a mathemati- cally derived normal distribution curve (Fig. 36.2). These curves are also called Gaus- sian, after K. F. Gauss (17771855), who developed them on the basis of probability. The bell-shaped normal distribution curve fitted to the data in Fig, 36.1 has two important features. First, it shows that most part diameters tend to cluster around an average value (arithmetic mean). This average is usually designated as % and is calcu- laced from the expression gtmtatiocte ” gs (6.1) where the numerator is the sum of all measured values (shaft diameters), and 1 is the number of measurements (number of shafts). ‘The second feature of this curve is its wideh, indicating the dispersion of the diameters measured. The wider the curve, the greater the dispersion. The difference between the largest value and the smallest valuc is called the range, R: R = X95 ~ Xin (36.2) Dispersion is estimated by the standard deviation, which is generally denoted as @ and is obtained from the expression (36.3) where x is the measured value for each part. Note from the numerator in Eq. (36:3) that as the curve widens, the standard deviation becomes greater. Also note that o has the unit of linear dimension. In comparing Eqs. (36.2) and (36.3), you will also note that the range R is a simpler and more convenient measure of dispersion.1079 Since you know the number of curned parts that fall within each group, you can calculate the percentage of the tosal population represented by each group. Thus Fig. 36.2 shows that the diameters of 99.73 percent of the turned shafts fall within the range of + 3a, 95.46 percent within + 2c, and 68.26 percent within + lo. Thus only 0.27 percent fall outside the #3 range. ae 36.6 Statistical Process Control If the number of parts that do not meet set standards (defective parts) increases dur- ing a production run, you must be able to determine the cause (incoming materials, machine controls, degradation of metalworking fluids, operator boredom, or others) and take appropriate action. Although this statement at first appears to be self-evident, it was only in the early 1950s that a syscematic statistical approach was developed to guide operators in manufacturing plants. This approach advises the operator to take certain measures and when to take them in order to avoid producing further defective parts. Known as statistical process control (SPC) this technique consists of several elements: control charts and setting control limits, capabilites of the particular manufacturing process, and characteristics of the machinery involved. 36.6.1 Control charts The frequency distribution curve in Fig. 36.1 shows a range of shaft diameters being produced that may fall beyond the predetermined design tolerance range. Figure 36.3 shows the same bell-shaped curve, which now includes the specified tolerances for the diameter of turned shafts. Control charts graphically represent the variations of a process over a period of time. They consist of data plotted during production, and typically, there are two » g é § pf i it ge i E Ss 1 g | iz = 1 ae air ae Diameter ofshafts (mm)1080 36 © Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection plots. The quantity # (Fig. 36.4a) is the average for each subset of samples taken and inspected, say, a subset consisting of five parts. A sample size of between two and 10 parts is sufficiently accurate, provided that sample size is held constant throughout the inspection. The frequency of sampling depends on the nature of the process. Some processes may require continuous sampling, whereas others may require only one sample per day. Quality-control analysts are best qualified to determine this frequency for a par- ticular situation. Since the measurements in Fig, 36.4a are made consecutively, the abscissa of these control charts also represents time. The solid horizontal line in this figure is che average of averages (grand average), denoted as 5, and represents the population mean. The upper and lower horizontal broken lines in these control charts indicate the control limits for the process. The control limits are set on these charts according to statistical-control formulas designed to keep actual production within the usually acceptable +30 range. Thus forx Upper control limit (UCL,) = # +30 = + AR (36.4) FIGURE 36.4 — Control charts used in statisti- cal quality control. The pro- zone ess shown isin. statistical O08 control because all points fall 8 cout Reaverege within the lower end_upper a range! control fi r its. In thi a 13.04 wos. — 18.02 1301- 13.00} Hlaverage of reso averages! 12.98- wer —— - —— - —~ - — - — - -cy 1286+ Aecag of samples | 8 Average of next 5 ‘samples Average of next 5 samples (nm) Average diameter, lustra- 0.03) tion sample size is five and the a ‘number of samples is 15. Time ——36.6 Statistical Process Contra! 1081 RE) CONSTANTS FOR CONTROL CHARTS: Sample Size A, 2, >, 4, 2 1.880 3.267 ° 1128 3 4.923 2575 ° 1.883 4 0.729 2282 ° 2.9059 5 0.577 2018 ° 2226 6 0.493 2.9004 ° 2538 7 ois 1926 ors 2.708 8 0373 11864 0.136 2.887 9 0.237 1816 oes 2970 10 0.308 wm 0.223 3.078 2 0.266 1716 0.288 3.258 6 0.223 1882 0.348 3472 20 0.180 1.506 aia 3.135 and Lower control limit (LCL,) = @ - 37 = % — ALR, (36.5) where A; is read from Table 36.1 and R is the average of R values. These limits are calculated on the basis of historical production capability of the equipment itself. They are not generally associated with either design tolerance spec\- fications or dimensions. They indicate the limits within which a certain percentage of measured values are normally expected to fall because of the inherent variations of the process itself, upon which the limits are based. The major goal of statistical process coatrol is to improve the manufacturing process with the aid of control charts to elimi- nate assignable causes. The control chart continually indicates progress in this area. The second control chart (Fig. 36.40) shows the range R in each subset of samples. The solid horizontal line represents the average of R values in the lot, denoted as R, and is a measure of the variability of the samples. The upper and lower control limits for R are obtained from the equations UCL, = DR (36.6) and LCLs = DR, (36.7) where the constants D, and D; are obtained from Table 36.1, This table also includes the constant da, which is used in estimating the standard deviation from the equation [> oF (36.8) a; When the curve of a control chart is like that shown in Fig. 36.4a, we say that the process is “in good statistical control.” In other words, there is no clear discernible1082 36 + Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection FIGURES —— Control charts. (a) Process begins to become out of control because of factors suchas tool wear. The tool is changed and the process is than in statistical control (b) Process parameters are not set prop- erly; thus all parts are around the upper control lint. (c) Process becomes out of control because of factors such as a sud- den change in the properties of the incom- ing material tal ‘Average diameter, tem? ry Average diameter, fmm! Average diameter, fmm) Tool changed - —— - —ueL, ee ee Time —~ —vcL; trend in the pattern of the curve, the points (measured values) are random with time, and they do not exceed the control limits. However, you can see that curves such as those shown in Figs. 36.5a, b, and c indicate certain trends. For example, note in the middle of curve (a) that the diameter of the shafts increases with time. The reason for this increase may be a change in one of the process variables, such as wear of the cutting tool. If, as in curve (b), the trend is toward consistently larger diameters, hov- eting around the upper control limit, it could mean that the tool settings on the lathe may not be correct and, as a result, the parts being turned are consistently too large. Curve (c) shows two distinct trends that may be caused by factors such as a changeExample: 36.6 Statistical Process Control 1083 in the properties of the incoming material or a change in the performance of the cut- ting fluid (for example, its degradation). These situations place the process “out of control.” Analyzing patterns and trends in control charts requires considerable experience in order to identify the specific cause(s) of an out-of-control situation. Such causes may be those changes outlined at the beginning of Section 36.5. Overcontrol of the manufacturing process—that is, setting upper and lower control limits too close to each other (smaller standard deviation range)—is a further reason for out-of-control situations. This is the reason for calculating control limits on process capability rather than on a potentially inapplicable statistic. Icis evident that operator training is critical for successful implementation of SPC on the shop floor. Once process control guidelines are established, operators should, in the interest of efficiency of operation, also have some responsibility to make adjust- ‘ments in processes that begin co become out of control. The capabilities of individual operators should be taken into account so that they are not overloaded with data input and their proper interpretation. This task is, however, being made easier by a variety of software that is being continually developed. For example, digital readouts on elec tonic measuring devices are integrated direeely into a computer system for real-time SPC. Figures 36.63 and b show such a multifunctional computer system in which the output from a digital caliper or micrometer is analyzed with a miniprocessor in real time and displayed in several ways, such as frequency distribution curves and control charts. 