Process Control

CME 321

Chapter 3

Laplace Transform

Dr. Hadil Abu Khalifeh

 WHY WE DEVELOP MATHEMATICAL MODELS?

Input change, e.g., Effect on

step in coolant flow Process output
rate variable

T
A

Math models How does the • How far?

help us answer process • How fast
these questions! influence the
response? • “Shape”

2
The Laplace Transform

• Important analytical method for solving linear ordinary

differential equations.
- Application to nonlinear ODEs? Must linearize first.
• Laplace transforms play a key role in important process
control concepts and techniques.
- Examples:
• Transfer functions
• Frequency response
• Control system design
• Stability analysis
3-3
Definition

The Laplace transform of a function, f(t), is

defined as:

F (s )  L  f (t )    f t  e st dt
0
where F(s) is the symbol for the Laplace transform, L is the
Laplace transform operator, and f(t) is some function of time, t.

Note: The L operator transforms a time domain function f(t)

into an s domain function, F(s). s is a complex variable:
s = a + bj, j  1

4
 Definition

The Laplace transform of a function, f(t), is defined as


F ( s )  L  f (t )    f  t  e  st dt (3-1)
0

where F(s) is the symbol for the Laplace transform, L is the

Laplace transform operator, and f(t) is some function of time, t.
Note: The L operator transforms a time domain function f(t)
into an s domain function, F(s). s is a complex variable:
s = a + bj,
By definition, the inverse Laplace transform operator, L-1,
converts an s-domain function back to the corresponding time
domain function:
f  t   L1  F  s 
3-5
Inverse Laplace Transform, L-1:
By definition, the inverse Laplace transform operator, L-1,
converts an s-domain function back to the corresponding time
domain function:
f  t   L  F  s 
1

L
Time domain Laplace domain

f t  1 F s 
L

6
 Laplace transform is a useful tool for solving linear or linearized DEs which
result from the mathematical modeling of chemical processes.

 The transform allows:

 simple development of input-output models which are very useful for
control purposes
 straightforward qualitative analysis of how chemical processes react to
various external influences.

 Principle of the transform:

Linear ODE

Algebraic Equation

3-7
The Laplace Transform 
The Laplace transform is defined as follows: L[ f (t )]  F ( s )   f (t )e - st dt
0
Properties and conventions:
1. Laplace considers the behavior of the time-domain (process) for t  0
2. A Laplace transform does not exist for all functions. Sufficient conditions for
the Laplace to exit:
i. The function f(t) is continuous, and
ii. The integral can be performed and has a finite value
3. The Laplace transform converts from t-domain to s-domain, where s is a
complex value [in Cartesian form: s= σ + ωj, j 1

3-8
4. Linearity of the transform:

L[aF1 (t )  bF2 (t )]  aF1 (s)  bF2 (s)

4. Table of Laplace transforms are available, thus no need to apply the above
definition for many commonly occurring functions (see the Table). Also the
tables provide the inverse Laplace transform,

L-1[ F ( s)]  f (t ) t0

3-9
Important Properties:
Both L and L-1 are linear operators. Thus,
L  ax  t   by  t    aL  x  t   bL  y  t 
 aX  s   bY  s 
where:
- x(t) and y(t) are arbitrary functions
- a and b are constants
- X  s   L  x  t   and Y  s   L  y  t  

Similarly, L1  aX  s   bY  s   ax  t   b y  t 

Other properties will be discussed later (like the FVT and

time delay)
10
3-11
3-12
 Laplace Transform
Example Transforms
• Types of input changes:
– The impulse function d(t)
– The unit step function u(t)
– The ramp function t and monomials tn
– Polynomials, Taylor series, and et
– Sine and cosine
In analyzing process dynamic and process control systems, it is important to
know how the process responds to changes in the process inputs.
A number of standard types of input changes are widely used for two reasons:

1. They are representative of the types of changes that occur in plants.

2. They are easy to analyze mathematically.

3-13
 Input Specifications
• Study of control system dynamics
– Observe the time response of a process output in response to
input changes

• Focus on specific inputs

1. Step input signals

2. Ramp input signals
3. Pulse and impulse signals
4. Sinusoidal signals
5. Random (noisy) signals
3-14
 Common Input Signals
1. Step Input Signal: a 1.5

sustained
1

instantaneous

Input
change
0.5

e.g. Unit step input

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time

introduced at time 1
1.4

1.2

• Example of a step change: A reactor 0.8

0.6

feedstock is suddenly switched from one 0.4

supply to another, causing sudden 0.2

changes in feed concentration, flow, etc.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3-15
 Common Input Signals
2. Ramp Input: A
sustained constant 9

rate of change 7

Input
4

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time

Examples of ramp changes:

