KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY. KUMASI

DEPARTMENT OF MATERIALS AND METALLURGICAL

ENGINEERING
2015
Course: Foundry Technology (MSE 357)
Course Instructor: Prof. S. Kwofie
Assisted by
Priscilla Arthur
1
 Recommended References
• The New Metallurgy of Cast Metals (Castings).
Second Edition. By John Campbell

• Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,

(Materials, Processes, and Systems). 4th Edition. By
Mikell P. Groover.

2
 Course content 1
 Overview of Casting Technology
• Casting Processes
• Sand-Casting Molds
 Heating and Pouring
• Heating the Metal
• Charge calculations
• Pouring the Molten Metal
• Engineering Analysis of Pouring
• Fluidity
 Solidification and Cooling
• Solidification of Metals
• Phase changes during Solidification
• Solidification Time
• Shrinkage
• Directional Solidification
• Riser Design 3
 Introduction
 Definition of casting:
• Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other
force into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity.

• Casting is also applied to the part that is made by this process

• Casting includes both the casting of ingots and the casting of shapes.

• The term ingot describes a large casting that is simple in shape and
intended for subsequent reshaping by processes such as
rolling ,forging, etc.

• Shape casting involves the production of more complex geometries

that are much closer to the final desired shape of the part or product
4
 Advantages of casting
• Casting materials are usually metals

• All metals can be cast

• It is most often used for making complex shapes that would be

otherwise difficult to make by other methods

• Casting can be used to produce very large parts.

• Some casting methods are quite suited to mass production.

• Some casting processes are capable of producing parts to net

or near net shape 5
 Disadvantages of casting
• Limitations on mechanical properties

• Porosity

• Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some casting

processes

• safety hazards to humans when processing hot molten metals

• Environmental problems.

• Dental crowns, jewelry, engine blocks and heads for automotive

vehicles, machine frames, railway wheels, frying pans, pipes, etc.
are produced by casting 6
 Overview of casting
• Casting is usually carried out in a foundry.
• A foundry is a factory equipped with materials where
casting processes are performed
• Workers performing the casting operations are called
foundrymen.

• Casting is performed in mold: Mold contains a cavity

whose geometry determines the shape of the cast part
 Mold types
• Open
• Closed- (most widely used)
7
Overview cont’d

8
 Mold features
• Pattern: It is usually made of wood or metal, is a replica of the final product and
is used for preparing mold cavity

• Riser (feed head): A column of metal placed in the mold to feed the casting as it
shrinks and solidifies

• Runner: The horizontal channel through which the molten metal is carried from
the sprue to the gate

• Core: A form placed inside the mold cavity to define the interior geometry of the
part

• Parting line: Joint where mold separates to permit removal of the pattern. It
shows how and where to open the mold

• Chaplet: A metal support used to hold a core in place in a mold. NB. Not used
when a core print will serve 9
 Mold features cont’d

Pattern and mold box Core making

10
 Mold features cont’d
• Cope: The upper half of the mold
• Drag: Is the bottom half

• The gating system: Is the channel, or network of

channels, by which molten metal flows into the
cavity from outside the mold.
 It consists of a a pouring cup, downsprue (sprue),
and Runner
• Casting processes divide into two broad categories,
according to type of mold used: Expendable-mold
casting and permanent-mold casting. 11
 Heating and pouring
• The metal must be heated to a temperature
somewhat above its melting point and then poured
into the mold cavity to solidify.

• The heat energy required is the sum of

 the heat to raise the temperature to the melting
point,
 the heat of fusion to convert it from solid to Liquid,
and
 the heat to raise the molten metal to the desired
temperature for pouring.
12
 QUESTION
• One cubic meter of a certain eutectic alloy is heated in
a crucible from room temperature to 100oC above its
melting point for casting. The alloy’s density = 7.5
g/cm3, melting point = 800oC, specific heat=0.33 J/goC
in the solid state and 0.29 J/goC in the liquid state; and
heat of fusion = 160 J/g.
a. calculate,
i. the heat to raise the temperature to the melting point
ii. the heat to raise the molten metal to the desired
temperature for pouring.
b. How much heat energy (total) must be added to
accomplish the heating, assuming no losses? 13
 Charge Calculation
Component C % Si % Mn % P % S %

