Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Pulchowk campus, Institute of Engineering,

Tribhuvan University

MANUFACTURING AND PRODUCTION PROCESSES

Lecture 4: Solidification Process and Powder
Metallurgy

Dr. Shree Raj Shakya

May 30, 2013
 Metal Casting Process

• One of the oldest processes to shape metals into useful

products
• Involves
– pouring molten metal into a mold patterned after the part to be
manufactured
– allowing it to solidify, and
– removing the part from the mold
• first was used around 4000 B.C. to make ornaments, arrowheads,
and various other objects
• wide variety of products can be cast
• process is capable of producing intricate shapes in one
piece, including those with internal cavities, such as engine
blocks
Cast parts in a typical automobile
Outline of metal-casting processes
 Reason for selecting Casting processes:
• can produce complex shapes and can incorporate internal
cavities or hollow sections.
• Very large parts can be produced in one piece.
• can utilize materials that are difficult or uneconomical to
process by other means (less processing waste produced)
• can be economically competitive with other
manufacturing processes
• Almost all metals can be cast in (or nearly in) the final
shape desired, often requiring only minor finishing
operations (important net-shape manufacturing
technologies)
Important considerations in casting operations

• Flow of the molten metal into the mold cavity

(mold design and fluid-flow characteristics)
• Solidification and cooling of the metal in the
mold (metallurgical and thermal properties of
the metal)
• Influence of the type of mold material (rate of
cooling)
 Solidification Phenomena
• After molten metal is poured into a mold, a series of
events takes place during the solidification of the
metal and its cooling to ambient temperature.
• These events greatly influence the size, shape,
uniformity, and chemical composition of the grains
formed throughout the casting
– which in turn influence the overall properties of the metal
• The significant factors affecting these events are
– type of metal
– thermal properties of both the metal and the mold
– geometric relationship between volume and surface area
of the casting
– shape of the mold.
 Solidification: Pure Metals

temperature = f (time) density = f (time)

 Solidification: Pure Metals
• Because a pure metal has a clearly defined melting (or
freezing) point, it solidifies at a constant temperature
– for example: pure aluminum solidifies at 660°C, iron at 1537°C, and
tungsten at 3410°C
• After the temperature of the molten metal drops to its
freezing point, its temperature remains constant while the
latent heat of fusion is given off
• solidification front (solid-liquid interface) moves through the
molten metal from the mold walls in toward the center
• solidified metal (casting) is taken out of the mold and allowed
to cool to ambient temperature
• metals shrink while cooling and solidification
• shrinkage => microcracking and associated porosity
=> mechanical properties of the casting
Solidification: Alloys
Solidification: Alloys
 Solidification: Alloys
• Solidification begins when the temperature drops below the liquidus
(TL) and is complete when it reaches the solidus (TS)
• Within this temperature range, the alloy is in a mushy or pasty state
consisting of columnar dendrites and liquid metal between the dendrite
arms. Dendrites have three-dimensional arms and branches (secondary
arms), which eventually interlock
• The width of the mushy zone is described in terms of a temperature
difference, known as the freezing range:
– Freezing zone = TL-TS
• pure metals have zero freezing range (solidification front moves as a
plane without forming a mushy zone) - cast iron
• For alloys,
– short freezing range => temperature difference of less than 50°C
– long freezing range => temperature difference of greater than 110°C
– Ferrous castings generally have narrow mushy zones
– aluminum and magnesium alloys have wide mushy zones
Cast structures of metals solidified in a square mold:
(a) pure metals (b) solid-solution alloys
(c) structure obtained by using nucleating agents
• At mold walls - metal cools
rapidly and produces solidified
skin or shell of fine equiaxed
grains
• Grains grow in direction
opposite to heat transfer (out
through mold)
• grains that have favorable
orientation grow preferentially
(columnar grains)
• grains that have substantially
different orientations are
blocked from further growth
• process of grain development
(homogenous nucleation) -
grains (crystals) grow upon
themselves, starting at the
mold wall
 Effects of Cooling Rates
• Slow cooling rates (on the order of 102 K/s) or long local
solidification times => coarse dendritic structures with
large spacing between dendrite arms
• Higher cooling rates (on the order of 104 K/s) or short local
solidification times => structure becomes finer with
smaller dendrite arm spacing
• Still higher cooling rates (on the order of from 106 to 108
K/s) => structures developed are amorphous
• Structures developed and the resulting grain size influence
the properties of the casting
• As grain size decreases
– strength and ductility of the cast alloy increase
– microporosity (interdendritic shrinkage voids) in the casting
decreases
– tendency for the casting to crack (hot tearing) during
solidification decreases
 Fluid Flow
Typical riser-gated casting

