Metal-Casting Processes and Equipment:

1. Solidification and Castings Structure

2. Solidification modeling
3. Materials for Casting
4. Expendable-mold
5. Permanent-pattern and continuous casting
6. Melting practice and furnaces
7. Design considerations
8. Economics of casting
3. Metal-Casting Processes - Solidification
• Nearly all materials can be processed in this way.
– The processes are casting (for metals) or molding (for plastics)

FIG - Casting and molding processes start with a work material heated
to a fluid or semifluid state. The process consists of:
(1) Pouring the fluid into a mold cavity and
(2) Allowing the fluid to solidify, after which solid part is removed.

Fig casting process

Classification
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3.1 Solidification of Metals and Castings Structure
• Transformation of molten metal into solid state influence size,
shape uniformity, composition and properties.
Shrinkage during Solidification and Cooling
(0) starting level of molten metal after pouring; (1) reduction in level due to
liquid contraction in cooling (2) reduction in height and forming shrinkage
cavity; (3) further reduction in volume due to thermal contraction

The liquid shrinkage for the

whole mass is considered in
relation to the dimensions at
the top of the mould cavity.

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3.1 Solidification of Metals and
Castings Structure
A. Solidification: Pure Metals
- Solidifies at constant temp;
(freezing point) while latent
heat of fusion is given off.
- The solidification front
(solid-liquid interface) moves
through the molten metal,
solidifying from mold wall
into the center.
• Due to mold wall chilling
action, a thin skin is formed
after poure, which form shell
around molten metal

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3.1 Solidification of Metals and Castings Structure
B) Solidification of Alloys
• Most alloys freeze at range of temp from liquidus, TL, solidus,
TS; in between, the alloy is in a mushy or pasty state with
columnar dendrites (close to tree) with liquid present in between.

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3.1 Solidification of Metals and Castings Structure
Effects of cooling rates on Dendrites
• Slow cooling rates (order of 102 K/s) produce dendrites
with larger branch spacing; faster cooling rates (order of
104 K/s) produce finer spacing; very fast cooling rates
(order of 106-108 K/s), produce no dendrites or grains

Fig. three cast structures: (a) columnar dendritic; (b) equiaxed dendritic; and
(c) equiaxed nondendritic.
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3.1 Solidification of Metals and Castings Structure

Figure 10.2 Schematic illustration of three cast structures of metals

solidified in a square mold: (a) pure metals; (b) solidsolution
alloys; and (c) structure obtained by using nucleating agents 7
3.1 Solidification of Metals and Castings Structure
Geometric influences on solidification
• Temperature distribution is influenced by features which
move from a plane surface, and may either accelerate or
retard freezing locally.
• The slow rate of freezing associated with a re-entrant feature
reaches an extreme case when core of small dimensions is
surrounded by liquid metal, that can dissipate little heat;

Figure 3.5 Effects of external and re-entrant corners on local

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rates of freezing: end of freeze waves after successive intervals
 3.1 Solidification of Metals and Castings Structure

Figure 10.5 (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm square casting.
Note that after 11 minutes of cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is
still mushy for about two hours. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in sand and chill
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(metal) molds. Note solidification patterns as the carbon content increases.
3.1 Solidification of Metals and Castings Structure
The structure of castings
• Mode of freezing has two influences.
1. The metallographic structure (grain size, shape and orientation,
alloying item distribution, crystal structure and imperfection).
2. Its soundness –degree of true metallic continuity.
Structure is outcome of three major influences:
1. Alloy constitution. diffusion coefficient for solute in
liquid and solid phase govern crystallization and grains.
2. Thermal conditions. temperature distribution and rate of
cooling and the thermal properties of metal and mould.
3. Inherent nucleation and growth conditions in the liquid,
which depend upon foreign particles or solutes,
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3.1 Solidification of Metals and Castings Structure
Fluidity of Molten Metal
• Fluidity is ability to flow into and fill a cavity before
freezing,
• Fluidity is influenced by two basic factor:
1) Characteristics of the Molten Metal
– Pouring temperature relative to melting point – at higher
pouring temperature liquid state lasts for longer time.
– Time to cool depends on heat content and thermal
properties.
– Viscosity -Fluidity is inverse of viscosity (resistance to flow)
2) Metal composition
– The pure metal and eutectic alloys that freeze at constant
temp have best fluidity, as composition sets heat of fusion.
3) Casting Parameters.
– Design and dimensions of sprue, runners and risers
– Mold material thermal conductivity and its surface 11
3.1 Solidification of Metals and Castings Structure
Fluid Flow - metal flows through gating system into cavity
• Proper design ensures adequate fluid flow.