36.6.2 Process capability Process capability is defined as the limits within which individual measurement values resulting from a particular manufacturing process would normally be expected to fall when only random variation is present. Thus process capability tells us that the pro- cess can produce parts within certain limits of precision. Since a manufacturing pro- cess involves materials, machinery, and operators, each can be analyzed individually to identify 2 problem when process capabilities do not meet part specifications Calculation of control fimits and standard deviation “The data in the accompanying table show length measurements (in.) taken on a machined workpiece. Sample size is five and the sample number is 10; thus the total number of parts measured is 50, The quantity # is the average of five measurements in ‘each sample. We first calculate the average of averages &, 44,296 10 = 4.430 in, and the average of R values,@ Digital gazes ‘ (oy FIGURE 36.6 {a} Schematic illustration showing integration of digital gages with miniprocassor for real-time data acquisition and. ‘SPC/SQC capabilities. Note the examples on the CRT displays, such as fraquancy distribution (see Fig. 36.1) and control charts (see Fig. 36.41, Source: Mitutoyo Corp. (b) A digital caliper connected to a miniprocessor for real-time data acquisition, showing printout of data with SPC analysis. Source: Mitutoyo Corp. 1084© Example: 36.6 Statistical Process Controt 1085, Since the sample size is five, we determine from Table 36.1 the following constants: A; = 0577, D. = 2.113, and Dy = 0. We can now calculate the control limits using Eqs. (36.4) ~(36.7). Thus, for averages we have UCL, = 4.430 + (0.577)(0.103) = 4.489 in, LCL, = 4.430 - (0.577)(0.103) = 4.371 in, and for ranges we have UCL, = (2.115)(0.103) = 0.218 in., LCL, = (0)(0.103) = 0 in. We can calculate the standard deviation using Eq. (36.8) and a value of d, = 2.326. Thus, Sample Number x, % % x x x a 1 446 4.40 4nd 4.86 443, 4.498 0.06 2 4.45 443, 447 439 440 4.428 0.08 3 438 44g 442 442 4.35 4.410 0.13 4 442 48 453 44g. 4.35 4.446 0.18 5 442 45, 443, 444 a1 4.430 0.08 6 488 445, 444 4.38 440 4428 0.08 7 439 aa 442 446 4a 4.430 0.08 8 44s, at 483 4at 450 4.480 0.09 9 4 446 430 438 4.49, 4a 0.19 10 442 443 437 447 449 4.436 0.12 . Maintaining accuracy in boring using control charts The workpiece shown in Fig. 36.7 is made of gray cast iron and is bored to the toler- ances indicated (5.5125/5.5115 in.}. These parts were bored on a chucking machine. Each of the 18 points plotted on the vertical axis of the contro! chart represents the average of bore diameter measurements made on four parts (sample size). The hori~ zontal broken lines at +0.0005 in, and ~ 0.0005 in. represent upper and lower speci- fied limits, respectively. The solid line % = 0.00017 in. is the estimate of the process capability based on a study of several samples bored on the machine. The upper and lower control limits are then calculated from 3. We note that samples 4-9 show a definite trend toward undersized bored holes. If the operation had been continued without any changes, the successive bored holes very likely would have been out of tolerance. To avoid this situation (out of control), the boring tools were reset toward1086 © Example: 36 + Qual Assurance, Testing, and Inspection Variation in dimensions, 0.0001 in -l Tss 7 ois Samplenumber “2° 4g 8 10 12 14 16 18 FIGURE 36.7 the upper control limit before parts in sample 10 and the rest were bored. Source: ASM International. Dimensional control of plastic parts in the Saturn automobile —___- The Saturn automobile has some 38 different injection-molded interior plastic parts (polycarbonate, polypropylene, and ABS), such as door panels, air inlet ducts, con- soles, and trim, which must conform to tight dimensional tolerances so that they fit and snap properly during assembly without unsightly gaps or buckles. However, dimensions of these plastic parts change with temperature and humidity, and because of their flexibility, they tend to bend and curl. Measurement and inspection of plastic parts, including the use of coordinate measuring machines (CMM, see Section 35.6), are thus difficult. Although traditional gages are also used for monitoring process parameters in making these parts, so that they are molded properly, an inspection system has been developed whereby SPC feedbacks received from a direct computer- controlled CMM. The system compensates for the flexibility of the parts, allows auto- matic measurement of various part features, and makes measurements of the mold at periodic intervals. The data are analyzed on a regular basis and, when necessary, cor- rective actions are taken and changes are made in materials, processing cycle, or mold design for good dimensional stability of the parts being molded. Source: Saturn Corp. and Manufacturing Engineering36.7 Acceptance Sampling and Control 1087 ee 36.7 Acceptance Sampling and Control Acceptance sampling consists of taking only a few random samples from a lot and inspecting them for the purpose of judging whether the entire lot is acceptable or should be rejected or reworked. Developed in the 1920s and used extensively di World War II for military hardware (MIL STD 105), this statistical technique is widely used and valuable, It is particularly useful for inspecting high-production-rate parts, where 100 percent inspection would be too costly. However, critical components such as pacemakers, prosthetic devices, and components of the space shuttle, must be inspected 100 percent. A variety of acceptance sampling plans have been prepared for both milirary and national standards, based on an acceptable, predetermined, and limiting percentage of nonconforming parts in the sample. IF this percentage is exceeded, the emtice lot is rejected, or it is reworked if economically feasible, Note that the actual number of samples (not percentages of the lot that are in the sample) can be significant in accep- tance sampling, The greater the number of samples taken from a lot, the greater will be the percentage of nonconforming parts and the lower the probabiliy of acceptance of the lot. Probability is defined as the relative occurrence of an event. The probability of acceptance is obtained from various operating characteristic curves, one example of which is shown in Fig. 36.8. The acceptance quality level (AQL) is commonly defined as the level at which there is a 95 percent probability of acceptance of the lot. This percentage would indi- cate to the manufzcturer that 5 percent of the parts in the lot may be rejected by the consumer (called the producer’ risk), Likewise, the consumer knows that 95 percent of the parts are acceptable (called the consumer’ risk). Lots that do not meet the desired quality standards can be salvaged by the manu- facturer by a secondary rectifying inspection. In this method, a 100 perceat inspection is made of a rejected lot, and the defective parts are removed, This time-consuming FIGURE Co ‘A typical operating-characteristic curve used in acceptance sampling. The higher the percentage of defective parts, the lower is the probability they will be accepted by the consumer. There ara sov- 0 «6 8 10 eral methods of obtaining these curves. Defective parts (%) Probability af acceptance i ‘ i | i 4 i 21088 36 + Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection and costly process is an incentive for the manufacturer to control the production process. ‘Acceptance sampling requires less time and fewer inspections than other sampling methods. Consequently, inspection of the parts can be more detailed. Keep in mind, however, that automated inspection techniques are being developed rapidly so that 100 percent inspection of all parts is indeed feasible and can be economical 36.8 Reliability ‘We know that, eventually, all products fail in some manner or other. Automobile tires become smooth, motors burn out, water heaters begin to leak, and machinery stops functioning properly. Reliability is defined as the probability that a product will per- form its intended function in a given environment and for a specified period of time, without failure. The more critical the application of a particular product is, the higher its reliability should be. Thus the relicbility of an aircraft et engine or a medical instru- ment should be much higher than that for a kitchen faucet or a mechanical pencil. From the topics discussed in this chapter, you can see that as the quality of each com- ponent of a product increases, so too does the reliability of the final product. Reli- ability, of course, also depends on whether a product is properly used and maintained. ‘The expected reliability of a product depends on the nature of the product, For example, for an ordinary steel chain, the reliability of each link in the chain is impor- tant. Similarly, the reliability of each gear in a machine's gear train is important. This condition is known as series reliability. On the other