Seaweed Cultivation: in The Philippines

SEAWEED
CULTIVATION
in the Philippines
–
by: Ida Tugbo-Capacio, MPM
Chief, NSTDC
OUTLINE
I. Basic information on Seaweeds

II. Development of commercial seaweed farming in the Philippines
III. Kappaphycus & Eucheuma Farming
a) Species farmed
b) Reproductive Biology & Eco-physiology
c) Culture Techniques
d) Farm Maintenance
e) Harvesting & Post-harvest Management
f) Trade
g) Challenges of the industry
IV. Other Philippine seaweeds with commercial value
I. SEAWEEDS
• are macrobenthic forms of algae;
• are plant-like organisms that generally live attached to

rock or other hard substrata in coastal areas;
• with simple plant body called “thallus” that may look

like plants from land but are different.
WHAT ARE SEAWEEDS?

I. SEAWEEDS
MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS
RED SEAWEEDS
(Phylum Rhodophyta)
GREEN SEAWEEDS
(Phylum Chlorophyta)
BROWN SEAWEEDS
(Phylum Phaeophyta)
II. HISTORY
DEV’T OF COMMERCIAL SEAWEED FARMING
IN THE PHILIPPINES
Early 1960’s Mid 1960’s Early 1970’s Late 1970’s

Seaweeds were Seaweed farming was First commercial ATS/ATC
gathered from the first recognized in Kappaphycus farming production was
natural environment the Philippines (Sulu Seas) started in the
--------------------------- Philippines
Test plots were ---------------------
established; cultivars Success of
were searched in E. denticulatum farming
collaboration with BFAR in the Philippines
(formerly called the Phil
Fisheries Commission)
II. HISTORY
DEV’T OF COMMERCIAL SEAWEED FARMING
IN THE PHILIPPINES
Early 1980’s Late 1980’s Mid 1990’s Early 2000’s In 2008

SRC production SRC production SRC and RC Some of the Indonesia surpassed
was started at was started at production capacity European the Phil. production
MCPI/FMC in Marcel and was expanded Kappaphycus for both cottonnii
Cebu Shemberg as major factories Processing Plants and spinosum
were established shut down and ----------------------------
moved to the *Indonesia became
Philippines the “alpha” source of
carrageenan
III. KAPPAPHYCUS & EUCHEUMA FARMING
a. COMMERCIALLY FARMED SEAWEEDS in the PHILIPPINES
KAPPAPHYCUS ALVAREZII
KAPPAPHYCUS STRIATUS
K. malesianus
EUCHEUMA DENTICULATUM
b-1. REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY OF
CARRAGEENOPHYTES
b-2. ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING THE PHYSIOLOGY
OF CARRAGEENOPHYTES
Light Salinity
Nutrients
Temperature pH
Light
*K striatus follows a diurnal pattern in photosynthesis with a peak at

noon (Glenn & Doty 1981) with maximum growth rates at 12:12 LD
cycle at 6000 lx (Mairh et al 1986)
*K alvarezii exhibits a lower photosynthetic activity at high irradiance

Levels, usually at noon, then recovering during the night, implying photo-
Inhibition had taken place (Terada et al 2015)
Source: Azanza & Ask (2017)

Optimum temperature conditions of
eucheumatoids
Eucheumatoid Optimum temperature References
(ºC)
K. alvarezii 25-28 Ohno et al (1994)
25-30 Trono & Ohno (1989)
20-24 Araujo et al (2014)
27-30 Preisig & Hans (2005)
K. striatus 23-30 Mairh et al (1995)
22.8-29.2 Ohno & Orosco (1987)
E. denticulatum 23-32 Liderman et al (2013)
25-30 Trono & Ohno (1989)
27-30 FAO (2005)

Salinity
Optimum salinity conditions of eucheumatoids

Eucheumatoid Optimum salinity References
(psu)
K. alvarezii 25-35 Araujo et al (2014)
K. striatus 30-33 Preisig & Hans (2005)
E. denticulatum 30 Ask and Azanza (2002)

Nutrients pH
Nutrients - N, P, K
pH - K alvarezii has higher daily growth rate @ ph 8.4

followed by pH 9 and pH 6 as studied by Zitta et al (2012)

b-3. SITE SELECTION
Presence of naturally growing seaweeds
Constant tidal interchange for sufficient nutrients supply
Moderate water movement with a velocity of 20-50m/minute,

bending of sea grasses to 45º angle
Seabed is rocky, firm and coarse-sandy bottom and well protected

from strong waves and currents
Firm substrate is essential for the support system, presence of buffer zones
is necessary
Water depth should not be less than 30 cm during the lowest low tide
b-4. PREPARATION OF PROPAGULES
Seaweed propagules must be acquired from the nearest source.
It must be packed in an appropriate transport materials like

