Experiment 1b: Identification of Basic Engineering Materials

Objective
1. To enable students to familiarize themselves with different types of basic engineering
materials, compare their physical properties to practical applications.

2. To determine the density of solid materials using different fundamental principles.

Materials and Equipment/Apparatus

1. Solid materials labeled A to M

2. Water
3. Grinding papers
4. Paper towel
5. Vernier caliper
6. Ruler
7. Weighing balance
8. 500 ml beaker
9. Graduated Cylinder
10. Pipette
11. Overflow Container
12. Spouted Can

Introduction and Theory

Engineering Materials
Engineering materials refers to the group of materials that are used in the construction of manmade
structures and components. The primary function of an engineering material is to withstand applied
loading without breaking and without exhibiting excessive deflection. The major classifications of
engineering materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, and composites. The important
characteristics of the materials within each of these classes are discussed on this page, and tables of
material properties are also provided.

Metals
Metals are the most commonly used class of engineering material. Metal alloys are especially
common, and they are formed by combining a metal with one or more other metallic and/or non-
metallic materials. The combination usually occurs through a process of melting, mixing, and
cooling. The goal of alloying is to improve the properties of the base material in some desirable
way.

Metal alloy compositions are described in terms of the percentages of the various elements in the
alloy, where the percentages are measured by weight.

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Ferrous Alloys
Ferrous alloys have iron as the base element. These alloys and include steels and cast irons.
Ferrous alloys are the most common metal alloys in use due to the abundance of iron, ease of
production, and high versatility of the material. The biggest disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is
low corrosion resistance.

Carbon is an important alloying element in all ferrous alloys. In general, higher levels of carbon
increase strength and hardness, and decrease ductility and weldability.

Carbon Steel
Carbon steels are basically just mixtures of iron and carbon. They may contain small amounts of
other elements, but carbon is the primary alloying ingredient. The effect of adding carbon is an
increase in strength and hardness.

Most carbon steels are plain carbon steels, of which there are several types.

Low-Carbon Steel
Low-carbon steel has less than about 0.30% carbon. It is characterized by low strength but high
ductility. Some strengthening can be achieved through cold working, but it does not respond well
to heat treatment. Low-carbon steel is very weldable and is inexpensive to produce. Common uses
for low-carbon steel include wire, structural shapes, machine parts, and sheet metal.

Medium-Carbon Steel
Medium-carbon steel contains between about 0.30% to 0.70% carbon. It can be heat treated to
increase strength, especially with the higher carbon contents. Medium-carbon steel is frequently
used for axles, gears, shafts, and machine parts.

High-Carbon Steel
High-carbon steel contains between about 0.70% to 1.40% carbon. It has high strength but low
ductility. Common uses include drills, cutting tools, knives, and springs.

Stainless Steel
Stainless steels have good corrosion resistance, mostly due to the addition of chromium as an
alloying ingredient. Stainless steels have a chromium composition of at least 11%. Passivation
occurs with chromium content at or above 12%, in which case a protective inert film of chromic
oxide forms over the material and prevents oxidation. The corrosion resistance of stainless steel is
a result of this passivation.

Cast Iron
Cast iron is a ferrous alloy containing high levels of carbon, generally greater than 2%. The carbon
present in the cast iron can take the form of graphite or carbide. Cast irons have a low melting
temperature which makes them well suited to casting.

Aluminum Alloys

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Pure aluminum is soft and weak, but it can be alloyed to increase strength. Pure aluminum has
good corrosion resistance due to an oxide coating that forms over the material and prevents
oxidation. Alloying the aluminum tends to reduce its corrosion resistance.

Aluminum is a widely used material, particularly in the aerospace industry, due to its light weight
and corrosion resistance. Despite the fact that aluminum alloys are generally not as strong as steels,
they nevertheless have a good strength-to-weight ratio.

Copper Alloys
Copper alloys are generally characterized as being electrically conductive, having good corrosion
resistance, and being relatively easy to form and cast. While they are a useful engineering material,
copper alloys are also very attractive and are commonly used in decorative applications.

Copper alloys primarily consist of brasses and bronzes. Zinc is the major alloying ingredient in
brass. Tin is a major alloying element in most bronzes. Bronzes may also contain aluminum,
nickel, zinc, silicon, and other elements. The bronzes are typically stronger than the brasses while
still maintaining good corrosion resistance.