hand, for a steel cable consisting of many individual wires, the reliability of each wire is not as critical. This condition is known as parallel reliability. The parallel reliability concept is important in the design of backup systems, which permit a product to continue functioning in the event, one of its components fails, Electrical or hydraulic systems in an aircraft, for example, are backed by mechanical systems, which are called redundant systems. Predicting reliability has become an important science and involves complex mathematical relationships. The importance of predicting the reliability of the critical components of civilian or military aircraft is obvious. The reliability of an auromated and computer-controlled high-speed production line, with al its complex mechanical and electronic components, is also important, as its failure can result in major eco- nomic losses to the manufacturer. Se 36.9 Nondestructive Testing Nondestructive testing (NDT) is carried out in such a way that product integrity and surface texture remain unchanged. These techniques generally require considerable operator skill. Interpreting test results accurately may be difficult because test results36.9 Nondestructive Testing 1089 can be quite subjective. However, the use of computer graphics and other enhance- ment techniques have reduced the likelihood of human ertor in nondestructive esting. Unlike the relatively simple tradicional equipment used in the past, many of the instru ments used in testing today have become advanced multicomponent systems equipped with computer facilities. Surfaces are enlarged and viewed on color monitors and the systems have various capabilities for qualitative and quantitative inspection, analysis, and data acquisition. Listed below are the basic principles of the more commonly used nondestructive testing eechniques 36.9.1 Liquid penetrants In the liquid-penetrants technique, fluids are applied to the surfaces of the part and allowed to penetrate into surface openings, cracks, seams, and porosity (Fig, 36.9). The penetrant can seep into cracks as small as 0.1 mm (4 yin.) in width, Two common types of liquids are (2) fluorescent penetrants with various sensitivities, which fluoresce under ultraviolet light; and (b) visible penetrants, using dyes usually red in color, which appear as bright outlines on the surface. The surface to be inspected is first thoroughly cleaned and dried. The liquid is brushed or sprayed on the surface to be inspected and allowed to remain long enough to seep into surface openings, Excess penetrant is then wiped off or washed away with water or solvent. A developing agent is then added to allow the penetrant to seep back to the surface (due to capillary action) and spread to the edges of openings, thus mag- nifying the size of defects. The surface is then inspected for defects, either visually in the case of dye penetrants or with fluorescent lighting This method is capable of detecting a variety of surface defects and is used exten- sively. The equipment is simple and easy to use, can be portable, and is less costly to operate than other methods. However, this method can only detect defects that are open to the surface, not internal defects. Surface of Liquid Developing. workpiece penetrant agent Operation 1 Operation 2 Operation 3 Operation 4 Operation 5 Cleaning and drying Application of Water-wath removal Application of Inspection of eurface liquid penetrant of liquid penetrant —_daveloping agent tw surface ‘from surface FIGURE 36.9 Sequence of operations for liquid-penetrant inspection to detect the presence of cracks and other flaws in a work: Piece. Source: Metals Handbook, Desk Edition. Copyright © 1985, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio. Used with Permission1090 36 * Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection Magaetizing current, Discontinuity A \ BODE PF Magnetic [/ FIGURE 36.10 Schematic illustration of magnetic-particle inspection of a part with a defect in it. Cracks that are in a direction paraliel to the magnetic field, such as in A, would not be detected, whereas the others shown would. Cracks F, G, and H aro the easiest to detect, Source: Metals Handbook, Dask Edition. Copyright © 1985, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, Used with Workplece permission. 36.9.2 Magnet ‘The magnetic-particle inspection technique consists of placing fine ferromagnetic particles on the surface. The particles can be applied either dry or in a liquid carrier such as water or oil. When the partis magnetized with a magnetic field, a discontinuity (defect) on the surface causes the particles to gather visibly around it (Fig, 36,10) Thus, the defect becomes a magnet due to the principle of flux leakages where ‘magnetic-field lines are interrupted by the defect. This, in turn, creates a small-scale N-S pole at either side of the defect as field lines exit the surface. The collected parti- cles generally take the shape and size of the defect. Subsurface defects can also be detected by this method, provided they are not deep. ‘The ferromagnetic particles may be colored with pigments for better visibility on metal surfaces. Wet particles are used for detecting fine discontinuities, such as fatigue cracks. The magnetic fields can be generated cither with direct current or alternating cur- rent, using yokes, bars, and coils, Subsurface defects can be detected best with direct current. The magnetic-particle method can be used on ferromagnetic materials only, and parts have to be demagnetized and cleaned. The equipment may be portable or stationary particle inspection 36.9.3 Ultrasonic inspection In ultrasonic inspection, an ultrasonic beam travels through the part. An internal defect, such as a crack, interrupts the beam and reflects back a portion of the ultrasonic energy. The amplitude of the energy reflected and the time required for return indi- cates the presence and location of any flaws in the workpiece. The ultrasonic waves are generated by transducers, called search units or probes, of various types and shapes. They operate on the principle of piezoelecrricity (see Section 3.7), using mate- rials such as quartz, lithium sulfate, and various ceramics. Most inspections are carried ‘out at a frequency range of 1-25 MHz. Couplants are used to transmit the ultrasonic -waves from the transducer to the test piece. Typical couplants are water, oil, glycerin, and grease. The ultrasonic inspection method has high penetrating power and sensi tivity. It can be used to inspect flaws in large volumes of material, such as railroad36.9 Nondestructive Testing 1091 wheels, pressure vessels, and die blocks, from various directions. This method requires experienced personnel to carry out the inspection and interpret the results correctly. 36.9.4 Acoustic methods The acoustic-emission technique detects signals (high-frequency stress waves) gen- erated by the workpiece itself during plastic deformation, crack initiation and propa- gation, phase transformation, and sudden reorientation of grain boundaries. Bubble formation during boiling and friction and wear of sliding interfaces are other sources of acoustie signals. Acoustic-emission inspection is typically performed by elastically stressing the part or structure, such as bending a beam, applying torque to a shaft, or pressurizing a vessel. Acoustic emissions are detected by sensors consisting of piezoelectric ceramic elements. This method is particularly effective for continuous surveillance of load- bearing structures. The acoustic-impact technique consists of tapping the surface of an object and listening ro and analyzing the signals to detect discontinuities and flaws, The principle is basically the same as tapping walls, desktops, or countertops in various locations with your fingers or a hammer and listening to the sound emitted, Vitrified grinding wheels are tested in a similar manner (ring test) to detect cracks in the wheel that may not be visible to the naked eye. The acoustic-impact technique can be instrumented and automated and is easy to perform. However, the results depend on part geometry and mass, thus requiring a reference standard to identify flaws. 36.9.5 Radiography Radiography involves x-ray inspection to detect internal flaws, such as cracks and porosity. The principle involved is density differences; the metal surrounding the defect is denser and hence shows up as lighter thaa the flaws on an x-ray film. This is similar to bones and teeth showing up lighter than the rest of the human body in x-ray films. The radiation source is typically an x-ray tube, and a visible permanent image is made on an x-ray film or radiographic paper (Fig. 36.112). Fluoroseopes are used to produce x-ray images very quickly—a real-time radiography technique that shows events as they are occurring. Radiography does aot require film handling and processing; it does, however, involve expensive equipment, proper interpretation of results, and radiation hazard. In digital radiography, the film is replaced by a linear array of detectors (Fig. 36.11b). The x-ray beam is collimated into a fan beam (compare Figs. 36.11a and ), and the workpiece is moved vertically. The radiation is digitally sampled by the detectors and the data are stored in computer memory, which is then displayed om the CRT as a two-dimensional image of the workpiece. In computed tomography, the same system as described above is used except that the workpiece is rotated along a vertical axis as well as being moved vertically1092 36 * Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection ww Image aby Linear detector array Workpiece on turntable ‘Workpiece FIGURE 36.11 ‘Three methods of radiographic inspection: (a) conventional radiography, (b) digital radiography, and (c) computed tomography. Source: Courtesy of Advanced Materials and Processes, p. 56, November 1990, ASM International. (Fig, 36.11c), producing x-ray images of thin cross-sections of the workpiece. The translation and rotation of the workpiece provide several viewing angles of the object. From the data, the computer mathematically reconstructs and displays an image of the ‘cross-section of the workpiece. The size, location, and distribution of flaws can thus be determined more reliably than is possible by ordinary radiography. 