Pig iron 1 3.5 3.3 0.50 0.11 0.02

Pig iron 2 3.6 3.0 0.50 0.12 0.03

Foundry 3.3 2.1 0.70 0.10 0.09

returns
Steel scrap 0.2 0.3 0.80 0.05 0.05

Briquetted 3.3 2.1 0.70 0.10 0.09

iron chips
14
15
 Pouring
• After heating, the metal is ready for pouring.
• Ensure that the molten metal fills completely the cavity before
solidifying.

 Factors affecting the pouring operation

• Pouring temperature, (talk about superheat)
• Pouring rate (volumetric rate), and
• Turbulence.

NB: turbulence should be avoided because;

• It tends to accelerate the formation of metal oxides that can
become entrapped during solidification
• Turbulence also aggravates mold erosion, 16
Heating and pouring cont’d

Pouring of molten metal

17
 Analysis of Pouring
• Bernoulli’s theorem, which states that the sum of
the energies (head, pressure, kinetic, and friction) at
any two points in a flowing liquid are equal is
usually used.
• It is expressed as

• It is reduced to

18
 Analysis Cont’d
• the continuity law, which states that the volume
rate of flow remains constant throughout the liquid
is very important during pouring.
• The continuity law can be expressed as

• We can estimate the time required to fill a mold

cavity of volume V as

19
 QUESTION
• A mold sprue is 20 cm long, and the cross-sectional
area at its base is 2.5 cm2. The sprue feeds a
horizontal runner leading into a mold cavity whose
volume is 1560 cm3. Determine:
(a) velocity of the molten metal at the base of the
sprue,
(b) volume rate of flow, and
(c) time to fill the mold.

20
 Fluidity
• The molten metal flow characteristics are often described
by the term fluidity, a measure of the capability of a
metal to flow into and fill the mold before freezing.
• Fluidity is the inverse of viscosity
• As viscosity increases, fluidity decreases.

 Factors affecting fluidity

• Pouring temperature relative to melting point,
• Metal composition,
• Viscosity of the liquid metal, and
• Heat transfer to the surroundings
21
 Solidification and Cooling
• After pouring into the mold, the molten metal cools and
solidifies
• Solidification involves the transformation of the molten
metal back into the solid state.
• The solidification process differs depending on whether
the metal is a pure element or an alloy.

• In solidification we consider;
 the time for a metal to freeze,
 shrinkage,
 directional solidification, and
 riser design 22
 Solidification Cont”d
• Pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature
equal to its freezing point, which is the same as its
melting point

Cooling curve for a

pure metal during
casting
23
 Solidification of pure metals

Characteristic grain structure in a casting of a pure metal,

showing randomly oriented grains of small size near the mold
wall, and large columnar grains oriented toward the center of
the casting. 24
 Solidification Cont”d
• Most alloys freeze over a temperature range rather
than at a single temperature.
• The exact range depends on the alloy system and
the particular composition
• Freezing begins at the liquidus and is completed
when the solidus temperature is reached
• There is a solid-liquid interface within the cast part
as solidification occurs
• This solid–liquid region is called the mushy zone

25
 Solidification Cont”d
• Phase diagram for a copper–nickel alloy system and
its associated cooling curve is shown in fig a and b

26
 Solidification of alloys

Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting,

showing segregation of alloying components in the
center of casting. 27
 Solidification Cont”d
• Eutectic alloys is a particular composition in an
alloy system for which the solidus and liquidus are
at the same temperature

• Solidification occurs at a constant temperature

rather than over a temperature range.