1. Feed composition, heat exchanger 8

fouling, catalyst activity, ambient 7

temperature. 5

Output
3

-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time

3-16
 Common Input Signals
f t 

3. Pulses:e.g. Rectangular Pulse h

0 tw

0 for t  0 Time, t

U RP  t  h for 0  t  tw
1.5

(5-9)
0 for t  t 1

 w

Input
0.5

Examples: 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time

1. Reactor feed is shut off for one hour. 1.2

2. The fuel gas supply to a furnace is briefly 1

interrupted.
0.8

0.6

Output
0.4

0.2

-0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time

3-17
 Common Input Signals
3. Pulse: An 100

instantaneous
90

80

70

60

temporary change

Input
50

40

30

• It represents a short, transient

20

10

disturbance.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time

e.g. Fast pulse (unit

impulse)
0.45

Examples: 0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

1. Electrical noise spike in a thermo-

Output
0.2

0.15

couple reading. 0.1

0.05

2. Injection of a tracer dye. -0.05

0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time

3-18
6. Impulse Function (or Dirac Delta Function) δ(t)
The impulse function is obtained by taking the limit of the
rectangular pulse as its width, tw, goes to zero but holding the area
1
under the pulse constant at one. (i.e., let h  )
tw
Let, d t  : impulse function
0 t  0
where : d t   
 t  0
The area under the impulse function  1
Then, L d  t    1

The Dirac delta function as the limit of the

sequence of zero-centered normal
distributions

19
 Common Input Signals
4. Sinusoidal Input
1.5

Processes are also subject to periodic, or cyclic, 1

0.5

disturbances. They can be approximated by a

Input
0

sinusoidal disturbance: -0.5

A = amplitude, w = angular frequency

-1

where: -1.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time

Examples:
0.8

1. 24 hour variations in cooling water

0.6

0.4

temperature. 0.2

Output
0

2. 60-Hz electrical noise (in the USA) -0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time

3-20
 Transforms of Some Functions

1. The constant function

f (t )  1

e  st
 e0  1
L  f (t )   (1)e  st dt  
t 
t 0
 0  
0
s  s  s
1
L 1 
s
a
L a 
s

3-21
Laplace Transforms of Common
Functions
1. Constant Function
Let f(t) = a (a constant). Then from the definition of the
Laplace transform,

 a  st  a a
L  a    ae  st
dt   e  0  
0 s  s s
0
From Calculus :
f (x ) = e - x
u  st , du  s .dt , dt  (1/ s )du

 e u dt   e u (1 / s )du  (1/ s )  e u du

 (1/ s )e u  C  (1/ s )e sx  C
Hence :
 st
0 ae dt  a (1/ s )e st |
0  0  ( 1/ s )  a / s

22
2. Step Function
The step function is widely used in the analysis of process
control problems. It is defined as: f(t)

a
 0 for t  0
f t   
a for t  0 t

Because the step function is a special case of a “constant”, it

follows that 
 a  st  a a
L  f  t     ae  st
dt   e  0  
0 s  s s
0
For the unit step function u (t ) : 1

1
L u  t   
s

23
Shifted Unit Step Function
Function delayed in time is zero for all times less than the time delay to
• A function which has value 0 up to the time t=a and thereafter has value 1 , is
written: ìï 0 t < t
u(t - t 0 ) = ïí 0
ïï 1 t > t 0
î
• Example : Shifted Unit Step Function
0 ta

f(t)=u(t−3)

The equation means f(t) has value of 0 when t<3 and 1 when t>3 .