36.9.6 Eddy-current inspection ‘The eddy-current inspection method is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The part is placed in or adjacent to an electric coil through which alternat- ing current (exciting current) flows at frequencies ranging from 60 Hz to 6 MHz. This, current causes eddy curreats to flow in the part. Defects in the part impede and change the direction of eddy currents (Fig. 36.12), causing changes in the electromagnetic field. These changes affect the exciting coil (inspection coil) whose voltage is moni- tored to determine the presence of flaws. Inspection coils can be made in various sizes and shapes to suit the geometry of the part being inspected. Parts must be electrically conductive, and flaw depths detected are usually limited to 13 mm (0.5 in.). Moreover, the technique requires using a standard reference sample to set the sensitivity of the tester.36.9 Nondestructive Testing 1093 Inspection cil Direction of pipetravel Tospecton coil Inspection coil Crack Eady. FIGURE 36.12 current ‘Changes in eddy-curront flow in a workpiece caused by a defect. Source: Motals Handbook, Desk Edition. Copyright © 1985, ASM interna: Pine Pi tional, Metals Perk, Ohio. Used with permission, “Section AA? Section BB 36.9.7. Thermal inspection Thermal inspection involves observing temperature changes by contact- or non- contact-type heat-sensing devices. Defects in the workpiece, such as cracks, debonded regions in laminated structures, and poor joints, cause a change in temperature distri- bution, In thermographic inspection, materials such as heat-sensitive paints and papers, liquid erystals,and other coatings are applied to the surface. Any changes ia their color or appearance indicate defects. The most common method of noncontact thermographic inspection uses infrared detectors, such as infrared scanning micro- scopes and cameras, with high response time and sensitivities of 1 °C (2 °F). Thermo- metric inspection utilizes devices such as thermocouples, radiometers, pyrometers, and meltable materials such as waslike crayons. 36.9.8 Holography The holography technique creates a three-dimensional image of the part utilizing an optical system (Fig, 36.13). Generally used on simple shapes and highly polished surfaces, this technique records the image on a photographie film, [ts use has been extended to holographic interferometry, the inspection of parts having various shapes and surface conditions. Using double- and multiple-exposure techniques while the part is being subjected to external forces or time-dependent variations, changes in the images reveal defects inthe part. In acoustic holography, information on internal defectsis obtained directly from the image ofthe interior of the part. In liquid-surface acoustical holography, the work piece and two ultrasonic transducers (one for the object beam and the other for the1094 36 * Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection Reference beam Reference-beam, ‘patie Stes Reference-beam cniceor No.l | reference ject Taser Variable Seam beam splitter spatial Beer Object beam! plate Lin holder’ FIGURE 36.13 Schematic illustration of the basic optical system used in holography elements in radiography for etecting flaws in workpieces. Source: Metals Handbook, Desk Edition. Copyright © 1985, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio. Used with permission, reference beam) are immersed in a water-filled tank. The holographic image is thea obtained from the ripples in the tank. In scanning acoustical holography, only one transducer is used and the hologram is produced by electronic-phase detection. This system is more sensitive, the equipment is usually portable, and very large workpieces can be accommodated by using a water column instead of a tank. 36.10 Destructive Testing As the name suggests, the part or product tested using destructive testing methods no longer maintains its integrity, original shape, or surface texture. Mechanical test methods (see Chapter 2) are all destructive, in that a sample or specimen has to be removed from the product in order to test it (see, for example, Fig. 14.26). In addition to mechanical testing, other destructive tests include speed testing of grinding wheels to determine their bursting speed and high-pressure testing of pressure vessels 10 determine their bursting pressure. Hardness tests leaving large impressions may be regarded as destructive testing, However, microhardness tests may be regarded as nondestructive because of the very small permanent indentations. This distinction is based on the assumption that the material is not notch-sensitive. However, most glasses, highly heat-treated metals, and36.11 Automated Inspection 1095 ceramics are notch-sensitive; that is, the small indentation produced by the indenter may lower cheir strength and toughness. NE 36.11 Automated inspection Note that the preceding examples discussed testing parts or products that have already been manufactared. Traditionally, individual parts and assemblies of parts have been manufactured in batches, sent to inspection in quality-control rooms, and if approved, put in inventory. If products do not pass the quality inspection, they are either scrapped or kept on the basis of a certain acceptable deviation from the standard. Obviously, such a system lacks flexibiliey, requires maintaining an inventory, and inevitably results in some defective parts going through the system. The traditional method actually counts the defects after they occur (post-process inspection), In contrast, one of the important trends in modem manufacturing is automated inspection. This method uses a variety of sensor systems that monitor the relevant Parameters during the manufacturing process (on-line inspection), Then, using these measurements, the process automatically corrects itself to produce acceptable parts. ‘Thus further inspection of the part at another location in the plant is unnecessary. Parts may also be inspected immediately after they are produced (in-process inspection). The use of accurate sensors and computer-control systems has integrated auto- ‘mated inspection into manufacturing operations. Such a system ensures that no part is moved from one manufacturing process to another (for example, a turning opera- tion followed by cylindrical grinding) unless the partis made correctly and meets the standards of the first operation. Automated inspection is flexible and responsive to product design changes. Furthermore, because of automated equipment, less operator skill is required, productivity is increased, and parts have higher quality, eelability, and dimensional accuracy. Sensors for automated inspection. Recent advances in sensor technology are ‘making on-line or real-time monitoring of manufacturing processes feasible, Directly or indirectly, and with the use of various probes, sensors can detect dimensional accu racy, surface roughness, temperature, force, power, vibration, tool wear, and the pres- ence of external or internal defects. Sensors (see Section 38.8) operate on the principles of strain gages, inductance, capacitance, ultrasonics, acoustics, pneumatics, infrared radiation, optics, lasers, and various electronic gages, Sensors may be tactile (touching) or nontactile. Sensors, in turn, are linked to microprocessors and computers for graphic data display (see also Programmable Logic Controllers, Section 38.25). This capability allows rapid on-line adjustment of any processing parameters in order to produce parts that are consistently within specified standards of tolerance and quality. Such1096 ‘36 + Quality Assurance, Testing, and inspection systems have already been implemented as standard equipmenton many metal-cutting machine tools and grinding machines. — SUMMARY Quality must be built into products, Quality assur- ance is concerned with various aspects of production, such as design, manufacturing, and assembly, and inspection at each step of production for conformance tospecifications. Statistical quality control and process control have become indispensable to modern manu- facturing. They are particularly important for inter- changeable parts and in reducing manufacturing costs. Although all quality control approaches have their limits of applicability to the production of cerain items, implementation of total quality management and the ISO 