• molten metal is poured through a pouring cup or basin

• flows through gating system (consisting of sprue, runners, and gates) into the mold cavity
• sprue is tapered vertical channel through which molten metal flows downward in mold
• Runners are channels that carry the molten metal from the sprue into the mold cavity or
connect the sprue to the gate (that portion of the runner through which the molten metal
enters the mold cavity).
• Risers (also called feeders) serve as reservoirs of molten metal to supply any molten
metal necessary to prevent porosity due to shrinkage during solidification
 Fundamentals of metal casting
Heating and Pouring
Heating the metal

H = ρ V { Cs (Tm – To) + Hf + Ct (Tp – Tm)}

– H = total heat required to raise the temperature of the

metal to the pouring temperature, J
– ρ = density, Kg/m3
– V = volume of metal being heated, m3
– Cs = specific heat of the solid metal, J/Kg - °C
– Tm = melting temperature of the metal, °C
– To = starting temperature – usually ambient, °C
– Hf = latent heat of fusion, J/Kg
– Ct = specific heat of liquid metal, J/ Kg - °C
– Tp = pouring temperature, °C
 Fundamentals of metal casting
Heating and Pouring

• Pouring the Molten Metal

– Pouring Temperature
– Super Heat
– Pouring rate
– Turbulence – Mold Erosion
 Fundamentals of metal casting
Fluid Flow
Bernoulli’s Theorem – Sum of the energies at any two points in a flowing liquid are
equal

h1 + p1/ρ + v12/(2g) = h2 + p2/ρ + v22/(2g) + F

– h = head, m
– p = pressure on the liquid, N/m2
– ρ = density, Kg/m3
– v = flow velocity, m/sec
– F = head losses due to friction, m
• If the pouring basin has a much larger cross sectional area than the sprue bottom,
then the velocity of the molten metal at the top of the pouring basin is very low and
can be taken to be zero. If frictional losses are due to a viscous dissipation of energy,
then F in Equation can be taken to be a function of the vertical distance (h) and is
often approximated as a linear function
• Therefore, the velocity of the molten metal leaving the gate is obtained as
v = c √ (2gh)
• h = distance from the sprue base to the liquid metal height
• c = friction factor (between 0 and 1)
 Fundamentals of metal casting
Fluid Flow
Mass Continuity – rate of flow is constant for
incompressible liquids and in a system with
impermeable walls the

Q = v1 A1 = v2 A2
– Q = volumetric flow rate, m3/s
– v = velocity, m/s
– A = Cross sectional area of the liquid, m2

A1/ A2 = √ (h2/h1)
 Fundamentals of metal casting
Fluid Flow
If the liquid level has reached a height of x at the gate, then the
gate velocity is
v = c √ {2g (h-x)}

• The flow rate through the gate will be the product of this
velocity and the gate area according to Mass Continuity
equation
• The shape of the casting will determine the height as a
function of time
• Mold Filling Time = casting volume /mean flow rate = V/ Q
– V = Volume of mold cavity, m3
– Q = Volume flow rate, v x A, m3/s
 Fundamentals of metal casting
Flow Characteristics (Reynolds number)
• presence of turbulence (as opposed to the laminar flow) in
fluid flow in gating systems
• Turbulence is flow that is highly chaotic => aspiration in
casting systems
• Reynolds number, Re, (ratio of the inertia to the viscous
forces) is used to quantify presence of turbulence
• v = velocity of the liquid
• D = diameter of the channel
•  = density of the liquid
•  = viscosity of the liquid
Re < 2000 = Laminar flow
2000<Re<20000 = Mixture of laminar and turbulent flow - Harmless
Re > 20000 = Turbulent flow – Air entrainment and formation of dross/slag (the
scum that forms on the surface of molten metal) from the reaction of the liquid
metal with air and other gases <= vacuum casting, using properly designed
pouring basins and runner systems, using filters (ceramics, mica, or fiberglass)
Fundamentals of metal casting
Solidification Time
• During the early stages of
solidification, thin skin
begins to form at the
relatively cool mold walls,
• as time passes, thickness
of the skin increases
• With flat mold walls, this
thickness is proportional
to square root of time
• Thus, doubling the time
will make skin √2 = 1.41
times or 41% thicker
 Fundamentals of metal casting
Solidification Time
• The solidification time is a function of the volume of a casting and its
surface (Chvorinov’s rule)

• C = constant that reflects

a) mold material
b) metal properties (including latent heat)
c) temperature
• parameter n has a value between 1.5 and 2, but usually is taken as 2
• Thus, large solid sphere will solidify and cool to ambient temperature at a much
slower rate than smaller solid sphere due to
 Volume  (Diameter)3
 Area  (Diameter)2
 Fundamentals of metal casting
Solidified skin on a steel casting