24
 This is a combination of two
step functions u (t ) and u (t-tw)
h f (t ) u (t )
1

f t  t
- u (t  tw )
1

tw Time, t
f (t )  h [u (t ) - u (t  tw )]
The Laplace transform of a rectangular pulse is then:

h
F  s   h  L (u (t )) - L (u (t  tw ))   1  e tw s
s


25
 Unit Step
2. The Step function Function u(t)

0, t  0
f (t )  
1, t  0

1
L  f (t )   (1)e dt 
 st

0
s
 0, t  0
f (t )  
 a, t  0

a
L  f (t )   (a )e dt 
 st

0
s
3-26
3. The exponential function

 0, t  0
f (t )    at  u (t )e  at
e , t  0
 
L  f (t )   e at e st dt   e  ( s  a )t dt
0 0

1  ( s  a )t t  1
 e 
sa t 0
sa
A
if , f (t )  Ae , L  f (t ) 
 at

sa
3-27
4. The Ramp function

0, t  0
f (t )    tu (t )
 t, t  0

L  f (t )   te  st dt
0

 udv  u.v   v.du,

u  t , du  dt
 st
 st e
dv  e dt , v  
s
3-28
 
L  f (t )   te  st dt
0

 e  st   1   st
 t 
t 
t 0     e dt
 s  0 s
 st t 1  t  
 e  s  s 2  t  0
1
 2
s

1
L  f (t )   te dt  2 st

0
s

3-29
 Laplace Transform
Monomials
• By repeated integration-by-parts, it is possible
to find the formula for a general monomial for
n≥0

  n!
L t ut   n1
n

n!
t n ut  
s n1

3-30
 Laplace Transform
The Sine Function
• Sine requires two integration by parts:

Lsin t  u t    sin t e  st dt
0
 
1 1
Using integration by   sin t e  st    cost e  st dt
s 0 0
s
parts twice, the Laplace 
1
transform  0   cost e  st dt
s 0
 
1 1 1
  2 cost e  st   sin t e  st dt
s 0
s 0 s

1 1
 2  2  sin t e  st dt
s s 0
1 1
  Lsin t  u t  1 of 2
s2 s2 3-31
 Laplace Transform
The Sine Function
• Consequently:

1 1
Lsin t  u t   2  2 Lsin t  u t 
s s
 
s 2  1 Lsin t  u t   1
1
Lsin t  u t   2
s 1
1
 sin t  ut   2
s 1
2 of 2
3-32
 Laplace Transform
The Cosine Function

Lcost  u t    cost e  st dt
0
 
1 1
  cost e  st   sin t e  st dt
s 0 0
s

1 1
   sin t e  st dt
s s 0

1  1 
 
1 1
   2 sin t e  st    cost e dt 
 st

s  s 0
s 0 s 


1 1
 2  0  2  cost e  st dt
s s 0
1 1
  2 Lcost  u t 
s s
1 of 2
3-33
 Laplace Transform
The Cosine Function
• Consequently:

1 1
Lcost  u t    2 Lcost  u t 
s s
 
s 2  1 Lcost  u t   s
s
Lcost  u t   2
s 1
s
 cost  ut   2
s 1

2 of 2
3-34
 Laplace Transform
Linearity Property
• The Laplace transform is linear
• If and then
Lf(t )  Fs  Lg(t )  Gs 

La f(t )  b g(t )  a Fs  b G s 

a f(t )  b g(t )  a Fs  b G s 

3-35
Example

• Let f (t) = 5e-2t - 3sin(4t) for t  0.

• Then by linearity of the Laplace transform, and using results
of previous examples, the Laplace transform F(s) of f is:
F ( s)  L{ f (t )}
 L5e  2t  3 sin( 4t ) 
 5Le  2t  3L sin( 4t ) 
5 12
  2 , s0
s  2 s  16

3-36
 Laplace Transforms of Derivatives

d  df  st
L  f (t )    e dt
 dt  0 dt
u  e-st , du   se  st dt
df
dv  dt , v  f (t )
dt
 udv  u.v   v.du,

df  st t  

0 dt 
 st  st
e dt  e f (t )  f (t )(  s ) e dt
t 0 0
 0  e0 . f (0)  ( s).F ( s)
 sF ( s )  f (0)
3-37
3. Derivatives
This is a very important transform because derivatives appear
in the ODEs we wish to solve. It can be shown that:
 df 
L    sF  s   f  0 
 dt 
initial condition at t = 0

Similarly, for higher order derivatives:

d n f  n  2 1
  s F s   s f  0  s f  0 
n n 1
L n
 dt 
...  sf    0   f    0 
n 2 n 1

38
  df 
L    sF ( s )  f (0)
 dt 
d2 f  2
L  2   s F ( s )  sf (0)  f '(0)
 dt 
d f  3
3
L  3   s F ( s )  s f (0)  sf '(0)  f ''(0)
2

 dt 
df (t )
 f '(0)
dt t 0

3-39
3-40
Table 3.1 Laplace Transforms for Various Time-Domain Functions

f(t) F(s)

3-41
Table 3.1 Laplace Transforms for Various Time-Domain Functions

f(t) F(s)

3-42
Table 3.1 Laplace Transforms for Various Time-Domain
Functionsa (continued)

f(t) F(s)

3-43
Calculating Laplace with Matlab

F=simplify(F)

44
Inverse Laplace with Matlab

45
A pressure in Pascals (P) starting at t = 0 is given
below. Determine the Laplace transform.

4 t
p(t )  5cos 2t  3e
s 1
P( s)  L[ p(t )]  5  2  3
s  (2) 2
s4
5s 3
 2 
s 4 s4
3-46
Determine the inverse transform of the
function below.