9000 standard are among the most impor- tant developments in manufacturing. These activities ust have the full support and involvement of a com- pany’s management. Several nondestructive and destructive cesting techniques, each having its own applications, advan- tages, and limitations, are available for inspection of completed parts and products, The traditional ap- proach has been to inspect the part or product after it is manufactured and to accept a certain number of defective parts. The trend now is coward on-line, 100 percent inspection of all parts and products being manufactured. TRENDS + Theimportance of quality, reliability, and safety of products in a global economy and international trade is now being widely recognized, «Total quality control will continue to be a crucial manufacturing activity. However, because of the significant costs involved, return on quality (ROQ) is becoming an important consideration in com- pany operations. ‘+ Sensors based on a variety of principles are being developed for on-line inspection forall aspects of quality. Real-time process control of quality is being studied and implemented extensively. + The trend of on-line automated inspection has become well-established and will continue to be an essential element in manufacturing operations. KEY TERMS Acceptance quality level Lower control limit Quality cicele Acceptance sampling ‘Method of attributes Random sampling ‘Automated inspection ‘Method of variables Reliability Control charts Nondestructive testing Sample size Control limits Normal distribution curve Standard deviation Destructive testing Population Statistical process control Distribution Probability Statistical quality control Experimental design Process capability Statistics Frequency distribution Quality Total quality management Lot size ‘Quality assurance Upper control limitBIBLIOGRAPHY ALG L.S,, Fundamentalsof Industrial Quality Control, 2d ed, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1991, Anderson, D. M., Design for Manufacturabilty, Optimizing Cost, Quality, and Time-to-Market. Lafayette, Calif: CIM Press, 1991. Bentley,] P, Ax Incroduction to Reliability and Qual- ity Engineering, New York: Halsted Press, 1993 Besterfield, D. H., Quality Control, 4th ed. Milwau- kee, Wisconsin: ASQC Quality Press, 1994, Breyfogle, Il, F. W,, Statistical Methods for Testing, Development, and Manufacturing, New York: Wiley Interscience, 1992. Buck, O, and S. M, Wolf, Nondestructive Evalvation: Application to Materials Processing. Metals Park, Ohio: American Society for Metals, 1984 Clements, R. B,, The Handbook of Statistical Metb- ods in Manufacturing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1991. Deming, W. E., Out of the Crisis. Cambridge, Mass. MIT Press, 1986, Doty; L. A., Statistical Process Control, New York: Industrial Press, 1991, Enrick, N, Ly Quality, Reliabilicy, and Process Improvernent, 8th ed. New York: Industrial Press, 1985, Feigenbaum, A. V., Total Quality Control, 34 ed., revised. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991. Grant, E. I, and R. $. Leavenworth, Statistical Qual- ity Control, 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987. Hansen, B. L, and P. M. Ghare, Quality Control and Application. Englewood Cliffs, Nj: Prentice- Hall, 1987, Hare, M, and R. Hart, Quantitative Methods for Quality and Productivity Improvement. Milwau- kee: The American Society for Quality Control, 1989. Imai, M,, Kaizen: The Key to Japan's Competitive Suc- cess. New York: Random House Business Div., 1986. Juran, |. M, Juran on Quality by Design. New Yor Free Press, 1992. Juran, JM, and FM. Gryna, Je. (eds), Juran’s Qual- ity Control Handbook. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988 Bibliography 1097 Joran, J. My and FM. Gryna, Jey Quality Planning and Analysis, 34 ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993. Kane, V,, Defect Prevention: Use of Simple Statistical Tools. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1989. Lamprecht, J. L., Imaplementing the ISO 9000 Series. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1993. Lester, R. H., N. L. Enrick, and H. E. Mottley, Jr Qualiey Coneval for Profit, 2d ed. New Yor Marcel Dekker, 1985, Lewis, E. E,, Introduction to Reliability Engineering. New York: Wiley, 1987. Menon, H. G., TQM in New Product Manufacturing. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992, ‘Metals Handbook, 9h ed. Vol. 17: Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, Metals Park, Ohio: ASM International, 1989. Montgomery, D. C., Introduction to Statistical Qual- ity Control, 2d ed, New York: Wiley, 1991 Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Vol. 1: Leak Test- ing, R. C. McMaster (ed.), 1982; Vol. 2: Liquid Penetrant Tests. R. C. McMaster (ed.), 1982; Vol. 3: Radiography and Radiation Testing. L. E. Bryant (ed.), 1985. Metals Park, Ohio: American Society for Metals Oakland, JS, Statistical Pracess Control: A Practical Guide, New York: Wiley, 1986. Pyzdek, T., What Every Engineer Should Know About Quality Control, Milwaukee: The American Soci- ety for Quality Control, 1989. Robinson, S. L., and R. K. Miller, Automated Inspec- tion and Quality Assurance. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1989 Ross, P, Taguchi Techniques for Quality Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988, Rothery, By 1S 9000, 2d ed. Brookfield, Vermont: Gower Publishing Co, 1993. Taguchi, G., Introduction to Quality Engineering. Lanham, Maryland: UNIPUB/Kraus Interna- tional, 1986. ‘Taguchi, G., Taguchi on Robust Technology Develop- ment: Bringing Quality Engineering Upstream. New York: ASME Press, 1993, Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, Vol. 4: Assembly, Testing, and Quality Control. Dese-1098 36 * Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection bom, Mich.: Society of Manulacrusing Engi- ncers, 1986. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, Vol. 7, Continxous Improvement. Dearborn, Mich. Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1993, Wadsworth, H. M., Handbook of Statistical Mechods for Engineers and Scientists, New York: MeGravv- Hill, 1990. er ree EE REVIEW QUESTIONS 36.1 Explain why major efforts are now being made to build quality into products 36.2 Name several material and process variables that can influence product quality. 36.3 What are chance variations? 364 Describe the terms sample size, random sam- pling, population, and lot size. 36.5 Explain the difference between method of vari- ables and method of attributes. 36.6 Define standard deviation. Why is itimportant? 36.7 Describe what is meant by statistical process control 368 Why are control charts made? How are they used? 36.9 What do control limits indicate? 36.10 Define process capability. How is it used? 36.11 What is acceptance sampling? Why was ic developed? 36.12 What is the difference between series and par- allel reliability? 36.13 Describe the basic features of nondestructive testing techniques that use electrical sources of energy. 36.14 Identify the nondesteuetive rechniques that are capable of detecting internal flaws and those that detect external flaws only. 36.15 If the metal particles in magnetic-particle inspection are the same color as the workpiece itself, how would you go about producing a color contrast to detect flaws? 36.16 How is the depth of a flaw measured in uleca- sonic testing? 36.17 What are the limitations of radiographic tech- nigues? 36.18 Cite applications of thermal inspection tech~ niques in engineering practice. 36.19 How ate lange workpieces accommodated in acoustic holography? 36.20 What are the advantages of automated inspec- tion? Why is it becoming an important part of manufacturing engineering? 36.21 Explain the difference between in-process and post-process inspection of manufactured parts. ‘What trends are there in such inspection? ORT ISSIR raeraesen gene QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS 36.22 Commenton the ideas of Deming, Taguchi, and Jaran. What aspects of their concepts would be difficult to implement in 3 typical manufactur- ing facility? Why? 36.23 What is the consequence of setting lower and. upper specifications closer to the peak of the curve in Fig. 36.3? 36.24 Identify several factors chat can cause a process to become out of control. 36.25 Should products be designed and buile for a certain expected life? Explain, 36.26 Describe situations in which destructive testing techniques are unavoidable 36.27 Which of the nondestructive inspection tech- niques are suitable for nonmetallic macerials? 36.28 Describe the advantages of the type of system shown in Fig. 36.6. 36.29 Make a survey of available literature and con- tact vatious associations, then make a compre- hensive table concerning the life expectancy of various consumer products such s heating and cooling systems, major and smill appliances,electronic equipment, ete. Comment on your observations, 36.30 Assume that you are in charge of manufacrur- ing operations for a company which has not yet adopted statistical process control techniques. Describe how you would go abour developing 2 plan to do so, including the training of your workforce. 