Fig. Schematic illustration of a

typical riser-gated casting. 12
3.1 Solidification of Metals and Castings Structure
The design and location of feeder heads
Principal factors in feeding system design:
1. Freezing time criteria - head must freeze slowly to
ensure that liquid metal will be available for the
section. The time for head > for casting section
2. Volume feed capacity criteria - head must supply a
sufficient volume of liquid to compensate for liquid
and solidification shrinkage (less than 7%).
3. Feeding range - Supplying molten metal must be
divided between a number of heads.

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3.1 Solidification of Metals and Castings Structure
The feeding of castings
• To control metal flow, the gating system design must:
1. Ensure complete filling of the mould before freezing
2. Enable smooth and uniform flow , with less turbulence
3. Promote ideal temperature distribution, so that the
subsequent cooling is favourable to feeding.
4. Incorporate traps or filters for the separation of
nonmetallic inclusions.
Gating Position
a) Top gating
b) Side gating
c) Bottom gating

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3.2 Solidification Modelling
• Modern casting research focus on process modelling and
simulation on fluid flow and mould filling, solidification and
feeding, shrinkage cavity points, structure growth and stress.

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Fig Typical architecture of a comprehensive solidification modeling system
 3.2 Solidification Modeling

Table - Scope of thermophysical data for casting process modeling 16

3.2 Solidification Modeling
• Full physical modelling workstation:
– Computer facilities and a range of software.
– Long times can be involved,
– Using specialist operators and
– Incurring appreciable costs.
• Widely used commercial systems include: ProCAST,
a UES Software and MAGMAsoft and others

Figure 3.44 Finite element mesh for ceramic

shell mould (from Tu et al113) (courtesy of
The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society)

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3.3 Materials for Casting
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron is the Most important casting With high tonnage
Cast iron types:
• White Cast Iron -> With a lower silicon content and faster cooling
• Grey cast iron - graphitic microstructure, which gives grey appearance
• Ductile cast iron, nodular cast iron, unlike others, this is much more flexible and elastic,
due to its nodular graphite inclusions
• Malleable iron - white iron casting heat treated at about 900 °C (1,650 °F).

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3.3 Materials for Casting
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel
• The capability to create complex geometries
makes casting an attractive shaping process
• Difficulties when casting steel:
– Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for most other
casting metals  1650C (3000F)
– At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so molten
metal must be isolated from air
– Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity
• Cast stainless steels - have a long freezing range and
high melting temperature, high heat and corrosion
resistance
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3.3 Materials for Casting
Selection of Materials for Casting
Typical Applications for Casting and Casting Characteristics

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3.4 Expendable mold processes
Metal Casting Processes
• Categories of Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes – uses an
expendable mold which must be destroyed to
remove casting
– Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials, plus
binders
2. Permanent mold processes – uses a permanent
mold which can be used over and over to
produce many castings
– Made of metal (or, a ceramic refractory material)

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3.4 Expendable mold processes
Sand Casting
• involve forming a mold from a sand mixture and then pouring
molten liquid metal into the mold cavity, then solidifying

FIG - Steps in sand casting production sequences. The steps include

the casting operation but also pattern‑making and mold‑making
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 3.4 Expendable mold processes
• Casting is performed in a foundry, factory equipped for: making
molds, melting and pouring, cleaning casting
• Workers who perform casting are called foundrymen