5 12 8
F ( s)   2 
s s s 3
3t
f (t )  5  12t  8e

3-47
Determine the inverse transform of the
function below.

200
V ( s)  2
s  100
 10 
V ( s )  20  2 2 
 s  (10) 

v(t )  20sin10t

3-48
Solution of Differential equations by Laplace Transform

• For the solution of linear, ordinary differential

equations with constant coefficients Laplace
Transforms are applied.
• The procedure involves:
1. Take the Laplace Transform of both sides of the
equation.
2. Solve the resulting equation for the Laplace transform
of the unknown function. i.e., evaluate x(s).
3. Find the function x(t), which has the Laplace Transform
obtained in step 2.

3-49
1. Take the Laplace transform of both sides of the DE. The initial conditions given for the
DE are incorporated in this step with the transform of the derivatives.
2. Solve for the resulting algebraic equation in terms of the Laplace transform of the
unknown function.
3. Find the time domain by taking the Laplace inverse of the resulting algebraic equation

3-50
 Example:
Solve the ODE,
dy
5  4y  2 y 0  1
dt • Use last entry from Table 2
First, take L of both sides, in this presentation
2 • Or entry 11 from Table 3.1
5  sY  s   1  4Y  s   in the text book
s
Rearrange, Y  s   5s  2
 s  b3  b3  b1 b t b3  b 2 b t
L1   e 1  e 2
  s  b1  s  b 2   b 2  b1 b1  b 2
s  5s  4  b1  0, b 2  0.8, b3  0.4

1 
5s  2  1  5(s  2 / 5) 
Take L-1, y t   L  L  
 s  5s  4    5(s  0)(s  4 / 5) 

From Tables, y  t   0.5  0.5e 0.8t

51
3-52
Inversion of Laplace Transforms – MATLAB
Example: for the following differential equation

d 3x d 2x dx dx(0) d 2 x(0)
3
 4 2
 5  2x  2 x(0)   2
0
dt dt dt dt dt

2
x( s ) 
s s 3  4 s 2  5s  2 

3-53
Solution of Differential Equation by MATLAB

3-54
Partial Fraction Expansions (PFE)
Basic idea: Expand a complex expression for Y(s) into
simpler terms, each of which appears in the Laplace
transform table. Then you can take the L-1 of both sides of
the equation to obtain y(t).
Example:
s5
Y s 
 s  1 s  4 
Perform a partial fraction expansion (PFE) on the RHS
s5 1 2
 
 s  1 s  4  s  1 s  4
where coefficients 1 and  2 have to be determined.
55
To find 1 : Multiply both sides by s + 1 and let s = -1
s5 4
 1  
s4 s 1 3

To find  2 : Multiply both sides by s + 4 and let s = -4

s5 1
 2  
s 1 s 4 3
Heaviside
A General PFE rule
Consider a general expression,
N s  N s 
Y s   
D s  n
  s  ri 
i 1

56
Laplace Transform Properties

57
Laplace Transforms Table 1

58
Laplace Transforms Table 2

59
Laplace Transforms Table 3

60
 Repeated roots
• If the denominator polynomial D(s) contains the repeated factor (s+b)r , we
need to put the function in the following form:
a1 a2 ar
Y (s ) = + 2
+L + r
(s + b) (s + b) (s + b)
• To find α1 the Heaviside rule cannot be used here. ??? Hence we need to use
the Heaviside expansion method N (s ) r
Q (s ) =
D (s )
(s + b)
• First form the quantity Q as:

• Then setting s = -b will generate αr (Heaviside rule).