36.31 Give examples that produce curves similar ¢o Figs. 36.52 and b, QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS 36.35 Assume that in the example problem imme- diately following Section 36.6.2, the number of samples was 5 instead of 10. Using che top half of the data in the table, recalculate com trol limits and the standard deviation, Com- pare your observations to the results obtained from using 10 samples, 36.36 Calculate the control limits for averages and ranges for the following: number of samples = 4,2 = 70,R =7, 36.37 Calculate the control limits for the following: umber of samples = 3, ¥ = 365, UCL, = 475. 36.38 In an inspection with sample size 7 and a sample number of 50, it was found that the averige range was 12 and the average of aver ages was 73, Calculate the control limits for averages and ranges. 36.39 Determine the control limits for che data shown in the tableat right. Synthesis and Design 1099 3632 Why is reliability important in manufacturing engincering? Give several examples, 36.53, Would icbe desirable to incorporate some of the nondestructive inspection techniques into met~ alwotking machinery? Give a specific example and make a sketch of such a machine. 36.34 Give examples of the acoustiimpact inspec- sion technique, other than those given in the text x * % x a 055 0.60 087 0.55 0.89 0.55 0.60 Osa 0.55, 0.50 055 0.5% ose 0.57 0.50 0.50 0.58 0.58 0.60 O86 0.60 0.61 0.55 0.61 36.40 The average of averages of a number of samples of size 9 was determined to be 125. The average range was 17.82 and the standard deviation was 6. The following measurements were taken in a sample: 120, 132, 124, 130, 118, 132, 135, 121, and 127. Is the process in control? 36.41. The tend in the clectronies and computer-chip industries isto make products where itis stated that the quality is approaching six sigma (60). ‘What would be the reject rate per million parts? o_O SYNTHESIS AND DESIGN 36482 Assume that the introduction to this chapter ‘was missing, Prepareacomprehensiveintroduc- sion, describing the highlights of this chapter. 3643 This chapter briefly described the concept of ‘experimental design used in identifying the vari- ables that affect product quality. Make a survey of availabie literature and describe this vech- nique in greater detail, giving a specific example related to manufacturing, 36.44 Review the manufacturing processes described in Pacts II-V and select three different opera- tions in which the systems shown in Fig. 36.6 can be implemented. Present designs ilstrat- ing these applications,Human-Factors Engineering, Safety, and Product Liability 37.1 Introduction 37.4 Environmental Considerations 37.2 Human-Factors Engineering 37.5 Product Liability 37.3 Safety EEE 37.1 1100 Introduction Understanding the interaction of human beings with machines and the workplace envi- ronmentis essential for the proper design of machinery and the development of safeand efficient working conditions in manufacturing plants. Regardless of the level of auto- mation, workers arc always involved in one or more aspects of production, including the efficient use, maintenance, and repair of machinery, tooling, and equipment. Human-factors engineering, also called human engineering, is concerned with all aspects of human-machine interactions. An essentially synonymous term is ergo- nomics, based on the Greek words ergo, meaning work, and nomics, meaning man- agement, Human-factors engineering has two major goals: (1) to maximize the quality and efficiency of work; and (2) to maximize human values such as operator safety, comfort, and satisfaction and to minimize fatigue and stress. These goals occasionally conflict, requiring product engineers to rely on theirjudgment in developing a reason- ably safe machine or workplace. This chapter describes those aspects of human-factors engineering that are par- ticularly relevant to manufacturing operations. {talso outlines the basic design consid- erations for the safe interaction of human beings with machinery and the workplace environment. Finally, this chapter focuses on the increasingly important topic of37.2 Human-Factors Engineering 1101 product liability, which considers the legal responsibilities of the manufacturer and the user of a product in the event of bodily injury or physical and financial losses caused by the malfunction, misuse, or failure of a product. From the topics described in Chapter 36, itis evident that product quality con cepts and philosophies are an integral part of the topics covered in this chapter as well. Product design and engineering and production processes are part of a cortinuous improvement system, from the initial concept of a product to its final use by the cus. tomer. New developments include Quality Function Deployment, which is a tool to identify human factors, safety, and product liability questions. ——————— 37.2 Human-Factors Engineering Human-factors engineering deals with applying the knowledge gained from human physiology and psychology concerning the characteristics and capabilities of the human body and mind. These include such factors as height, weight, vision, hearing, posture, strengch, age, intelligence, educational level, dexterity, and reaction time, Numerous statistical data relating to these characteristics are available. 37.2.1 Workstations Machinery and related equipment should be designed so that they can be operated with undue strain on the worker (for comfort), and with minimum unnecessary and wasted motion (for efficient operation). Muscle-strain injuries (called cumulative trauma disorders) are common in the workplace. Such injuries can be avoided through application of proper lifting procedures and the use of mechanical devices when necessary. Wasted motion can be minimized, for example, by arranging sequen- tial controls in series. Repetitive motion in the workplace, such as by assembly line workers, typists, and data-entry workers, can cause repetitive stress injuries. The result is soreness and achiness in the arms, neck, shoulders, wrists, or hands; tingling and numbness; loss of strength; or muscle inflammation, One of the most common cases is a hand and wrist disorder called carpal tunnel syridrome, a painful condition involving compression of the wrist’s median nerve. Proper training, changes in one’s posture and movements, and redesign of the equipment and machinery used are helpful. Computer keyboards, for example, are being redesigned to reduce such injuries. Controls and displays should be placed in appropriate locations and should not interfere with each other. They should be identified and marked clearly so that they can be understood and operated without confusion. Local and background lighting of machinery should be adequate to minimize eye strain, and glare from improper light- ing or reflective surfaces should be minimized. The correct type of information dis- play depends on the application. For example, numerical counters are preferable to all1102 37 » Human-Factors Engineering, Safety, and Product Liability other display methods when precise values of static information are desired. However, for rapidly changing information, a pointer moving along a fixed scale is preferable to a counter because of the limited time available for reading values on the scale. Workstations should be arranged to provide efficient movement of people, parts, and products, Sufficient space should be provided for storage, access, maintenance, and material-handling equipment when necessary. 37.2.2 Noise [Noise can significantly affect operator performance and health. Sustained exposure to high noise levels can cause permanent deafness. Excessive noise also interferes with communication and can lead to misunderstood messages. Noise intensity, measured in decibels by a sound meter, varies widely depending on the type of equipment involved. Although they are somewhat controversial, permissible noise levels have been established by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). In the OSHA guidelines, noise level and operator exposure time are inversely related. High levels of noise emission by machines may not be objectionable in itself; i is the level of worker exposure to noise that is important. ‘Although all machines emit noise, major sources of noise typically are air- actuated mechanisms, gears, material-handlingequipment, chutes for conveying goods, impacting-type machinery, hydraulic pumps, motors, fans, and biowers. Noise levels, can be reduced by mutfling equipment, totally enclosing machinery, lining housings and chutes, and modifying machinery components, In arcas of excessive noise, per~ sonal protective equipment such as ear plugs or ear muffs can reduce worker exposure to noise. Regular maintenance and replacement of worn components, such as gears and bearings, are also effective means of reducing noise levels. Machinery and floor vibrations not only emir noise, but also are detrimental to the dimensional accuracy and surface finish of parts produced. 