• The composition of eutectic alloy is the eutectic

composition of the alloy system, and the
temperature is its eutectic temperature.
28
 Solidification Time
• Solidification of pure metal or alloy takes time
during casting.
• The total solidification time is the time required for
the casting to solidify after pouring.
• This time is dependent on the size and shape of the
casting.
• It is represented by an empirical relationship known
as Chvorinov’s rule, which states

29
 Phase Changes During Solidification
• For freezing to occur, the free energy change of the
process must be negative
• Thus ΔG < 0
• ΔG = Gs - Gl ……………….(1)
• Where;
 ΔG is the bulk free energy change
 Gs is free energy of the product (solid)
 Gl is the free energy of the initial phase (liquid)
NB: Use Sketches
• At the freezing point Tf, Gl = Gs is and it occurs at
30
equilibrium.
Phase Changes During Solidification Cont’d
• Supposed the liquid is cooled below the freezing
point Tf, by an amount ΔT = (Tc - Tf), without freezing,
this condition is called supercooling
• Two specific components are associated with ΔG of
the liquid-solid transformation
 Free energy change in creating the solid-liquid
interface
 Difference in bulk free energies of the liquid and solid
phases
• For a spherical particle, the total interfacial energy is
ΔGin = 4πr2 × ɣs/l ………………. (2)
• The interfacial energy is proportional to r2 31
 PHASE CHANGES DURING SOLIDIFICATION CONT’D
• The bulk free energy is ΔGBK = 4πr3 × ΔGv
• For T < TE or Tf, the solid has a lower bulk free
energy than the liquid (fig 2b)
• Increase in r leads to a more negative ΔGBK
• The total change in the free energy of the system is
the sum of ΔGBK and ΔGin
• Mathematically, the change in free energy as
function of r is
• ΔGr = 4πr2ɣs/l + (4/3)πr3 × ΔGv …………….. (3)
• Differentiating eqn 3 with respect to r and equating
the slope to zero gives 32
• When r = r*
• 4πr*2 ΔGv = -8πr*ɣs/l
• r* = (-2ɣs/l) / ΔGv…………… (3b)

• The free energy change to form a critical nucleus is

• NB
• ΔGl-s = ΔHl-s - TΔSl-s ………….(4)
• Where; T = absolute temp
• ΔGl-s = Gs – Gl is change in free energy of the system
• ΔSl-s is the entropy change
• ΔHl-s is the enthalpy change
33
• At equil, T =TE, ΔGl-s = 0, eqn 4 becomes
• ΔSl-s = (ΔHl-s) / TE……….. (5)
• Assuming the same heat capacities for the two
phases, and putting (5) into (4) yields
• ΔGl-s = ΔHl-s - TΔHl-s / TE…………… (6)
• Let ΔT = TE – T, eqn 8 becomes

• Since ΔGl-s = ΔGv

• Eqn 3b becomes
34
• The critical free energy change becomes

• It is inversely proportional to square temp as

• The critical radius is also inversely proportional to

change in temp as

35
 SHRINKAGE
• Shrinkage occurs during cooling and freezing.
• Shrinkage occurs in three steps:
 liquid contraction during cooling prior to solidification;
 contraction during the phase change from liquid to solid,
called solidification shrinkage; and
 thermal contraction of the solidified casting during cooling
to room temperature.

• Due to this the mold cavity must be made slightly oversized

• The amount by which the mold must be made larger relative
to the final casting size is called the pattern shrinkage
allowance.
36
SHRINKAGE CONT”D

37
SHRINKAGE CONT”D

38
 DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION
• To minimize the damaging effects of shrinkage, it is desirable
for the regions of the casting most distant from the liquid metal
supply to freeze first.
• Molten metal will continually be available from the risers to
prevent shrinkage voids during freezing.
• The term directional solidification is used to describe this
aspect of freezing process and the method used to control it

• This is achieved by
 observing the Chvorinov’s rule in the design of the casting
itself,
 its orientation within the mold,
 and the design of the riser system that feeds it. 39
DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION CONT”D
• Another way to encourage directional solidification
is to use chills
• Chills are internal or external heat sinks that cause
rapid freezing in certain regions of the casting.

• Internal chills are small metal parts placed inside

the cavity before pouring so that the molten metal
will solidify first around these parts.
NB:
• The internal chill should have a chemical
composition similar to the metal being poured. 40
DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION CONT”D
• External chills are metal inserts in the walls of the
mold cavity that can remove heat from the molten
metal more rapidly than the surrounding sand in
order to promote solidification.

a. External chill
b. Internal chill.