• Differentiating Q(s) with respect to s and letting s = -b will generate αr-1
• Successive differentiation a total of (r-1) times will generate all
αi , i = 1,2,…,r-1
• A general expression can be obtained: a = 1
d (i )
()
Q s
i = 0,..., r - 1
r- i (i )
i ! ds
s= - b

61
 Repeated roots: Example
s+1 s+1 a1 a2 a3
Y (s ) = = = + +
(s 2
)
+ 4s + 4 s (s + 2) s
2
s + 2 (s + 2)2 s
• For :
N (s ) r s+1 2 s+1
Q (s ) = (s + b) = (s + 2) =
D (s ) s (s + 4s + 4)
2
s
• Find Q(s): 1 d (i )Q (s )
ar- i = i = 0, ..., r - 1
i ! ds (i ) s = - b
• Then
s+1 1
a2 = =
s s= - 2 2
• To find 2 , Use i=0:
æs + 1÷
ö
d çç ÷ 1
a1 = è s ø = -
ds 4
• To find 1 , Use i=1:
s= - 2
s+1 1
a3 = 2 =
s + 4s + 4 s = 0 4
• For α3 multiply L let
- 14 the LHS21 of Y(s)41 by s and 1 s=0
Y (s ) = + + y (t ) = - 1
e - 2t + 21 te - 2t + 1
s + 2 (s + 2)2 s 4 4

62
 Exercise
• Find the time domain equivalent of the
following TF:

• Hint:

63
 Solution
To find 4, we use the Heaviside rule, mult. LHS by (s+2) and substitute by s=-2
2
a4 = 3
= - 2
(s + 1) s= - 2

To find 1, 2, and 3 we use the Heaviside expansion :

N (s ) r 2
Q (s ) = (s + b) = s + 2
D (s )

1 d (i )Q (s ) 2 - 2 2 - 2
ar- i =
i ! ds (i ) s = - b
i = 0, ..., r - 1
F (s ) = + + +
s + 1 (s + 1)2 (s + 1)3 (s + 2)
1 d Q (s )
(0)
2
a3 = = = 2
0! ds (0) s + 2 s= - 1
s= - 1 é- t t2 - t ù
ê -t
f (t ) = 2 êe - te + e - e ú - 2t ú
1 d Q (s )
(1)
- 2 2
a2 = = = - 2 ë û
1! ds (1) (s + 2)
2
s= - 1 éæ t2÷ ö - t ù - 2t
s= - 1
ê ç
= 2 êçç1 - t - ÷e úú- e
1 d Q (s )
(2) ÷
a1 = =
4
= 2 êëçè 2 ø÷ úû
2! ds (2) (s + 2)
3
s= - 1 s= - 1

64
Example Solve the ODE shown below:
dy
 2 y  12sin 4t y (0)  10
dt
12(4)
sY ( s)  10  2Y ( s)  2
s  16
10 48
Y ( s)   02  16 , complex roots
s  2 ( s  2)( s 2  16) 4

48 A Bs  C
  2
( s  2)(s  16) s  2 s  16
2

48  48
A 2    2.4
s  16  s 2 20

65
Example Continuation:
48 2.4 Bs  C
  2
( s  2)(s  16) s  2 s  16
2

Set s=0 Set s=-1

48
(2)(16)

2.4 C

2 16 → C  4.8 48
(1)(17)

2.4  B  C
1

17 → B  2.4

10 2.4 2.4s 4.8

Y ( s)    2  2
s  2 s  2 s  16 s  16
y(t )  12.4e2t  2.4cos 4t  1.2sin 4t

Or from the generic decaying oscillatory rule :

æ C - aB ö æ 4.8 - 0 ö
e - at ççB cos(wt ) + sin(wt )÷
÷ = e - 0ç
ç - 2. 4 cos( 4t ) + sin( 4t )÷
÷
çè w ÷
ø çè 4 ÷
ø
= - 2.4 cos 4t + 1.2 sin 4t

66
Example:
An ODE of the form & y& &+ 11y&+ 6y = 1 , with zero initial
&+ 6y&
conditions resulted in the expression
1
Y s  (3-40)
 3 2
s s  6s  11s  6 
The denominator can be factored as

 
s s3  6s 2  11s  6  s  s  1 s  2  s  3 (3-50)
Note: Normally, numerical techniques are required in order to
calculate the roots.
The PFE is:
1 1  2 3 4
Y s      (3-51)
s  s  1 s  2  s  3 s s  1 s  2 s  3
67
Solve for coefficients to get
1 1 1 1
1  ,  2   , 3  ,  4  
6 2 2 6
(For example, find  , by multiplying both sides by s and then
setting s = 0.)
Substitute numerical values into (3-51):
1/ 6 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 6
Y ( s)    
s s 1 s  2 s  3

