Problem Identification:-

A problem occurs when there is a difference between what "should be" and what "is"; between
the ideal and the actual situation.

A problem:

Expresses the difference between the hoped for and the actual situation;

Is directly or indirectly related to a desired outcome or standard of behavior.

Identifying a very clearly defined and specific problem is the first critical step to successfully
implementing the problem-solving process.

Why do we need to identify problems?

A clearly specified list of problems is the most suitable basis for identifying potential solutions.
Problems can be identified, both now and in the future, as evidence that objectives are not being
achieved. However, objectives are often rather abstract, and it may be easier for members of the
public to understand a strategy based on clearly identified problems. This problem-oriented
approach to strategy formulation is an alternative to starting with objectives, but does still need
to be checked against the full list of objectives.

Identify the Problem before the Solution:-

When an individual faces a problem, the natural tendency is to propose possible solutions.
Consequently, the thought and discussion focuses on the merits and problems of the proposed
solution(s), rather than an in-depth discussion of the possible causes of the problem itself.

1. Problems in Design of Artificial Hands:

Exact duplication of so intricate and efficient an organ as the human hand is, for all practical
purposes, impossibility. Lacking the power sources, nervous sensitivity, and automatic reflexes
available in the normal hand, the designer is faced with the problem of providing a prosthesis
that at least conforms to exterior configuration of the living counterpart. For many reasons, the
replacement should present such a high degree of fidelity that it cannot be distinguished as an
artificial device. But exterior reproduction limits the number and kinds of controls that can be
incorporated into a fixed internal area.
The human hand is powered by some 24 separate muscle groups and is endowed with a
cooperative pattern of sensitizing nerves. Motions in the normal are reflex or automatic, and very
little conscious effort is required to manipulate the hand or fingers into a position of utility. In the
amputee, however, such "mind-controlled" power sources and nerve supplies are not available to
the designer. Although it is possible mechanically to provide substitute motions for almost all
normal activities, lack of adequate control sources makes it impossible for the amputee to
operate such device. It is necessary first to determine the optimum number and kinds of digital
motions of the hand and what forces are required to operate the mechanism. It also is necessary
to supply the prosthetic replacement with a motive source that is simple to operate and, at the
same time, can provide the finger forces necessary for efficient pretension.

All of these things considered, the designer of an artificial hand is restricted in the sense that he
has at his disposal a limited source of power supply to operate any given device. Further, any
hand prosthesis should be completely independent of the other hand, whether that hand be
normal or artificial. In addition to these factors, the designer must consider the requirements of
functionality and cosmetic appearance. Once the limitations and requirements involved are
understood fully, it then becomes possible to outline some practical design criteria.

2. Methods For Assessment:-

2.1. Design Criteria Finger Forces:

For simplicity and ease of operation, input control to the hand should be a single control
requiring but one cyclic motion. It therefore is necessary to determine the excursion possible, as
well as the power or forces available to control the hand. This excursion-force or force-length
curve should be worked out for what is considered to be a minimum and should be calculated to
the strength available in the weakest amputee, but the hand mechanism also must be stressed for
the forces exerted by the strongest amputee. Thus, extensive force studies are needed in order to
establish the maximum and minimum limits of motion and forces available.

Once the lower limits of the available motor input are established, it then becomes necessary to
determine which hand function or functions this force is to provide. To do so requires a complete
survey of hand biomechanics including detailed studies of the uses of the human hand, the finger
forces necessary to accomplish myriad tasks, the frictional characteristics of the skin, exact
finger attitudes, approach to the object to be grasped, and the stability of the grasp on all types of
geometrical objects.

2.2. Prehension Patterns:

From fundamental time-and-motion studies, and through the transposition of certain habitual
finger motions to another prehension pattern, it is found that the most effective, useful, and
efficient grasp involves the action of the first and second fingers approaching and meeting the
thumb at a converging angle. The third and fourth fingers of the normal hand act as a resting
shelf for holding a glass or other objects, as gliders when writing, and as reinforcing agents to the
grasp. When their nerve sense has been removed, these fingers interfere with the normal
approach of the first and second fingers. In the artificial hand, therefore, the third and fourth
fingers are needed only for their cosmetic effect and should be designed to yield so as not to
interfere with the approach of the "active" digits.

The output utility of the hand thus can be regarded as residing in the thumb and first and second
fingers. The next problem is to determine how these digits may be activated to the best
advantage.