Producing the Mold: Fine sand

is compressed around pattern

Pouring: molten Metal is poured into

mold cavity
Melting: Solid metal is placed into
crucible (melting pot), and melt
3.4 Expendable mold processes

Inlet and exhaust manifold

Cast Auto Parts

Pipe fittings

Cover plate

Process - Die Casting

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3.4 Expendable mold processes

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3.4 Expendable mold processes
Making the Sand Mold
• Sand mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a pattern,
then separating the mold into two halves and removing pattern
Desirable Mold Properties
• Strength ‑ Ability of mold to maintain shape and resist erosion
by flow of molten metal. Depends on grain and binders
• Permeability ‑ allow hot air and gases to pass through voids
• Thermal stability ‑ ability of sand at the mold surface cavity to
resist cracking and buckling on contact with molten metal
• Collapsibility ‑ allow casting to shrink without crack casting
• Reusability ‑ can sand from broken mold be reused?
Types of Sand Mold
• Green‑sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water;
• Dry‑sand mold - organic binders rather than clay
• Skin‑dried mold - drying cavity surface of green‑sand mold
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3.4 Expendable mold processes
The Pattern
• A full‑sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining allowances
Pattern materials:
• Wood - common material as it is easy to work, but it warps
• Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
• Plastic - compromise between wood and metal

Figure: Types of patterns used in sand casting: (a) solid pattern (b) split pattern
(c) match‑plate pattern (d) cope and drag pattern
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3.4 Expendable mold processes
Cores and Core Making
A core is a full-scale model of interior surfaces of the part.
1. Like pattern, shrinkage allowances are provided in core.
2. It is usually made of compacted sand, metal

(a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b)

possible chaplet design, (c) casting with internal cavity.

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3.4 Expendable mold processes
Expendable Mold Casting Processes
Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
1. Shell Molding
2. Expanded Polystyrene Process
3. Investment Casting
4. Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

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 3.4 Expendable mold processes
1. Shell Molding
• Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand held together by
thermosetting resin binder;

Fig - Steps in shell‑molding: (1) a match‑plate or

cope‑and‑drag metal pattern is heated and placed over
a box containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin;
(2) box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the
hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially
cure on the surface to form a hard shell ; (3) box is
repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop
away; (4) sand shell is heated in oven for several
minutes to complete curing ; (5) shell mold is stripped
from the pattern; (6) two halves of the shell mold are
assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box,
and pouring is accomplished ; (7) the finished casting
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with sprue removed
2) Vacuum Molding - Uses sand mold held together by 3.4 Expendable mold processes
vacuum pressure rather than by a chemical binder

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 3.4 Expendable mold processes
3) Expanded Polystyrene Process (lost‑foam process, lost pattern
process, evaporative‑foam process, and full‑mold process)
• Sand is packed around a polystyrene foam pattern which
vaporizes when molten metal is poured into the mold
• Mold does not have to be opened

Figure 11.7 ‑ Expanded polystyrene casting process: (1) pattern of polystyrene is

coated with refractory compound; (2) foam pattern is placed in mold box, and sand
is compacted around the pattern; (3) molten metal is poured into the pouring cup
and sprue. As the metal enters the mold, the polystyrene foam is vaporized.

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3.4 Expendable mold processes
4) Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)
• Wax pattern is coated with a refractory material,
after which wax is melted away prior to pouring
• A precision casting process - capable of castings
of high accuracy and intricate detail