The aluminum bronze alloys are very hard and have good wearing properties, and so are
commonly used in bearing applications. The beryllium copper alloys have good strength and
fatigue properties, and good wear resistance when lubricated properly. Beryllium copper is
commonly used for springs, bearings, and bushings.

Polymers
Polymers are materials that consist of molecules formed by long chains of repeating units. They
may be natural or synthetic. Many useful engineering materials are polymers, such as plastics,
rubbers, fibers, adhesives, and coatings. Polymers are classified as thermoplastic polymers,
thermosetting polymers (thermosets), and elastomers.

Thermoplastic Polymers
The classification of thermoplastics and thermosets is based on their response to heat. If heat is
applied to a thermoplastic, it will soften and melt. Once it is cooled, it will return to solid form.
Thermoplastics do not experience any chemical change through repeated heating and cooling
(unless the temperature is high enough to break the molecular bonds). They are therefore very well
suited to injection molding.

Thermosetting Polymers
Thermosets are typically heated during initial processing, after which they become permanently
hard. Thermosets will not melt upon reheating. If the applied heat becomes extreme however, the
thermoset will degrade due to breaking of the molecular bonds. Thermosets typically have greater
hardness and strength than thermoplastics. They also typically have better dimensional stability
than thermoplastics, meaning that they are better at maintaining their original dimensions when
subjected to temperature and moisture changes.

Elastomers

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Elastomers are highly elastic polymers with mechanical properties similar to rubber. Elastomers
are commonly used for seals, adhesives, hoses, belts, and other flexible parts. The strength and
stiffness of rubber can be increased through a process called vulcanization, which involves adding
sulfur and subjecting the material to high temperature and pressure. This process causes cross-links
to form between the polymer chains.

Ceramics

Ceramics are solid compounds that may consist of metallic or nonmetallic elements. The primary
classifications of ceramics include glasses, cements, clay products, refractories, and abrasives.

Ceramics generally have excellent corrosion and wear resistance, high melting temperature, high
stiffness, and low electrical and thermal conductivity. Ceramics are also very brittle materials.

Clay Products
Clay is a very common ceramic material. It can be mixed with water, shaped, and then hardened
through firing at high temperature. The two primary classifications of clay products include
structural clay products and whitewares. Structural clay products see applications including bricks,
tiles, and piping. Whitewares see applications including pottery and plumbing fixtures.

Refractories
Refractory ceramics can withstand high temperatures and extreme environments. They can also
provide thermal insulation. Brick is the most common refractory ceramic.

Material Property Data

The material property data provided are intended to be representative of the material described.
The provided values tend toward the conservative end of the spectrum and could be used as
baseline design values for preliminary design. However, these values do not conform to any
particular specification, and so they should not be used in final design without first consulting with
the appropriate material specifications. The data are provided "as is" without warranty of any kind,
either expressed or implied. The table below provides representative properties for several
engineering materials.

Table 1: Representative Properties for Several Engineering Materials

SN Material Density Colour Attraction Melting Point Hardness (HV)

(g/cm3) to magnet (℃)

1 Brass 8.73 Muted Yellow Weak 927 65 - 220

2 Copper 8.9 Reddish Brown Weak 982 - 1080 44 - 180

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3 Alumin 2.7 Silvery white Weak 570 - 640 61.8 - 126
ium

4 Low 7.8 Dark red Good 1480 - 1530 108 -173

Carbon Steel

5 Cast Iron 7.2 Dark Gray Good 1130 - 1380 90 - 310

6 Ferro 7.44 Metallic grey Good 1244 460 - 800

Manganese

7 Ferro Chrome 7.15 Black Good 1400 275 - 305

8 Ferrous slag 3.3 Bright red Good 1780 107 - 120

9 Silicon 7.44 Silvery Weak 1060 - 1285 460 - 800

manganese

10 Stainless steel 8.03 Silvery/Grey Weak when 1370 - 1450 130 - 570
annealed

11 Polystyrene 1.05 White Weak 270 8.6 - 16.9

12 Polymethyl 1.38 Colourless Weak 212 - 265 17 - 18.7

methacrylate

13 LDPE 0.95 Black/White Weak 125 - 132 5.4 - 8.7

14 Galvanized 7.80 Silvery Strong 650

steel

15 Refractory 2.65 Cream Weak 740 - 1785

16 Mild Steel 7.87 Black Strong 1350 - 1530

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Archimedes’ principle
Archimedes’ principle states that a body wholly or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a
force equal in magnitude to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body. It is the buoyant force
that keeps ships afloat (object partially submerged in liquid) and hot air balloons aloft (object
wholly submerged in gas). We will investigate the buoyant force using the following methods:
• Direct Measurement of Mass
• Displacement Method