37.3 Safety Safety may be defined as a judgment of the acceptability of danger, where danger js the combination of hazard and risk. Thus the safety of a machine or workplace depends on the hazard and risk involved with machine operation. Hazard is defined as an injury producer, while risk is defined as the likelihood (probability) that an injury will occur. The causes of injury are varied and include: + Parts of the body being caught in or between machine components. + Being struck by an object. + Falling from equipment or structures.373 Safety 1103 * Slipping or tripping on walking or working surfaces. + Explosions and fires. + Exposure to dangerous levels of electricity: + Exposure to extremes of temperature and burns. + Exposure to and ingestion of toxic chemicals. + Excessive physical strain. Employers are responsible for providing a reasonably safe workplace. Various safety and health standards have been promulgated in the United States, most notably by the American National Standards Institute, These standards have been the basis for many governmental regulations adopted by OSHA. Safety litevarute is availabie from the National Safety Council (NSC) and similar organizations, both in the United States and in other industrialized countries. By their very nature, manufacturing operations involve safety hazards of varying degrees. Nevertheless, a reasonably safe working environment is imperative. Some hazards are open and the means of controlling them are obvious, while others are hidden and require additional precautions. Safety professionals and oxganizations have defined the following priorities for eliminating hazards in the workplace: + Eliminate the hazard through machine design. * Apply safeguarding technology. + Use warning signs and labels. + Train and instruct the worker. + Prescribe personal protective equipment. Certain common machinery safeguarding methods have been developed, These ace briefly described below. Barrier guards. When properly designed and maintained, barrier guards pre- Yent operator exposure to common injury producers such as nip points and pinch points. They may be fixed, adjustable, or self-adjusting. Barrier guards also identify hazardous areas of machinery and, in some applications, prevent projectiles (such as broken pieces of a grinding wheel) from being thrown from the machine, Mechanical, electrical, hydraulic and optical interlocks have been applied to prevent machine opera- tion unless barrier guards are in place (Fig. 37.1). Unless they are bypassed or are unreliable, interlocks increase the effectiveness of barrier guards in most applications. Safety devices. Passive and active safety devices help reduce the risk or severity of injury. These devices include pull-back mechanisms for the operator's hands, seat belts, dead-man controls, and presence-sensing devices (Fig. 372).1104 37 + Human-Factors Engineering, Safety, and Product Liability FIGURE 37.1 Barrier guards: (a) spring-type interlock shuts off power ta machine when guard door is ‘opened: (b) guard can only be removed by removing the plug, which then shuts off power Spring type to machine, Source: Triodyne, Inc. interlock FIGURE S72 —<—— (a) Presence-sonsing device, with light beams forming acurtain across the zone of operation. (b} Breaking the curtain of light beams by operator's brake on machine and disconnects clutch. Source: Triodyne, Inc. @ co) ds sets Safety during maintenance of machinery. Various types of servicing, adjust- iment, maintenance, troubleshooting, and repair must be performed on machines with guards temporarily removed or with safety devices bypassed. Safety devices that are both compatible and critical for safe machine operation can be incompatible when performing maintenance and repair. It is the employer’s responsibility to ensure that maintenance personnel are competent to interact with types of hazards expected, and the employee's responsibility to perform the maintenance in a safe manner. The person who performs maintenance is required to place the machinery into the Zero Mechanical State (ZMS) before entering the machine or placing any part of the body into the path of a moving part. The ZMS concept includes not only locking out (lockout) and tagging main power disconnect switches (tagout) as required by law (so that another employee doesn’t unknowingly turn on the equipment while a37.4 Environmentat Considerations 1105 coworker is engaged in maintenance), but also requires that all potential and kinetic energy sources be restrained or controlled so that no unexpected energy release occurs, Examples include releasing compressed air to the atmosphere, isolating pres- surized hydraulic fluid, restraining energy stored in springs, and lowering suspended loads. Troubleshooting with the power on is often necessary and acceptable, as is safety device removal and bypassing during maintenance activities. For example, ifthe failure of an electrical interlock is the cause of equipment malfunction, bypassing each inter- lock is necessary until the problem interlock is isolated and identified. However, the process of defeating safety devices must be performed only after ZMS has been achieved. Once the service or maintenance has been completed, all of the safety devices must be restored and their operation verified before releasing the equipment back to production. Warnings. Posted signs, signals, and instructions warn the worker about hidden hazards, danger-control methods, or nonobvious consequences. Although inconsis- tent in actual use, the format and size of warnings have been prescribed by industey standards and governmental codes. Personal protective equipment. Goggles, face shields, er plugs, helmets, respi- rators, and protective clothing such as gloves and aprons ate types of personal protec- tive equipment that reduce worker exposure to hazards. Approximately 85 percent of the accidents involving machinery are caused by the operator, 5 percent are caused by mechanical failure, and the remainder are caused by other factors. Employers are required to retrofit old machinery with guards. Manufac- turers must include adequate guarding and safety devices on new machinery. Further- more, employers who emphasize training are much more successful in reducing accidents through hazard recognition techniques and the development of safer work practices. Now that literally all machines are guarded, experience shows that machine designers and builders cannot influence safety to the extent that machine users can. 37.4 Environmental Considera’ The possible adverse effects of industrial activities and related operations on the health of individual workers as well as on our environment are, by now, well recognized by manufacturing industries, the public at large, and loca, state, and federal governments. Environmental conditions regarding air, water, and land quality, and their control, are important aspects of all manufacturing activities, as is the conservation of natural resources, An understanding and appreciation of our ecological system is an integral pact of this activity, including potential global climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, loss of the earth’s biological diversity, as well as less global issues such as oil1106 37 « Human-Factors Engineering, Safety, and Product Liability spills, nuclear power-plant accidents, hazardous waste sites, the spread of pesticides, and leaking underground storage tanks. Although there are many factors involved in environmental considerations, those that are impacted primarily by manufacturing activities can be divided into two cate- gories: (a) pollutants from industrial plants such as solid and liquid wasce, wastewater, and discharges from various facilities such as heat-treating plants, and (b) atmospheric pollutants, such as air pollution resulting from foundries and the use of coolants, lubricants, and various fluids in manufacturing operations. Over the past several years, the United States Congress has enacted various legislation that regulates a wide variety of industrial practices to improve our environment. The major regulations are outlined below, as they relate to manufacturing operations. OSHA concerns itself with unsafe conditions in the workplace. It encourages both employers and employees to reduce hazards in the workplace, including expo- sure to chemical and toxic substances, and implements existing or new safety and health programs. Examples of OSHA regulations directly relevant to manufacturing activities are: Hazard Communication Standard; Right-to-Know; In-Plant Air Qual- ity Standard; Respirator Maintenance Program; Laboratory Safety Plan; Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals Standard; Confined Space Entry Regulations; and Lockout/ Tagout Standard, The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) was estab- lished by this Act. It conducts research, experiments, and demonstrations to identify toxic materials, determines safe exposure levels, and develops methodology for estab- lishing health hazards, The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), established by the Executive Branch of the US. government, is charged with several responsibilities concerning toxic substances, clean air, water pollution, safe drinking water, and solid waste. The Toxic Substances Control Act regulates the manufacture, processing, distribution, use, and disposal of chemicals that present an unreasonable risk to humans or the eaviron- ment, The Clean Air Act has the responsibility to set national air-quality standards, through controlling emissions from stationary as well as mobile sources, including, for example, emission of volatile components in lubricants. The Federal Water Pollu- tion Act, also known as the Clean Water Act, has the responsibility to enforce the limiting