41
 RISER DESIGN
• A riser is used in a sand-casting mold to feed liquid
metal to the casting during freezing in order to
compensate for solidification shrinkage.
• To function, the riser must remain molten until after
the casting solidifies.
• Chvorinov’s rule can be used to compute the size of a
riser that will satisfy this requirement.
• The riser represents waste metal that will be
separated from the cast part and remelted to make
subsequent castings.
• It is desirable for the volume of metal in the riser to
be a minimum. 42
 RISER DESIGN CONT”D
• Risers can be designed in different forms.
• Side riser. It is attached to the side of the casting by
means of a small channel.
• A top riser: Is one that is connected to the top
surface of the casting.
• Risers can be open or blind.
• An open riser is exposed to the outside at the top
surface of the cope.
 This has the disadvantage of allowing more heat to
escape, promoting faster solidification.
• A blind riser is entirely enclosed within the mold 43
 QUESTION
• A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand-
casting mold. The casting itself is a steel rectangular
plate with dimensions 7.5 cm 12.5 cm 2.0 cm.
Previous observations have indicated that the total
solidification time (TTS) for this casting =1.6 min. The
cylinder for the riser will have a diameter-to-height
ratio=1.0. Determine the dimensions of the riser so
that its TTS =2.0 min.

44
 Course content 2 (METAL CASTING)
Sand Casting
• Patterns and Cores
• Molds and Mold Making
• The Casting Operation

Other Expendable-Mold Casting Processes

Permanent-Mold Casting Processes
• The Basic Permanent-Mold Process
• Die Casting
• Centrifugal Casting

Foundry Practice
• Pouring, Cleaning, and Heat Treatment
Casting Quality
Metals for Casting 45
 Introduction
• Metal casting processes divide into two categories, based on
mold type:
 expendable mold; the mold is sacrificed in order to remove
the cast part.
NB
 Production rates are often limited by the time required to
make the mold rather than the time to make the casting
itself.

 permanent mold casting; the mold is fabricated usually out

of metal and can be used many times to make many castings.
NB
 There is an advantage in terms of higher production rates.46
 Sand Casting
• It is the most widely used
• Nearly all metals and metal alloys with very high melting
temperatures can be sand casted

• Sand casting (sand-mold casting), consists of pouring

molten metal into a sand mold, allowing the metal to
solidify, and then breaking up the mold to remove the
casting

• After the casting, it must then

 be cleaned and inspected, and
 heat treated (sometimes required) to improve metallurgical
properties. 47
 Sand Casting cont’d

Production sequence in sand

casting operations
48
 PATTERNS AND CORES
• Pattern: A full-sized model of the part, enlarged to account for
shrinkage and machining allowances.

• Materials used to make patterns include wood, plastics, and

metals.

• Wood is a common pattern material because it is easily shaped.

(Its disadvantages are that it tends to warp, and it is abraded by
the sand being compacted around it)

• Metal patterns are more expensive to make, but they last much
longer.

• Plastics represent a compromise between wood and metal. 49

 Types of Patterns
• Solid pattern: This is the simplest and is made of one
piece
 It is the easiest pattern to fabricate, but it is not the
easiest to use in making the sand mold.
 Solid patterns are generally limited to very low production
quantities.

• Split patterns consist of two pieces, dividing the part

along a plane coinciding with the parting line of the mold.
 Split patterns are appropriate for complex part
geometries and moderate production quantities.
50
Types of Patterns cont’d

a. Solid pattern
b. Split pattern
51
 Types of Patterns cont’d
• Match-plate patterns: the two pieces of the split pattern
are attached to opposite sides of a wood or metal plate.
 The two pieces are attacked together on the same plate
using the same tooling for both

• Cope-and-drag patterns: are similar to match-plate

patterns except that split pattern halves are attached to
separate plates.
 The cope and drag sections of the mold can be
fabricated independently, instead of using the same
tooling for both.
52
Types of Patterns cont’d

c. Match plate pattern

d. Cope-and-drag patterns
53
 MOLDS AND MOLD MAKING
• Foundry sands are silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals.