styrophore box.
Transport should be done in the nearest possible time preferably

early morning or late in the afternoon; and must be protected
from exposure to the sun, rain and wind.
Utilize young plants.
Select healthy and disease free propagules

c. CULTURE TECHNIQUES
Fixed off- Floating Hanging

bottom Raft (FR) long-line
(FOB) (HLL)
Triangular
Free Swing (T) Hanging
(FS) Basket (HB)
Vertical
‘tumbo- Hanging
tumbo’ (V) net bag
(NB)
Thanks to Dr. AQHurtado
Fixed off- Floating Hanging

bottom Raft (FR) long-line
(FOB) (HLL)
Triangular
Free Swing (T) Hanging
(FS) Basket (HB)
Vertical
‘tumbo- Hanging
tumbo’ (V) net bag
(NB)
Floating
Raft (FR)
Hanging
long-line
(HLL)
Free Swing
(FS)
Triangular
(T)
Vertical
‘tumbo-
tumbo’ (V)
Hanging
net bag
(NB)
d. FARM MAINTENANCE
Keep cultured Check & prune ice-

seaweeds ice infected portion Keep a
Visit farm daily always clean of cultured seaweeds record
of daily
observation
(weather
condition,
Tighten loose Repair or replace Adjust monolines growth data,
lines and tie ties all broken/damaged if necessary abnormalities)
materials
(bamboo,monolines)
d. HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT
Seaweeds are harvested for drying after 45-60 days of culture.
There are two ways of harvesting seaweeds:

1.) Individual plant is untied/cut
2.) Both ends of cultivation rope are untied
d. HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT
What to do with the harvested seaweed?
While in transit, i.e.

from the farm site
to the drying area,
cover the
While still at the Seaweed with Remove the
farm site, rinse jute sacks to epiphytes or other
sources of impurities Impurities such as
each cultivation retain its freshness sand, fish, shells and
line with seawater
crabs are not
to remove
acceptable by
attached
overseas buyers
sediments or
or processors.
loose epiphytes
Sun-dry immediately These can damage
the harvested seaweed processing
while still fresh and brittle equipment and
could also affect the
price of seaweed.
References: Hurtado 2010
G. Tiroba 2006
Drying Methods
Elevated Platform
Ground Drying
PHOTO CRIDIT TO W HYDROCOLLOIDS, INC
Hanging
PHOTO CRIDIT TO W HYDROCOLLOIDS, INC

Solar Dyer
The NSTDC’s 30 m² Seaweed Solar Dryer has a plastic roof and walls
with galvanized iron pipes as the skeletal structure and four (4) lanes of
double-decked Drying Racks, which can accommodate a maximum of
1,000 kilos of fresh seaweeds.
Collapsible Dryer
Good Practices in Drying Seaweeds
Spread the seaweeds
evenly and thinly to be
easily turned. The more
you turn it, the quicker
it will dry if weather
conditions are good.
Do not heap the
seaweeds. It
will rot and lower
the quality. It is also
difficult to
dry heaped seaweed
and will take a long
time drying.
At Night
Raised covers during

night time protect
seaweed
from condensation.
They also allow air
movement
over the seaweed,
which helps in
speeding up the
drying process.
During Rainy Days
Rain lowers the quality

and reduces
the weight of
seaweeds. Don’t forget
to install a raised
plastic
cover when drying
seaweed especially
during rainy months.
Direct cover (e.g.
plastic) on seaweed
will cause
condensation,
then heat up and
cook the seaweeds.
This will
lower the quality of
the seaweed.
Specifications for Dried raw seaweed
Criteria Kappa spp Eucheuma

spp
Moisture Content (MC), (% max) 40 35
Clean Anhydrous Seaweed (CAS), 47 52

(% min)
Impurities, (% max) 3 3
Sand and salt, (% max) 10 10
Color Definitely not Definitely

black not black
Philippine National Standard for Raw Dried Seaweed (PNS 2010)

Trade
❑Traded seaweed products are classified into two: Seaweeds (fresh, chilled,dried)
and Carrageenan (refined, semi-refined and others)
Major market destinations are China (61%), USA (22%), South Korea (6%),
France and Spain at 3% each. In terms of value, Spain was the major buyer at US$
13.2 Million
Traditionally exports of dried seaweeds concentrated on three major markets

(China, France and USA)
Major market for carrageenan was USA, UK, Denmark, Belgium and Thailand
Exports in 2013 was dominated by refined carrageenan with 70% followed by

semi-refined with 27% and other carrageenan products with 3%
Source:Velayo (2014)
h. CHALLENGES OF THE SEAWEED INDUSTRY
1. Lack of quality propagules and lack of capital

2. Declining productivity of farms
3. Health problems
4. Fluctuating price of raw dried seaweeds
5. Lack of solar dryer
6. Lack of zoning ordinance and unregulated fees
7. Threat from other producing countries & substitution of raw materials
8. Climate change / unpredictable weather condition
Velayo, 2014
Major Health Problems in Carrageenophytes Cultivation
1) Ice – ice occurrence - whitening of the thallus
Causative agent: Vibrio sp.