3. IDENTIFICATION METHODS FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL

SYSTEMS:-
Modern complex large-scale systems require by far more sophisticated methods for control. The
hierarchically intelligent method for control and management of such systems advocates a
decomposition of the total system into properly selected subsystems and then coordinate them
using microcomputers programmed by syntactically derived languages. A higher level of
organization is then needed to interface with the human operators and plan various control
policies according to changes of the environmental patterns. Since the dynamics of the
subsystems and the environmental pattern are uncertain, identification schemes are necessary to
obtain information of the uncertainties in real-time. Typical parameter identification methods are
proposed for the uncertain dynamics while pattern classification techniques are recommended for
identifying control situations in the decision making levels. This paper is rather expository and
reviews the same developments in the advanced automation area. Applications are possible, in
socioeconomic problems, traffic management, process control and management, robotics and
prosthetics.

3.1. INTRODUCTION

Various methodologies have been recently developed to manage or control complex large scale
systems. Most of them dealing with decentralized control, hierarchical control or game theoretic
control methods have found only limited application due to the complexity of the solution large
computation requirements as well as the limited adaptability to various patterns of performance
and uncertainty of the system. Hierarchically intelligent control has been proposed to deal with
most of the above problems successfully by hierarchically structuring the decision making
procedure in order of decreasing intelligence with increasing precision. This simplifies the high
level task oriented decision making while it increases its flexibility to adapt to various
environments and desired performance characteristics. On the other hand, it confines the lower
level controllers to handle smaller subsystems relieving them from the burden of identifying
changes in the environment or the desired system's performance.

3.2. A REVIEW OF THE HIERARCHICALLY INTELLIGENT CONTROL

Since control theory has been recently applied to complex systems in a rapidly in-creasing
number of cybernetic fields, it has become imperative to advantageously combine the rapidity
and accuracy of computers with the flexibility and imprecision of human reasoning. Man-
machine systems resulting from such efforts are common in advanced automation. Their degree
of autonomy varies with the extent of their interaction with the operator. Some special features
encountered in the design of these systems are presented in the sequel, and illustrated by example
from a prosthetic arm developed at the Advanced Automation Research Laboratory at Purdue
University.

3.2. Design Tests

It is necessary first, through studies with normal’s, to list the most common and necessary
manipulations of the hand. These functions include such things as opening various types of door
locks, dialing telephones, using eating utensils, writing, combing the hair, dressing, carrying
objects, and many other everyday functions. When the most practical pattern or patterns of
prehension have been determined, the designer is faced with the task of producing an artificial
hand that embodies these basic characteristics. In order to evaluate the efficiency of design, an
amputee equipped with such prosthesis is given a test similar to the one used for normal’s.

3.3. Finger Design

Fig.3.3.1. The thumb assumes a fixed position, and the first and second fingers close upon it. The fourth and
fifth digits are passive "floaters."

Because the fingers comprise the operating portion of the hand, their structure and method of
operation are of extreme importance. At the outset, it would seem that the natural pattern should
be followed in the articulation of artificial fingers, but the mechanical complexities of fully
articulated prosthetic fingers must be weighed against their functional stability in use. Because
the finger is, in effect, a slender column, it presents a great lever disadvantage. To imitate each
finger joint introduces excessive lateral instability. In addition, it is difficult to design an
operating mechanism that will fit into so small a space and, at the same time, that will be rugged
enough to withstand the stresses normally imposed on the fingers.

3.4. Two-Position Thumb

Fig.3.4.1 The two-position thumb, set manually from either position to the other by application of pressure on
the dorsal side. Inner position provides for objects up to 1/2 in. Outer position accommodates objects between
1/2 and 3 in.

Time-and-motion studies have demonstrated that a hand opening of approximately an inch and a
half is required for about 90 percent of all common activities. An opening of three inches
suffices for the remaining 10 percent. Because 1 1/2 inches of control-cable excursion is all that
can be allotted to operate the device, and because a ratio of control-cable travel to fingertip travel
of 1:1 is desirable, a mechanism is needed that allows the amputee to set the thumb in either of
two positions in order to accommodate larger objects. The two-position thumb is made possible
through the use of a unidirectional alternator mechanism that permits the thumb to spring open
when pressure is exerted on the dorsal side. The thumb can be reset by the same pressure, the
inner position being marked by an audible click or other sensory cue. Such a thumb can be set by
pressing it against some part of the body, a table, or the like, and does not require the use of the
other hand.