Fig - Steps in investment casting: (1)wax patterns are produced; (2) several
patterns are attached to a sprue (pattern tree); (3) the pattern tree is coated with
a thin layer of refractory material; (4) the full mold is formed by covering the
coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid; (5) the mold is held
inverted and heated to melt the wax and drip it out; (6) the mold is preheated to
a high temperature to eliminate contamination; the molten metal is poured; it
solidifies , (7) the mold is broken away and parts are separated from the sprue
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3.5 Permanent Mold Processes
The Basic Permanent Mold Process
Uses a metal mold constructed for easy opening and closing
• Molds used for casting lower melting-point alloys (Al, Cu,
Brass) are commonly made of steel or cast iron
• Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory
material, due to the very high pouring temperatures
Permanent Mold Casting Processes
• Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a new
mold is required for every casting
• In permanent mold casting, mold is reused many times
• The processes include:
1) Basic permanent mold casting
2) Die casting
3) Centrifugal casting
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 3.5 Permanent Mold Processes
1) The Basic Permanent Mold Process
Metal mold is constructed of two sections designed for
easy, precise opening and closing
• For casting lower melting point alloy - steel or cast iron mold
• For casting steel - refractory mold material

Fig ‑ Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is preheated and coated;
(2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed; (3) molten metal is
poured into the mold
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3.5 Permanent Mold Processes
2) Die Casting
• Molten metal is injected into mold cavity under high pressure,
then mold is opened and part is removed
Hot-Chamber Die Casting
• Applications limited to low melting‑point metals that do not
chemically attack mechanical components
– Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

Fig ‑ Cycle in hot‑chamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn,
molten metal flows into the chamber; (2) plunger forces metal in chamber to
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flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification
3.5 Permanent Mold Processes
3) Centrifugal Casting
• A group of casting processes in which the mold is rotated at
high speed so centrifugal force distributes molten metal to
outer regions of die cavity
True Centrifugal Casting
• Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a
tubular part (pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings)
• Outside shape can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, etc ,

Fig ‑ Setup for true centrifugal casting

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 3.5 Permanent Mold Processes
Steel Plant Operational Process
Iron making Steel making Continuous casting Rolling Main products
Rail
Sheet pile
Shape
Pellet Coke Section mill Bar

Wire rod
Iron ore Sintered Limestone
ore Wire rod mill

Plate
Hot
direct Plate mill

Hot metal Billet rolling

Hot rolled coil
(HDR)
and sheet
Hot strip mill
Basic oxygen furnace
(BOF) Bloom
Cold rolled coil
and sheet
Cold rolling tandem mill (also for plating)
Blast furnace Slab
(BF) Welded pipe
Butt welded pipe
Welded pipe mill
Scrap Electric arc furnace
(EAF) Seamless pip
Seamless pipe mill
Reheating furnace
Steel casting
3.5 Permanent Mold Processes
Continuous casting

Steel from the electric or basic oxygen furnace is tapped into a ladle and
taken to the continuous casting machine. The ladle is raised onto a turret
that rotates the ladle into the casting position above the tundish. Referring
to Figure 2, liquid steel flows out of the ladle (1) into the tundish (2), and
then into a water-cooled copper mold (3).
Solidification begins in the mold, and continues through the First Zone (4)
and Strand Guide (5). strand is straightened (6), torch-cut (8), then
discharged (12) for intermediate storage or hot charged for finished rolling.
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 3.5 Permanent Mold Processes
Different Casting Processes
Process Advantages Disadvantages Examples
Sand many metals, sizes, shapes, cheap poor finish & tolerance engine blocks,
cylinder heads
Shell mold better accuracy, finish, higher limited part size connecting rods, gear
production rate housings
Expendable Wide range of metals, sizes, patterns have low cylinder heads, brake
pattern shapes strength components
Plaster mold complex shapes, good surface non-ferrous metals, low prototypes of
finish production rate mechanical parts
Ceramic mold complex shapes, high accuracy, small sizes impellers, injection
good finish mold tooling
Investment complex shapes, excellent finish small parts, expensive jewellery