When an object is submerged in a fluid, the apparent weight of the object is less than the weight in
air because of the upward buoyant force. Thus, the buoyant force can be calculated by finding the
difference between the weight of the object in air and the apparent weight of the object when it is
submerged in water.

The buoyant force, FB, is equal to the weight in air (Fg) minus the weight in water,
' '
F g=m g
F B=F g −F'g

The displacement method requires measurement of the volume of fluid displaced by the object.
The weight of the fluid displaced is equal to the buoyant force exerted on the object. Thus, the
buoyant force is given by:
F B= ρgV

where ρ (Greek letter, rho) is the density of the fluid displaced, V is the volume of fluid
displaced by the object, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

The accepted value for the density of pure water at 4◦C and 1 atm is ρ water = (1000 ± 1) kg/m3. We
will use this value for the density of water for this experiment. That is, we assume a temperature in
the lab of 25◦C!

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 EXPERIMENT
Procedure

In this lab session, you will be provided with the following materials: Brass, Copper, Galvanized
steel, Stainless steel, Aluminum, Low carbon steel, mild steel, Cast iron, Ferrous Manganese,
Ferrochrome, Aluminum dross, Silicon Manganese, Polystyrene, Low Density Polyethylene
(LDPE), Polymethyl methacrylate, and Aluminosilicate refractory. These materials are lettered A
to M and you are to identified the lettered materials using the specific names listed above. At the
end of the experiment, you are expected to identify the following characteristics:
1. Color
2. Density
3. Interaction with magnetic field

Density measurement
(i) For Regular Solids
1. Measure the dimension of each sample (length, width, thickness, diameter,
height, etc.).
2. Use vernier calipers or a ruler to measure the radius and height of the
unidentified solid materials, and record your measurements.
3. Using Table 2, calculate the volume of the unidentified solid materials and
record the values in Table 3.
4. Weigh the sample on weighing balance.
5. Obtain the density of the material by using the formula: ρ=m/v, where m= mass
of object, v= volume of object.

Table 2: Volume Formulas for different shapes

Shape Volume Formula Variables

Rectangular solid or cuboid V =l x w x h L = length, w = width, h=
Height
Cube V =a
3
a = length of edge or side
Cylinder 2
V =π r h r = radius of the circular base,
h= height
Hollow cylinder V =π ( R2 −r 2 ) h R= outer radius and r = inner
radius

(ii) For irregular Solids

Displacement Method - Volume
1. Partially fill the graduated cylinder with water; take note of the water level.
Use the pipette to fine-tune the meniscus.
2. Carefully submerge the object in water and determine its volume.
3. Remove and dry the object, then empty the graduated cylinder and invert it on
a paper towel to dry.
m
4. Calculate ρobj using ρobj = :
V

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 Use the volume determined from the displacement method and m, not m′
Data Sheet

Table 3: Datasheet for materials identification

S Material Dimension Volume Mass Density Color Interaction Type of

N (cm) with Material
magnet
L B W

1 A

2 B

3 C

4 D

5 E

6 F

7 G

8 H

9 I

10 J

11 K

12 L

13 M

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Post Lab Questions
1. State Archimedes’ principle.
2. Will there be a difference in the buoyant force experienced by two different materials of
the same volume, when they are immersed in water? If yes, what accounts for the
difference?
3. Identify the materials A – M and state their engineering properties and applications.
4. What is buoyant force?
5. A ball of a known mass was fully immersed in a spouted beaker filled with water to the
brim. The liquid displaced by the immersion was collected by a graduated beaker and
was recorded to be 200 cm3. What is the buoyant force experienced by the ball.