• It must have the capacity to stand up under high temperatures

without melting (or otherwise degrading).

• Other important features of the sand include grain size, distribution

of grain size in the mixture, and shape of the individual grains

• Small grain size provides a better surface finish on the cast part, but
large grain size is more permeable.

• Molds made from grains of irregular shape tend to be stronger

than molds of round grains because of interlocking, yet interlocking
tends to restrict permeability. 54
 MOLDS AND MOLD MAKING CONT”D
• In making the mold, the grains of sand are held
together by a mixture of water and bonding clay.

• A typical mixture (by volume) is 90% sand, 3%

water, and 7% clay.

• Besides sand and binder, additives are sometimes

combined with the mixture to enhance properties.

55
 Qualities of molding sand
• Strength: the mold’s ability to maintain its shape and resist
erosion

• Permeability: capacity of the mold to allow hot air and gases

from the casting

• thermal stability: ability of the sand at the surface of the mold

cavity to resist cracking and buckling

• Collapsibility: the ability to remove the sand from the casting

during cleaning

• Reusability: can the sand from the broken mold be reused to

make other mold? 56
 Molding sand
• Sand molds are often classified as green-sand, dry-sand, or skin-
dried molds.
• Green sand molds are made of a mixture of sand, clay, and water.
 The word green referring to the fact that the mold contains
moisture at the time of pouring.

Qualities
• possess sufficient strength for most applications,
• good collapsibility,
• good permeability,
• good reusability, and
• the least expensive of the molds.
NB: Moisture in the sand can cause defects in some castings,
depending on the metal and geometry of the part 57
 Molding sand cont’d
• Dry-sand mold is made using organic binders rather
than clay, and the mold is baked in a large oven at
temperatures ranging from 200oC to 320oC

 Oven baking strengthens the mold and hardens the

cavity surface.

 A dry sand mold provides better dimensional control in

the cast product, compared to green-sand molding.

 However, dry-sand molding is more expensive, and

production rate is reduced because of drying time 58
 Molding sand cont’d
• Skin-dried mold, the advantages of a dry-sand mold
is partially achieved by drying the surface of a
green-sand mold to an optimum depth.

 Drying is achieved at the mold cavity surface, using

torches, heating lamps, or other means.

 Special bonding materials must be added to the

sand mixture to strengthen the cavity surface.

59
 CASTING OPERATION
• Casting consists of pouring, solidification, and cooling

• The gating and riser system in the mold must be designed

to deliver liquid metal into the cavity

• It must also provide for a sufficient reservoir of molten

metal during solidification shrinkage.

• Air and gases must be allowed to escape.

• One of the hazards during pouring is that the buoyancy

of the molten metal will displace the core. 60
 CASTING OPERATION CONT”D
• Buoyancy results from the weight of molten metal
being displaced by the core, according to Archimedes’
principle.

• The force tending to lift the core is equal to the weight

of the displaced liquid less the weight of the core itself.

• It’s Expressed as
• Fb = Wm - Wc
• Where Fb = buoyancy force, (N); Wm = weight of molten
metal displaced, (N); and Wc = weight of the core, (N).
61
 QUESTION
• A sand core has a volume = 1875 cm3 and is located
inside a sand mold cavity. Determine the buoyancy
force tending to lift the core during pouring of
molten lead into the mold. (The density of a sand
core is 1.6 g/cm3 , Density of lead is 11.3 g/cm3)

62
OTHER EXPENDABLE-MOLD CASTING PROCESSES
• The differences between these methods are in the
 composition of the mold material,
 the manner in which the mold is made,
 the way the pattern is made.

SHELL MOLDING
• Shell molding is a casting process in which the mold
is a thin shell made of sand held together by a
thermosetting resin binder.

63
 SHELL MOLDING
Advantages
• The surface of the shell mold cavity is smoother than a
conventional green-sand mold,

• Permits easier flow of molten metal during pouring

• Better surface finish on the final casting.