Take L-1 of both sides:

1 1/ 6  1  1/ 2  1  1/ 2  1  1/ 6 
L Y  s    L 
1
 L   L   L 
 s   s  1 s  2  s  3 
From Laplace Tables, 1 1 t 1 2t 1 3t
y t    e  e  e
6 2 2 6
68
 Partial Fractions in Matlab(Repeated Poles)

>>syms s
>>num=[8 10];
>>den=double(coeffs(expand((s+1)*(s+2)^3)));
>>den=fliplr(den);
>>[r,p,k]=residue(num,den)

r = - 2.0000 - 2.0000 6.0000 2.0000

p = -2.0000 -2.0000 -2.0000 -1.0000
k = []

69
 Partial Fractions in Matlab(Complex Roots and Poles)

>>num=[1 2 3];
>>den=[1 5 2 7];
>>[r,p,k]=residue(num,den)

r = 0.6912 0.1544 - 0.1645i 0.1544 + 0.1645i

p = -4.8840 -0.0580 + 1.1958i -0.0580 - 1.1958i
k= []

70
 To summarize: the solution procedure for the DE using Laplace transform:
1. Take the Laplace transform of both sides of the DE. The initial conditions given for the
DE are incorporated in this step with the transform of the derivatives.
2. Solve for the resulting algebraic equation in terms of the Laplace transform of the
unknown function.
3. Find the time domain by taking the Laplace inverse of the resulting algebraic equation

Step 3 is the difficult part  always results in algebraic equation of the form:
N ( s) s n + a1s n-1 + ..... + an-1s + an
Y ( s) = =
D( s) s m + b1s m-1 + ..... + bm-1s + bm
Y(s) = Laplace transform of the output variable
N(s) = Numerator polynomial of order n
D(s) = Denominator polynomial of order m, (where m > n)
Roots of N(s) are called ZEROES of Y(s)
Roots of D(s) are called POLES of Y(s)

3-71
 Partial Fraction Expansion
Example) Consider
s 5
Y ( s) 
( s  1)( s  4)
s 5  
 1  2
( s  1)( s  4) s  1 s  4 Holds for
How to find 1and  2 . any value
of s

Method 1.
Multiply both sides of by ( s  1)( s  4.)
s  5  1 ( s  4)   2 ( s  1) (1)
Equating coefficients of each power of s, we have
s1;1   2  1, s0 ; 41   2  5
Solving for 1 and  2simultaneously. , 1  4 3  2  1 3
.
 Method 2. Since (1) should hold for all values of s, we can specify
two values of s and1 solve for the two constant.
s  5 : 0   1   2
4
2 1
s  3:    1   2
2 2
1  4 3  2  1 3
Solving, .

Method 3. Heaviside expansion

–The fastest and most popular method.
We multiply both sides of the equation by one of the denominator terms
( s  bi ) and then set s  bi , which causes all terms except one to be
multiplied by zero.
s5 4
1  
s  4 s 1 3
s5 1
2  
s  1 s 4 3
Heaviside Expansion
- General form:
N (s) N ( s) n
i
Y (s)   
D( s ) n
s  bi
 (s  bi )
i 1
i 1

Case 1) If all bi ' sare distinct.

N ( s)
 i  ( s  bi )
D( s) s bi
Case 2) Repeated Factors ; If a denominator term s  b occur
r times in the denominator, r terms must be included in the
expansion that incorporate the s  b factor
1 2 r
Y ( s)     
s b ( s  b) 2
( s  b) r

in addition to the other factors.

– How to Find  ifor repeated factor case.
Example
For s 1 1 2 3
Y ( s)     (2)
s(s  2) 2
s  2 ( s  2) 2
s
set up the partial fractions and evaluate their coefficient.
s 1 1
2  
s s 2 2
s 1 1
3  
s 2  4s  4 s 0 4

Approach 1
Substituting the value s  1 in (2) yields
0  1   2   3
1
1  
4
Approach 2 ; Differentiation of the transform.
Multiply s( s  2) 2both sides of (2).
s  1  1s(s  2)   2 s  3 (s  2)2 (3)
Then (3) is differentiated twice with respect to s
0  21  2,3so that 1   3  1. 4
Differentiation approach
– If the denominator polynomial D(s) contains the repeated factor
( s  b),r first form the quantity.
N ( s)
Q( S )  ( s  b) r  ( s  b) r 11  ( s  b) r 2 2
D( s )
   r  (s  b)r [other partialfractions] (4)
The general expression for  i is given as follows
1 d ( i )Q( s )
 r i  (i )
, i  0,1, , r 1 (5)
i ! ds s  b
Example