Cytophaga sp.
Environmental condition
prior to outbreak: Low salinity
Low light intensity
Effect: Fragmentation of the thallus that

can wipe out whole production sites.
Source: Largo, et. al. (1995a, 1995b)

2) Epiphyte infestation / outbreak - refers to organisms, small or large,
that colonize the surfaces of seaweeds. The microepiphyte (Neosiphonia)
creates small, slightly elevated pores on the surface. These pores give
“goosebumps” appearance on the thalli surface.
Causative agent: Neosiphonia sp.

Environmental condition
prior to outbreak: Drastic change in seawater temperature
and salinity
Effects: a) Low carrageenan yield
b) Higher phenolic and fatty acid content
c) Lower viscosity
d) Lower gel strength
e) higher syneresis
f) higher melting temperature
Source: Vairappan, et. al. (2013)
Possible Management Intervention
1. Avoid overcrowding – less crowding of plants enhances

light penetration and growth.
2. Stay within the optimal level growth requirements.

Drastic changes in salinity and water temperature has to be
avoided
3. Application of biostimulants
4. Transfer the plant to a deeper location especially in times of

very high light intensity (summer months)
5. Harvest immediately
6. Identify strains that are highly resistant to abiotic

stressors
Other Philippine Seaweeds with
Commercial Value
Caulerpa Sargassum
Gracilaria
Ulva
Halymenia
Gelidium sp.
Thank you!
Tip darkening
Dark blackish tips
Thallus lose color
Disintegrate
Thanks to Ms. MAAlbaladejo

Pitting
Probable cause
mechanical wound in thallus
ice-ice disease, grazing
BFAR-National Seaweed Technology Development Center

Fouling and Algal Parasitism
Fouling Algal Parasitism

Seaweed Cultivation: in The Philippines

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SEAWEED

I. Basic information on Seaweeds

• are macrobenthic forms of algae;

• are plant-like organisms that generally live attached to

• with simple plant body called “thallus” that may look

WHAT ARE SEAWEEDS?

Early 1960’s Mid 1960’s Early 1970’s Late 1970’s

Early 1980’s Late 1980’s Mid 1990’s Early 2000’s In 2008

*K striatus follows a diurnal pattern in photosynthesis with a peak at

*K alvarezii exhibits a lower photosynthetic activity at high irradiance

Source: Azanza & Ask (2017)

Source: Azanza & Ask (2017)

Optimum salinity conditions of eucheumatoids

K. striatus 30-33 Preisig & Hans (2005)

E. denticulatum 30 Ask and Azanza (2002)

Source: Azanza & Ask (2017)

pH - K alvarezii has higher daily growth rate @ ph 8.4

Source: Azanza & Ask (2017)

Moderate water movement with a velocity of 20-50m/minute,

Seabed is rocky, firm and coarse-sandy bottom and well protected

Seaweed propagules must be acquired from the nearest source.

It must be packed in an appropriate transport materials like

Transport should be done in the nearest possible time preferably

Utilize young plants.

Select healthy and disease free propagules

Fixed off- Floating Hanging

Fixed off- Floating Hanging

Keep cultured Check & prune ice-

Seaweeds are harvested for drying after 45-60 days of culture.

There are two ways of harvesting seaweeds:

What to do with the harvested seaweed?

While in transit, i.e.

PHOTO CRIDIT TO W HYDROCOLLOIDS, INC

Raised covers during

Rain lowers the quality

Criteria Kappa spp Eucheuma

Clean Anhydrous Seaweed (CAS), 47 52

Sand and salt, (% max) 10 10

Color Definitely not Definitely

Philippine National Standard for Raw Dried Seaweed (PNS 2010)

Traditionally exports of dried seaweeds concentrated on three major markets

Exports in 2013 was dominated by refined carrageenan with 70% followed by

1. Lack of quality propagules and lack of capital

1) Ice – ice occurrence - whitening of the thallus

Causative agent: Vibrio sp.

Effect: Fragmentation of the thallus that

Source: Largo, et. al. (1995a, 1995b)

Causative agent: Neosiphonia sp.

1. Avoid overcrowding – less crowding of plants enhances

2. Stay within the optimal level growth requirements.

4. Transfer the plant to a deeper location especially in times of

6. Identify strains that are highly resistant to abiotic

Dark blackish tips

Thallus lose color

Thanks to Ms. MAAlbaladejo

mechanical wound in thallus

ice-ice disease, grazing

BFAR-National Seaweed Technology Development Center

Fouling Algal Parasitism

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