• Good dimensional accuracy is also achieved

• Collapsibility of the mold is generally sufficient to avoid

tearing and cracking of the casting. 64
 SHELL MOLDING CONT”D
Disadvantages
• It involves a more expensive metal pattern.

• Examples of parts made using shell molding

include gears, valve bodies, bushings, and
camshafts.

65
 INVESTMENT CASTING
• In investment casting, a pattern made of wax is coated
with a refractory material to make the mold,

• After which the wax is melted away prior to pouring

the molten metal.

• It is a precision casting process, because it is capable of

making castings of high accuracy and intricate detail.

• Is also known as the lost-wax process, because the

wax pattern is lost from the mold prior to casting.
66
 INVESTMENT CASTING CONT”D
• Pattern production is usually accomplished by a
molding operation—pouring the hot wax into a
master die

• The master die has been designed with proper

allowances for shrinkage of both wax and
subsequent metal casting.

• In high production operations, several patterns are

attached to a sprue, also made of wax, to form a
pattern tree. 67
 INVESTMENT CASTING CONT”D
Steps in investment casting

(1) wax patterns are produced

(2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a
pattern tree
68
(3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of
refractory material
(4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated tree
with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid
69
(5) the mold is held in an inverted position and heated
to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity
70
(6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature, the
molten metal is poured; it solidifies
(7) the mold is broken away from the finished casting
Parts are separated from the sprue. 71
 INVESTMENT CASTING CONT”D
Advantages
• Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast

• Close dimensional control

• Good surface finish is possible

• All types of metals can be investment cast.

• The wax can usually be recovered for reuse

• Additional machining is not normally required—this is a net

shape process. 72
 INVESTMENT CASTING CONT”D
Disadvantages
• It is a relatively expensive process because many
steps are involved in this casting operation.
• Investment castings are normally small in size,
although parts with complex geometries have been
successfully cast.

• Examples of parts include complex machinery

parts, blades, and other components for turbine
engines, jewelry, and dental fixtures.
73
PERMANENT-MOLD CASTING PROCESSES
• The economic disadvantage of any of the expendable-
mold processes is that a new mold is required for every
casting.

• In permanent-mold casting, the mold is reused many

times.

• For permanent-mold casting it involves the use of

reusable metal molds.

• Other members of the group include die casting and

centrifugal casting. 74
THE BASIC PERMANENT-MOLD PROCESS
• Permanent-mold casting uses a metal mold
constructed of two sections that are designed for
easy, precise opening and closing.

• These molds are commonly made of steel or cast

iron.

• Metals commonly cast in permanent molds include

aluminum, magnesium, copper-base alloys, and
cast iron. 75
THE BASIC PERMANENT-MOLD PROCESS
• Cores can be used in permanent molds to form
interior surfaces in the cast product.

• The cores can be made of metal, but either their

shape must allow for removal from the casting or they
must be mechanically collapsible to permit removal.

• If withdrawal of a metal core would be difficult or

impossible, sand cores can be used, in which case the
casting process is often referred to as semi-
permanent-mold casting.
76
Advantages of permanent-mold casting
• Good surface finish and close dimensional control

• More rapid solidification caused by the metal mold

results in a finer grain structure, so stronger castings
are produced.

77
 Limitations
• The process is generally limited to metals of lower
melting points.

• simple part geometries compared to sand casting.

• Because mold cost is substantial, the process is best

suited to high-volume production

• Typical parts include automotive pistons, pump

bodies, and certain castings for aircraft and
missiles 78
Steps in Permanent-mold Casting:

1. Mold is preheated and coated

79
2. Cores (if used) are 3. Molten metal is poured
inserted, and mold is into the mold;
closed;

80
4. Mold is opened.
5. Finished part
81
 DIE CASTING
• Die casting is a permanent-mold casting process in
which the molten metal is injected into the mold
cavity under high pressure.

• The pressure is maintained during solidification,

after which the mold is opened and the part is
removed.

• Molds in this casting operation are called dies;

hence the name die casting.
82
 DIE CASTING CONT’D
• Because the die materials have no natural porosity venting
holes and passageways must be built into the dies.