3.5. The Future

In light of present knowledge of fundamental movements, grasp patterns, and sources of control
now established as useful to the amputee, future research in terminal devices appears to be well
defined. Of immediate consequence in design is the problem of sensory feedback. Needed in this
area of study are definite cues that indicate fingertip pressures, finger openings, and the position
of the hand in rotation. Such cues would be invaluable to the amputee, enabling him to achieve
more casual and lifelike movements.

Some devices have been tried with limited success, and others have been discarded. Among
feedback mechanisms are the elementary devices consisting of tone-frequency electric buzzers
and hydrostatic or hydraulic bladders feeding to a nerve center existing on the body. Direct-
pressure systems also are worthy of consideration as are the more complicated types of electronic
mechanisms capable of picking up nerve impulses or of feeding electronic impulses into a
sensitive area at various frequencies or concentrations. It also is possible to build into the harness
and control system some of the basic cue mechanisms and, as illustrated by the change of
mechanical forces in the reflex hand, some cues can be inherent in the device itself.

4. Solution: Prosthetic arm by EMG pattern recognition

An electromyography (EMG) signal pattern recognition system is constructed for real-time

control of a prosthetic arm through precise identification of motion and speed command. A
probabilistic model of the EMG patterns is first formulated in the feature space of integral
absolute value (IAV) to describe the relation between a command, represented by motion and
speed variables, and location and shape of the corresponding pattern. The model provides the
sample probability density function of pattern classes in the decision space of variance and zero
crossings based on the relations between IAV, variance, and zero crossings established in this
paper. Pattern classification is carried out through a multiclass sequential decision procedure
designed with an emphasis on computational simplicity. The upper bound of probability of error
and the average number of sample observations are investigated. Speed and motion predictions
are used in conjunction with the decision procedure to enhance decision speed and reliability. A
decomposition rule is formulated for the direct assignment of speed to each primitive motion
involved in a combined motion.

4.1. What is the current acceptance for prosthetic arm technology?

In the best case, a conventional prosthetic arm offers marginal functional improvements.
Subgroup rejections are reported to be as high as 59% (for amputations close to the wrist or 75%
(for myoelectric prostheses). As opposed to reported figures, realistic rates for rejection and non-
usage have been estimated to be even higher due to absent contact between the clinic community
and non-users. A non-response following unsuccessful purchase as entity is generally kept
proprietary and not released in the public domain, whereas 40% of dissatisfied customers were
estimated do nothing about it and only 5% escalated their complaint to management.
disengagement. It therefore can be assumed that most arm amputees, particularly those that do
not submit to heavy work, reject prosthetic arms.
 Fig.4.1.1. Body Powered Prosthetic Arm

Body-powered prosthetic arms are very intuitive to use. But actual motor skills including fine
motor skills are acquired only by sufficiently specific and sufficiently extensive training. To no
surprise, absent proficiency of large shoulder and trunk muscles to perform fine grasps with a
body-powered control in untrained non-amputees causes their control attempts to deteriorate at
higher pinch forces in a study that makes a great case for training. Also, absent sufficient specific
training appeared to be the reason of fatigue in most non-using amputees when trying out body-
powered arms, whereas the only actual daily user of a body-powered arm in that case series did
not exhibit any significant restriction (study subject number seven). The first user of this study
had therefore been advised by his physiotherapists early on, to not just try out body-powered
technology, but to really wear it for a few years. Ultimately, large arm, shoulder and trunk
musculature may be trained for heavy lifting and subsequent fine control even more efficiently
than hand muscles.

4.2. Cosmetic prosthetic arms:

Fig.4.2.1. Cosmetic Prosthetic Arm

Within the realm of appearance appraisal, hands have a peculiar place. So socially, the common
treatment of an arm amputee wearing an obvious prosthesis does not seem different from the one
that does not wear on. Only successfully hiding the handicap stands a chance to effectively
upgrade the amputee’s outcast status, if only from “discredited” to “discreditable”. Currently,
arm amputees are always exposed. A prosthesis that effectively hides the handicap both statically
and dynamically does not exist currently.
Technically, the ultimate challenge for a prosthetic arm design based on a clear user need
remains covering up the handicap effectively. Neither industry nor research has achieved
technology necessary for successfully hiding an arm amputation with prosthesis. This may be an
important next step in an attempt of prosthetic manufacturers’ to bring down staggering rejection
rates. From the user perspective at the moment, the fact that no prosthesis conceals the disability
usually ends up obviating a need for wearing a conventional prosthetic arm particularly if its
gains are, weighted for hassle, effort and discomfort, marginal at best. Unforgiving appearance
testing is required to facilitate research and development to steer towards actual “cosmetic”
prostheses