of direct or indirect discharge of pollutants into navigable waters. Solid waste is controlled through two statutes. One is the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, which requires the EPA to establish standards and regulations for hazardous waste generation and its storage, transportation, treatment, and disposal. Wastes are considered hazardous if they exhibit one or more of the following char- acteristics: ignitability (Gre or explosion), corrosivity (damage to containers, thus allowing escape of wastes), or toxicity. The other statute is the Comprehensive Envi- ronmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act, which regulates existing haz- ardous waste sites, including unauthorized discharges and spills. Additional EPA regulations include Underground Storage Tank Regulation; Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure Plan; and Used Oil Regulations. Permits are required to discharge pollutants into our waterways. Within a few years, all facilites will need a permit to discharge pollution into the air. The scope of37.5 Product Liability 1107 this program is wide, in that it will require a facility to compile all its air-pollution emissions into a single document. The manufacturing engineer will have to work closely with the environmental staff because a permit may contain certain limits and restrictions that cannot be quickly modified. For exemple, a permit may contain an enforceable condition as to the operating capacity of a process line. In today’s world of just-in-time production (see Section 39.11), such conditions may become very uneconomical. Itis apparent from this brief review that manufacturing engineers and the manage- ment of manufacturing enterprises have great responsibility in protecting ous environ ‘ment. Significant costs can be involved in implementing a large number of regulations that are mandated by local, state, and federal governments. For example, the average cost to dispose of metalworking fluids, such as a water-base cutting fluid, is now on the order of $3 per gallon. In the long run, however, it is in the interest of all of us to ensure the maintenance of a healthy and safe environment in which to live and work. ——— 37.5 Product Liability In the United States alone, at least 10 million people (4 percent of the population) suffer injuries on the job cach year. At least 10,000 injuries are fatal (although this ‘umber has been slowly declining), and 30 percent of the injuries are classified as severe. As a result, millions of workdays are lost, with direct and indirect costs esti- mated at more than $30 billion per year. These injuries, deaths, and expenses are cen- tral to the issue of product liability. Assume that you have just purchased a hammer with a wooden handle. After using it for a few months, the handle breaks and the head of the hammer hits you, using serious injury to your hand and requiring surgery. Further assume that the injury leaves your hand permanently deformed, and as a result, you cannot continue in your former job, which provided you with a good income. What recourse should you have to recover for damages to your hand, time lost from work, and its effects on your future employment and-livelihood? Until about one hundred years ago, the prominent legal theory applicable to machinery manufacturers was based on the Roman doctrine of caveat emptor, mean- ing let the buyer beware, If an injury resulted from the use of an unreasonably dangerous product, the injured party had virtually no legal recourse for obtaining compensation for the injury, In about 1900, the magnitude of the USS. economy called for a different legal theory to bind manufacturers to their products. Since then, judicial decisions have gradually changed product liability doctrines. 37.5.1 Negligence Under the legal theory of negligence, a party is liable for damages if it fails to act as a reasonable and prudent party would under like or similar circumstances. For negli- gence theory to apply, the injured party, or plaintiff, must demonstrate two condi-1108 37 « Human-Factors Engineering, Safety, and Product Liability tions: (1) that the standard of care was violated by the accused party, or defendant; and (2) that this violation was the proximate cause of the accident. The plaintiff must also demonstrate no contributory negligence in causing his or her own misfortune. Several states rely on the concept of comparative negligence, or comparative fault, when deciding to what degree each party is responsible for an accident, For example, in comparative negligence, a jury may find that a plaintiff was 50 percent responsible for the accident and reduce the monetary reward by that amouat. The manufacturer and distributor of the product involved may cach be held 25 percent liable and thus share equally in the plaintif’s reduced compensation 3752 Strict liability Under the legal theory of strict liability, the plaintiff must prove that: * The product contained a defect that rendered it unreasonably dangerous (such as acracked bolt in a lawnmower). + The defect existed at the time the product left the defendant's hands (the manufac- turer used a cracked bolt). +The defect was a proximate cause of the injury (the crack propagated during use of the product by the plaintiff, and the bolt broke, injuring the plaintiff) and thus the product was unreasonably dangerous. Under strict-liability laws, the actions of the plaintiff are irrelevant (the lawn- mower was used on rough terrain). Whether the plaintiff acted as a reasonable and prudent party has no bearing on a claim based on strict liability. The emphasis is on the product, and a defense based on the contributory negligence of the plaintiff is invalid in most jurisdictions. Furthermore, manufacturers are required to anticipate reasonably foreseeable misuses of that product by the consumer (dropping the lawn- mower on the pavement while removing it from the trunk of an automobile). 37.5.3 Defects ‘The definition of a defect has evolved over time, We may now define defect asa fault, flaw, or irregularity that causes weakness, failure, or inadequacy in the form and func~ tion of a product that presents a risk of injury. A defect may result from product design, material selection, and/or manufacturing or production error. However, not all products that present risk of injury are defective. A sharp knife is not a defective product and is not unreasonably dangerous because the sharpness of the blade is essential for the intended use of the knife. The risk of injury is outweighed by the usefulness of the knife, which is made possible by its sharpness. Furthermore, the training that each of us receives at an early age in handling « knife helps to make this product reasonably safe Legal tests of whether a product is defective generally involve the following factors:37.8 Product Liability 1109 + Usefulness and desirability of the product. + Availablity of safer alternative products or work methods. * Likelihood of injury and its probable seriousness. * — Obviousness of the hazard. + Common knowledge and normal public expectation of the danger involved in the use of the product. + Avoidability of injury by ordinary care in the use of the product. + Ability to eliminate the hazard without seriously impairing the usefulness of the product. + State of the art in the particular industry at the time of product manufacture. * Cost of making the product safer. ‘+ Consumer willingness to pay for a higher-priced but safer product. + Bargaining power of the manufacturer as contrasted to that of the consumer. Warnings and instructions, A product can be considered to be defective if warnings that would have prevented the accident are not provided on and with the product. Warning theories are complex, nor all warnings improve operator safety, and ‘warnings are not a substitute for training and instructions. Relevant instructions for use and maintenance should be presented in a clear and readable manner. Warnings should clearly instruct the user about what to do and what not to do in using the product safely. Details should be presented in instruction, operating, and maintenance manuals that accompany the product. 37.5.4 Designing and manufacturing safe products Over time and on the basis of accumulated experience, certain guidelines have been established for designing and manufacturing safe products. Icis essential that product safety be viewed in terms of its design, manufacture, distribution, and ultimate use. Product safety should be the collective responsibility of all parties concerned, includ- ing design, materials, and manufacturing engineers, machine operators, supervisors, inspectors, shipping personnel, and management. Methodologies are now being devel. oped, such as the Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA), and are being used to identify potential hazards associated with product designs and workplaces. Product safety and loss-control programs should be implemented through committees representing all departments and having the full support of management. ‘The basic guidelines for designing and manufacturing safe products are: a) Product design concepts should anticipate obvious and possible dangers in prod- uct use and foreseeable misuses as well as the injuries that failure of one or more components could cause,