• The vents are quite small; yet they fill with metal during
injection.

• This metal must later be trimmed from the part.

• Also, formation of flash is common in die casting.

• This flash must be trimmed from the casting, along with

the sprue and gating system. 83
 DIE CASTING CONT’D
• Die casting operations are carried out in special die casting
machines

• They are designed to hold and accurately close the two

halves of the mold, and keep them closed while the liquid
metal is forced into the cavity.

• There are two main types of die casting machines:

 Hot-chamber
 Cold-chamber,

• They are differentiated by how the molten metal is injected

into the cavity. 84
 Hot-chamber Machines
• The metal is melted in a container attached to the machine,
and a piston is used to inject the liquid metal under high
pressure into the die.

• Hot-chamber die casting imposes a special hardship on the

injection system because much of it is submerged in the
molten metal.

• The process is therefore limited in its applications to low

melting-point metals

• The metals include zinc, tin, lead, and sometimes

magnesium. 85
 Cycle in Hot-chamber Casting

1. With die closed and plunger withdrawn,

molten metal flows into the chamber
86
2. Plunger forces metal in chamber to flow
into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification
87
3. Plunger is withdrawn, die is opened,
and solidified part is ejected.
4. Finished part
88
 Cold-chamber Machines
• Molten metal is poured into an unheated chamber from
an external melting container, and a piston is used to
inject the metal under high pressure into the die cavity.

• Cycle rates are not usually as fast because of the need to

ladle the liquid metal into the chamber from an external
source.

• This casting process is a high production operation.

• Cold-chamber machines are typically used for casting

aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys.
89
 Cycle in Cold-chamber Casting

1. With die closed and ram withdrawn, molten

metal is poured into the chamber
90
2. Ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure
during cooling and solidification

91
3. Ram is withdrawn, die is opened, and part is
ejected.

92
 Advantages of Die Casting
• High production rates possible

• Economical for large production quantities

• Close tolerances possible for small parts

• Good surface finish

• Thin sections are possible

• Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength

to the casting 93
 Limitation
• In addition to the metals cast, there is shape
restriction.

• The part geometry must allow for removal from the

die cavity.

• Lubricants must also be sprayed into the cavities to

prevent sticking.

94
 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
• Centrifugal casting refers to several casting methods
in which the mold is rotated at high speed so that
centrifugal force distributes the molten metal to the
outer regions of the die cavity.

• The group includes

 true centrifugal casting,
 Semi-centrifugal casting, and
 centrifuge casting.

95
 True Centrifugal Casting
• In true centrifugal casting, molten metal is poured into a rotating
mold to produce a tubular part.

• Examples of parts made by this process include pipes, tubes,

bushings, and rings.

• Molten metal is poured into a horizontal rotating mold at one

end.

• In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring has

occurred rather than beforehand.

• The high-speed rotation results in centrifugal forces that cause

the metal to take the shape of the mold cavity. 96
 True Centrifugal Casting Cont’d

Setup for true centrifugal casting.

97
 True Centrifugal Casting Cont’d
• Orientation of the axis of mold rotation can be
either horizontal or vertical, the former being more
common.
• Let us consider how fast the mold must rotate in
horizontal centrifugal casting for the process to
work successfully.

• Centrifugal force is defined by this physics equation:

where F = force, N; m = mass, kg; v = velocity,
m/s; and R = inside radius of the mold, m.
98
• The G-factor GF is the ratio of centrifugal force F
divided by weight W: (W = mg)

• Velocity v can be expressed as

• Where N = rotational speed, rev/min.

• Rearranging this to solve for N, and using inside
diameter of the mold (D), m rather than R, we have

99
 QUESTION
• A true centrifugal casting operation is to be
performed horizontally to make copper tube
sections with OD = 25 cm and ID = 22.5 cm. What
rotational speed is required if a G-factor of 65 is
used to cast the tubing?

100
 FOUNDRY PRACTICE
POURING, CLEANING, AND HEAT TREATMENT
• Moving the molten metal from the melting furnace to the mold is
sometimes done using crucibles.

• More often, the transfer is accomplished by ladles of various kinds.