• Solve the following equation.

dx
 3x  0, where, x(0)  2
dt
Solution:
sx( s )  x(0)  3 x( s )  0
x( s )( s  3)  2
2 1
x( s )   2.
s3 s3
x(t )  2e 3t
 Inversion by Partial Fractions
Example
Solve the following equation.

dx
 x  1, where, x(0)  0
dt

Solution:
1
sx ( s )  x (0)  x ( s ) 
s
1
x ( s )( s  1) 
s
1
x( s ) 
s ( s  1)
Partial fractions is to be applied;
 1 A B
x( s )   
s ( s  1) s s 1
METHOD I
multiply both sides with s
1 A B
s.  s.  s.
s(s  1) s s 1
1 Bs
 A
s 1 s 1
for , s  0
1
 A  0, A  1
0 1

multiply both sides with (s  1),

1 A(s  1) B
(s  1).   ( s  1).
s(s  1) s s 1
for , s  1
1
 0  B, B  1
-1
METHOD II
1 A B A(s  1) Bs
   
s ( s  1) s s 1 s(s  1) s(s  1)
1  As  A  Bs
A 1
A B  0
B  1

1 A B
x( s )   
s ( s  1) s s 1

1 1
x( s )  
s s 1

x (t )  1  e t (by using Laplace Transform table)

 Example

Solve the following equation.

d 3x d 2 x dx
 2   2 x  4  e 2t

dt 3 dt 2 dt
where, x(0)  1, x(0)  0, x(0)  1
Apply Laplace transform to both sides of the equation.
s 3 x( s )  s 2 x(0)  sx(0)  x(0)
2  s 2 x( s )  sx(0)  x(0) 
  sx( s )  x(0) 
2 x( s )
4 1
 
s s2
 4 1 s 4
 6 s 2
 9s  8
x( s )  s  2s  s  2   
3 2
 s  2s  2 
2

s s2 s ( s  2)
s 4  6s 2  9s  8
x( s ) 
s( s  2)( s 3  2s 2  s  2)
s 4  6s 2  9s  8
x( s ) 
s( s  2)( s  1)( s  2)( s  1)
A B C D E
x( s )     
s s  2 s 1 s  2 s 1
to determine multiply by Set s to results

A S 0 -2

B S-2 2 1/12

C S+1 -1 11/3

D S+2 -2 -17/2

E S-1 1 2/3
 2 1 1 11 1 17 1 2 1
x( s )    .  .  .  .
s 12 s  2 3 s  1 2 s  2 3 s  1

x(t )  2  (1/12)e 2t  (11/ 3)e t  (17 / 2)e 2t  (2 / 3)et

 Translation of Transform
If L[ f (t )]  f (s) L[e  at f (t )]  F ( s  a)
Time Translation or Dead Time
 
-s
L[ f (t -  )]   f (t -  )e- st dt  e  f (t -  )e- s (t - ) d (t   )
0 0

 e -s  f ( )e - s ( ) d = e-θs f (s)
0

Final Value Theorem

The final condition (st. st.) of the transient can be determined by applying the
transform for the derivative of a function, and taking the limit as s →0, this
gives (try it):
lim f (t )  f ()  lim sF ( s )
t  s 0

Initial Value Theorem

The initial value of the transient can be determined initial value theorem.
lim f (t )  f (0)  lim sF ( s )
t 0 s 
Dead-Time Process
• Pipe is completely thermally insulated (No heat loss)
@ st. st. Tout(t) = Tin(t)
@ t = 0; Tin(t) changes as shown by curve A
L
Tout(t) remains the same as the old st. st. value until
the change in the fluid reaches the end of the pipe,
where the change in Tin transfers to Tout; after that
curve B starts occurring
Dead time, td: Time required for the change to appear
td can be calculated from:
volume of the pipe AL AL L [sec]
td = = = =
volumetric flow rate F Aυ υ
Mathematically, Tin and Tout can be modeled as:
Tout(t) = Tn(t-td)
Qualitative Nature of Solutions
 Important Properties of Laplace Transforms
(1) Final Value Theorem

It can be used to find the steady-state value of a closed loop

system (providing that a steady-state value exists).