Permanent good finish, low porosity, high Costly mold, simpler gears, gear housings
mold production rate shapes only
Die Excellent dimensional accuracy, costly dies, small parts, gears, camera bodies,
high production rate non-ferrous metals car wheels
Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts, good Expensive, few shapes pipes, boilers,
quality flywheels
 3.6 Melting and Pouring
Heating the Metal
• Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal to molten
temperature sufficient for casting
• The heat required is the sum of:
1. Heat to raise temperature to melting point
2. Heat to raise molten metal to desired temperature
Melting Furnaces
• Electric arc Furnaces: high rate of melting, less pollution, hold
the molten metal for long time for alloying purposes.
• Induction furnaces: in smaller foundries, produce
composition controlled smaller melts.
• Crucible furnaces: heated with commercial gases, fuel oil,
electricity. Used for ferrous and nonferrous metals.
• Cupolas: are refractory lines vertical steel vessels that are
charge with alternating layers of metal, coke, and flux. They
operate continuously, have high melting rates and volume. 42
3.6 Melting and Pouring
Pouring the Molten Metal
• For successful pouring, metal must flow into all
regions of mold cavity, before solidifying
• Factors that determine success:
1. Pouring temperature should be sufficiently high to
prevent the molten metal to start solidifying on its way to
the cavity
2. Pouring rate should neither be high (may stuck the runner
– should match viscosity) nor very low that may start
solidifying on its way to the cavity
3. Turbulence should be kept to a minimum to ensure smooth
flow, avoid cavity damage, foreign materials entrapment
and oxidation at the inner surface of cavity, poor surface.
3.7 Casting Designing
• Casting Design requires many considerations.
• The key is how to choose a suitable geometry,
which influence economical castability.
Applying the System
•This six-faceted system is capable of optimizing:
– Geometry for castability, structure, and downstream
processing (machining/assembly)
– Process geometry (risering, gating, venting, and heat-
transfer patterns) in the mold
• Geometry possibilities for ideal castable shape
based on: Metallurgical characteristics that govern
alloy castability as well as Allowable stress and
deflection.
3.7 Casting Designing
Drawings and Dimensions
• The positive impact on the manufacture of parts is geometric
dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T)
Factors that Control Casting Tolerances -explore geometry early
1. Molding Process. mechanized process and pattern
sophistication or die equipment can refine or coarsen tolerance.
2. Casting Weight and Longest Dimension. heavier castings with
longer overall dimensions require more tolerance
3. Mold Degrees of Freedom (DoF). some casting require more
mold components (mold halves, cores, loose pieces, chills, etc.).
Good design minimizes DoF in critical dimensions.
4. Draft. Draft angle generates approximately 0.5 mm/30 mm of
offset and can quickly use up all of a tolerance zone and more.
5. Patternmaker’s Contraction. recommend producing
verification castings (sample) to establish dimensions.
6. Cleaning and Heat Treating. affects dimensions and 45
3.7 Casting Designing
Design of Cast Parts
• Corners, angles, section thickness
– Avoid sharp corners angles, stress raisers, cracking
and tearing
– Sections should be blended smoothly
– Use fillets and rounds - no sharp changes in cross
section.
– Use largest fillets as practical to increase fatigue
life.
– Avoid or reduce the size of hot spots; Larger cross
sections that solidify last and form shrinkage voids
– Use a straight parting line when possible.
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3.7 Casting Designing
Design Consideration of Cast Parts
3.7 Casting Designing
Pattern Design
• Removing the holes: Removing all the holes formed by cores
from the product is required. The volume equivalent to the
entire core is to be added to the geometry of the pattern.
• Shrinkage solidification: to shrink from mold wall,
dimensions of castings decreases or increases to balance the
contraction.
• Machining allowance : accumulating extra material that
depends on the final tolerances of the process dimensions,
quality of sub-surface, size of the component and the kind of
machining required.
• Draft : A draft angle is provided to all faces of the product, for
facilitating the process of withdrawal.
• Fillets : The sharp edges are rounded for molding and filling.

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 3.8 Economics of casting
Cost and the concept of yield
• Foundry costs come from metal consumption in excess of weight
• Yield denote quantity of finished ‘black’ castings as a percentage
of the total weight charged (overall yield), e.g. expensive alloys.
• Weight of fettled castings is percentage of gross weight.

Figure 3.7 Metal utilization,

Referring to Figure 3.7,
Overall yield = (F/M) x 100%
Casting yield = (N/G) x 100%

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