• These ladles receive the metal from the furnace and allow for
convenient pouring into the molds.

• One of the problems in pouring is that oxidized molten metal can

be introduced into the mold.

• Metal oxides reduce product quality, rendering the casting

defective 101
• Filters are sometimes used to catch the oxides and other
impurities as the metal is poured from the spout

• Fluxes are used to cover the molten metal to retard oxidation.

• After the casting has solidified and been removed from the mold,
a number of additional steps are usually required.

• These operations include

• trimming
• removing the core
• surface cleaning
• inspection
• repair, if required
• heat treatment. 102
• Trimming involves removal of sprues, runners,
risers, parting-line flash, fins, chaplets, and any
other excess metal from the cast part.

• Methods used
• Hammering, shearing, hack-sawing, band-sawing,
abrasive wheel cutting, or various torch cutting.

• If cores have been used to cast the part, they must

be removed.

103
• Surface cleaning is most important in the case of
sand casting.

• It involves removal of sand from the surface of the

casting and otherwise enhancing the appearance of
the surface.

• Methods used to clean the surface include

tumbling, air-blasting with coarse sand grit or metal
shot, wire brushing, buffing, and chemical pickling

104
• Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is
needed to detect their presence.

• Castings are often heat treated to enhance their

properties.

105
 CASTING QUALITY
Casting Defects
a. Misruns: They are castings that solidify before
completely filling the mold cavity.

Causes
 Fluidity of the molten metal is insufficient
 Pouring temperature is too low
 Pouring is done too slowly
 Cross-section of the mold cavity is too thin.

• Students are advised to think about the remedies to

the problems 106
a. Misrun

107
b. Cold Shut: which occur when two portions of the
metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion
between them due to premature freezing.

Causes
 Similar to those of a misrun.

108
b. Cold Shut

109
c. Cold shots, which result from splattering during
pouring, causing the formation of solid globules of
metal that become entrapped in the casting.

Causes
 Splattering during pouring

Remedy
 Pouring procedures and gating system designs that
avoid splattering can prevent this defect

110
c. Cold Shots

111
d. Shrinkage cavity is a depression in the surface or an
internal void in the casting, caused by solidification
shrinkage that restricts the amount of molten metal
available in the last region to freeze.

• It often occurs near the top of the casting, in which case

it is referred to as a ‘‘pipe.’’

Causes
 Caused by solidification shrinkage

Remedy
 The problem can often be solved by proper riser design.
112
d. Shrinkage Cavity

113
e. Microporosity consists of a network of small voids
distributed throughout the casting caused by
localized solidification shrinkage of the final molten
metal in the dendritic structure.

• The defect is usually associated with alloys

Causes
 By localized solidification shrinkage of the final
molten metal in the dendritic structure.

114
e. Microporosity

115
f. Hot tearing, (hot cracking), occurs when the casting is
restrained from contraction by an unyielding mold during
the final stages of solidification or early stages of cooling
after solidification.

Causes
 Metal’s inability to shrink naturally.

Remedy
 In sand casting and other expendable-mold processes, it
is prevented by compounding the mold to be collapsible.
 In permanent-mold processes, hot tearing is reduced by
removing the part from the mold immediately after
solidification. 116
f. Hot Tears

117
• Some defects are related to the use of sand molds, and therefore
they occur only in sand castings.

• To a lesser degree, other expendable-mold processes are also

susceptible to these problems.

• Common defects in sand castings:

 sand blow
 pin holes
 Sand wash
 scabs
 penetration
 mold shift
 core shift
 mold crack. 118
a. sand blow
b. pin holes
119
c. Sand wash
d. scabs

120
e. penetration
f. mold shift

121
g. core shift
h. mold crack.

122
 Inspection Methods
• Foundry inspection procedures include

• Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as misruns,

cold shuts, and severe surface flaws.

• Dimensional measurements to ensure that tolerances have

been met

• Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests concerned

with the inherent quality of the cast metal
 Pressure testing
 Radiographic methods, magnetic particle tests, the use of
fluorescent penetrants, and supersonic testing
 Mechanical testing. 123