Statement of FVT:

lim y  t   lim  sY  s  
t  s 0

provided that the limit exists (is finite) for all Re  s   0,

where Re (s) denotes the real part of complex variable, s.

89
 Important Properties of Laplace Transforms
(1) Final Value Theorem
Example:
5s  2
Suppose, Y  s  
s  5s  4 
 5s  2 
Then, y     lim y  t   lim    0.5
t  s 0  5s  4 

This means that the final steady state value of the output
variable for this transfer function will be 0.5

90
 Be careful when applying the FVT
Consider the Laplace transform :
what is its f(t=)?
Find its inverse Laplace transform?
This is a tricky question. If we apply the final value theorem without
thinking, we would get a value of 0, but this is meaningless.
With MATLAB, we can use: roots([1 1 -4 -4])
to find that the polynomial in the denominator has roots –1, –2, and +2.
This implies that f(t) contains the term e2t , which increases without bound.

Performing partial fractions analysis: [a,b,k]=residue([6 0 -24],[1 1 -4 -4])

Unbounded term
Always check the roots of the denomenator for positive roots
91
 Important Properties of Laplace Transforms
(2) Time Delay
Time delays occur due to fluid flow, time required to do an
analysis (e.g., gas chromatograph). The delayed signal can
be represented asf t    ,   time delay
f(t) f(t-θ)
Also, L f t  θ   L u (t  θ)f t   e θs
F s 
θ

Procedure for Inverting transforms containing time-delay i.e. e F  s 

 θs

term:
1. Invert F(s) as usual to find f(t)
2. Find y(t) = f(t-θ) by replacing the argument t, wherever it
appears in f(t) by t- θ
3. Multiply the entire function by the shifted unit step function
u(t- θ).
1
Note: u(t- θ) is the shifted unit step function:
0 θ

92
 Important Properties of Laplace Transforms
(2) Time Delay
Example:
1  e 2s
Find the inverse Laplace for: Y s  
 4s  1 3s  1
1 e 2s
Y  s   Y 1  s  Y 2  s   
 4s  1 3s  1  4s  1 3s  1
41  3  1  1 1   t /4  t /3
For Y1(s) : y1 (t )  L Y1  s    L 
1
   L     e e
 4 s  1 3s  1  s 4 s 3
1 1

For Y2(s),we use the procedure for time delayed terms:


L1 Y 2  s    L1 e 2sY 1  s   1- Find the inverse of Y1(s)
2- Replace (t) by (t-2)
y2  t    e ( t 2)/4  e ( t 2)/3  u(t  2) 3- Multiply the whole term by u(t-
 
2)
Hence: y  t   y1 (t )  y2 (t )  e t /4  e t /3  e ( t 2)/4  e ( t 2)/3  u(t  2)
 

93
 Solving ODEs in MATLAB using LT
• Consider the initial value problem
• y'' + 3 y ' + 2 y = e-t , y(0) = 4 , y '(0) = 5
%Define the necessary symbolic variables:
syms s t Y
%Define the right-hand side function and find its Laplace transform:
f = exp(-t)
F = laplace(f,t,s)
%Find the Laplace transform of y '(t ) :Y1 = s Y – y (0)
Y1 = s*Y - 4
%Find the Laplace transform of y ''(t ) :Y2 = s Y1 - y'(0)
Y2 = s*Y1 - 5
%Set the Laplace transform of the left hand side minus the right hand side to zero and solve for Y:
Sol = solve(Y2 + 3*Y1 + 2*Y - F, Y)
%Find the inverse Laplace transform of the solution:
sol = ilaplace(Sol,s,t)
sol = 12/exp(t) - 8/exp(2*t) + t/exp(t)
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 Additional Material:
How to Factor a Cubic Polynomial
1. Let the expression be in the form of aX3+bX2+cX+d

2. Find the factors of d (the numbers that d is divisible by):

Example: the factors of 8 are 1,-1,2,-2,4,-4,8,-8

3. Substitute by each factor in the polynomial to determine the factors that makes the
polynomial equal to zero.

4. If the factor that made the polynomial equal zero is (a) then (X-a)is a factor of the
polynomial (The polynomial is divisible by it)

5. Continue to substitute by the factors of the free term until you get all the factors of
the polynomial or you can divide the main polynomial by the only factor that you got
(X-a) by using the long division:
Example : X3-6X2+11x-6

6. If we substitute by 1,2,3 (the positive factors of the free term) the expression equals
zero, then (X-1),(X-2),(X-3) are the factors of the polynomial.

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