• effects of mold geometry and elapsed time on skin thickness and

shape are shown in Figure
• unsolidified molten metal has been poured from the mold at
different time intervals ranging from 5 seconds to 6 minutes.
• skin thickness increases with elapsed time
• skin is thinner at internal angles (location A in the figure) than at
external angles (location B)
• The latter condition is caused by slower cooling at internal angles
than at external angles.
 Fundamentals of metal casting
Shrinkage
• Because of their thermal expansion characteristics, metals
usually shrink (contract) during solidification and while cooling
to room temperature
• Shrinkage, which causes dimensional changes and sometimes
warping and cracking,
• is the result of the following three sequential events:
1) Contraction of molten metal as it cools prior to its solidification
2) Contraction of metal during phase change from liquid to solid
(latent heat of fusion)
3) Contraction of solidified metal (the casting) as its temperature
drops to ambient temperature (largest shrinkage occurs)
• some metals (such as gray cast iron) expand. (The reason is that
graphite has a relatively high specific volume, and when it
precipitates as graphite flakes during solidification of the gray
cast iron, it causes a net expansion of the metal.)
Fundamentals of metal casting
Shrinkage
 Categories of casting defects
• International Committee of Foundry Technical Associations has
developed a standardized nomenclature consisting of seven basic
categories of casting defects, identified with boldface capital letters:

• A-Metallic projections, consisting of fins, flash, or projections such as

swells and rough surfaces

• B-Cavities, consisting of rounded or rough internal or exposed cavities

including blowholes, pinholes, and shrinkage cavities
 Categories of casting defects
• C-Discontinuities, such as cracks, cold or hot tearing, and cold shuts. If
the solidifying metal is constrained from shrinking freely, cracking and
tearing may occur. Although several factors are involved in tearing,
coarse grain size and the presence of low-melting-point segregates
along the grain boundaries (intergranular) increase the tendency for hot
tearing. Cold shut is an interface in a casting that lacks complete fusion
because of the meeting of two streams of liquid metal from different
gates.
 Categories of casting defects
• D-Defective surface, such as surface folds, laps, scars, adhering sand layers,
and oxide scale

• E-Incomplete casting, such as misruns (due to premature solidification),

insufficient volume of the metal poured, and runout (due to loss of metal from
the mold after pouring). Incomplete castings also can result from the molten
metal being at too low a temperature or from pouring the metal too slowly

• F-Incorrect dimensions or shape, due to factors such as improper shrinkage

allowance, pattern-mounting error, irregular contraction, deformed pattern, or
Warped casting
 Categories of casting defects
• G-Inclusions, Which form during melting, solidification, and molding;
these are generally nonmetallic. They are regarded as harmful because
they act as stress raisers and thus reduce the strength of the casting.
Inclusions may form during melting when the molten metal reacts with
the environment (usually oxygen) or with the Crucible or mold material.
Chemical reactions among components in the molten metal itself may
produce inclusions; slags and other foreign material entrapped in the
molten metal also become inclusions, although filtering can remove
particles as small as 30 um. Finally, spalling of the mold and core
surfaces can produce inclusions, thus indicating the importance of the
quality of molds and of their maintenance.
 Measures to reduce porosity
• Porosity caused by shrinkage can be reduced or eliminated by
various means, including following:
– Adequate liquid metal should be provided to avoid cavities caused by
Chill shrinkage
– Internal or external chills, as those used in sand casting, also are an
effective means of reducing shrinkage porosity. The function of chills is
to increase the rate of solidification in critical regions. Internal chills
usually are made of the same material as the casting and are left in
the casting. However, problems may arise that involve proper fusion
of the internal chills with the casting; thus, foundries generally avoid
the use of internal chills for this reason. External chills may be made of
the same material as the casting or may be iron, copper, or graphite
– With alloys, porosity can be reduced or eliminated by making the
temperature gradient steep. For example, mold materials that have
higher thermal conductivity may be used
– Subjecting the casting to hot isostatic pressing is another method of
reducing porosity
Measures to reduce porosity
Internal or external chills
Measures to reduce porosity
hot isostatic pressing
 Porosity caused by dissolved gas
• Because gases are more soluble in liquid metals than
solid metals,
– when metal begins to solidify, dissolved gases are expelled
from the solution
• Gases may result from reactions of molten metal
with mold materials
• Gases either accumulate in regions of existing
porosity (such as in interdendritic regions) or cause
microporosity in the casting, particularly in cast iron,
aluminum, and copper
• Dissolved gases may be removed from molten metal
– by flushing or purging with an inert gas or
– by melting and pouring the metal in vacuum
• If dissolved gas is O2, molten metal can be deoxidized
– Steel usually is deoxidized with aluminum, silicon,
– copper-based alloys with phosphorus, copper,
titanium, or zirconium bearing materials
Thank You