4.3. EMG pattern recognition based on artificial intelligence

This presents an electromyography (EMG) pattern recognition method to identify motion

commands for the control of a prosthetic arm by evidence accumulation based on artificial
intelligence with multiple parameters. The integral absolute value, variance, autoregressive (AR)
model coefficients, linear cepstrum coefficients, and adaptive cepstrum vector are extracted as
feature parameters from several time segments of EMG signals. Pattern recognition is carried out
through the evidence accumulation procedure using the distances measured with reference
parameters. A fuzzy mapping function is designed to transform the distances for the application
of the evidence accumulation method. Results are presented to support the feasibility of the
suggested approach for EMG pattern recognition.

4.4. Design and Development of EMG Controlled Prosthetics Limb

Arm amputees are people who have lost their upper limb due to accident, trauma or any disease
affecting the limbs. Such people cannot perform functions which require using the hand, not
even routine activities in day-to-day life such as holding the objects, moving them, eating and all
the like functions. Broadly speaking, these people are not self-sufficient, but they do have an
opening to look forward to. The muscles in the remaining part of the arm function in a normal
way, enabling the electromyogram (EMG) signals from them to be used in limb replacement
techniques. One such solution would be a Myoelectric Prosthetic Arm, which uses the EMG
signals from the patient and controls movement of the prosthetic arm. The advantage of this
technique is that the signal will be acquired from the patient's body and after suitable processing
it is used as a control input to drive motors which are coupled to the prosthetic arm. So, the arm
can be worn by amputees and the control mechanism will be initiated by their own EMG signals.

5. Control of Hand Prostheses:

In recent years, there has been a steep rise in the quality of prostheses for patients with upper
limb amputations. One common control method, using electromyography (EMG) signals
generated by muscle contractions, has allowed for an increase in the degrees of freedom (DOFs)
of hand designs and a larger number of available grip patterns with little added complexity for
the wearer. However, it provides little sensory feedback and requires non-natural control which
must be learned by the user. Another recent improvement in prosthetic hand design instead
employs electroneurographic (ENG) signals, requiring an interface directly with the peripheral
nervous system (PNS) or the central nervous system (CNS) to control a prosthetic hand. While
ENG methods are more invasive than using surface EMG for control, an interface with the PNS
has the potential to provide more natural control and creates an avenue for both efferent and
afferent sensory feedback. Despite the recent progress in design and control strategies, however,
prosthetic hands are still far more limited than the actual human hand. This review outlines the
recent progress in the development of EMG and ENG controlled prosthetic hands, discussing
advancements in the areas of sensory feedback and control. The potential benefits and limitations
of both control strategies, in terms of signal classification, invasiveness, and sensory feedback,
are examined.

6. MYOELECTRIC PROSTHESES

Figure1. EIGHT CANONICAL HAND POSTURES

REPRODUCED FROM
For many years, a prosthetic hand could either be functional or cosmetically appealing, but not
both. Body powered hooks, for example, did not mimic the size or shape of the human hand but
were functionally capable, unlike passive prostheses. In the early days of myoelectric hand
design, amputees would often choose a body-powered hook over a more realistic looking
myoelectic hand because it significantly lacked functionality. Several major factors contributed
to the functional shortcomings of the early myoelectric hands. First, myoelectric hands provided
a severely limited number of DOFs. Initial designs of myoelectric hands had only one DOF
and performed a simple opening and closing motion. These hands operated on a switch; later,
proportional control of the opening and closing became available. There are five grasps that were
initially identified as the most important to the functional capabilities of a prosthetic hand: pinch
grasp (used to hold small objects), lateral grasp (used to hold a key), hook grasp (used for
carrying items such as books or briefcases), spherical grasp (thumb and fingers grasp a spherical
object), and cylindrical grasp (thumb and fingers grasp a cylindrical object). Three additional
important grasps were later identified: the flattened hand (for holding large surface objects), the
centralized grip (used to hold items such as eating utensils), and wrist flexion. The eight most
important grip patterns for performing activities of daily living (ADLs).