QuartJEngGeol v10 1977 DescriçãoMaciçosUsosEngenharia WorkingGroup

Q. JIEngng Geol. 1977. Vol. 10. pp. 355-388, 4 figs, 10 tables.
Printed in Great Britain
THE DESCRIPTIONOF ROCKMASSESFOR

ENGINEERINGPURPOSES
Report by the GeologicalSocietyEngineering
Group Working Party
Contents
I. Terms of reference 356 6.5 Permeability (secondary) 371
2. Introduction 356 6.6 Seismic velocity 371
3. Previous work 357 7. Techniques for carrying out classification

tests 372
4. Requirements of a scheme of description 358 7.1 Choice of method 372
4.1 Identification of indices 358 7.2 Schmidt rebound hammer test 372
4.2 Division of study 358 7.3 Point load test 373
5. Rock material description 359 7.4 Portable shear box 374
5.1 Choice of approach 359 7.5 Slake durability test 375
5.2 Rock material indices 359 7.6 Permeability tests 375
5.2.1 Scope 359 7.6.1 Packer or Lugeon test 375
5.2.2 Rock type 360 7.6.2 Other permeability tests 376
5.2.3 Colour 361 7.7 Seismic survey 376
5.2.4 Grain size 361 8. Techniques for obtaining data 377
5.2.5 Texture and fabric 361 8.1 Observations 377
5.2.6 Weathered and altered state 361 8.2 Discontinuity surveys 378
5.2.7 Strength 362 8.2.1 Techniques available 378
6. Rock mass description 365 8.2.2 Direct measurements 378
6.1 Rock mass indices 365 8.2.3 Measurements from drillholes 380
6.2 Discontinuities 366 8.2.3.1 Core orientation 380
6.2.1 Definition 366 8.2.3.2 Down-hole methods 380
6.2.2 Types 366 8.2.4 Surface photographic methods 381
6.2.3 Numbers of discontinuity sets 366 8.2.5 Comparison of discontinuity
6.2.4 Location and orientation 366 survey methods 381
6.2.5 Spacing between adjacent 9. Procedures for recording and presenting
discontinuities 367 descriptive data on rock masses 382
6.2.6 Aperture of discontinuity surfaces 367 9.1 Recording of data 382
6.2.7 Infilling 367 9.2 Presentation of data 383
6.2.8 Persistence or extent 368
10. Conclusion 386
6.2.9 Nature of surfaces 368
6.2.10 Additional information 369 11. Membership of the working party 386
6.3 Weathered and altered state 369 386
12. Acknowledgements
6.4 Discontinuity spacing in
three-dimensions 370 13. References 386
356 REPORT BY E N G I N E E R I N G GROUP WORKING PARTY
I. Terms of reference
The Geological Society Engineering Group Working Party on the Description of Rock
Masses for Engineering Purposes was established to produce a report which would provide
a format for the collection of descriptive data from the rock mass to permit assessment and
hence rational design and construction of structures or excavations, on, or within, that mass.
It was further intended that the report should facilitate communication in the description of
rock masses betweent the various branches of geology concerned with mining and civil
engineering.
2. Introduction
It is very necessary that standardisation should be achieved in the description and assess-
ment of rock masses to facilitate the communication of facts between interested parties. It is
thus essential that any system recommended should find wide acceptance.
Only the description of rock masses is considered in this report; assessment of the
engineering properties and behaviour of rock masses is beyond the terms of reference. These
aspects are specifically excluded both because of their wide range and because the type and
scale of the engineering operation has considerable bearing on the way the mass should be
assessed. As description forms the first step in the process of assessment it is essential that
uniformity and consistency of description should be introduced into the subsequent process
of rock mass assessment. It is recognised, however, that it may be possible to reduce this
process of description by considering fewer parameters in an endeavour to produce a rock
mass 'rating' as a quick guide to particular engineering performance.
For many years the discipline of soil mechanics has utilised the concept of index
properties for discriminating between different types of soil in any given category, and
classification tests for determining those index properties (Terzaghi & Peck 1967); this is
now considered to be a fundamental procedure in soil mechanics. It is considered that it is
equally necessary that a similar system should be introduced into the description of rock
masses. This report proposes a system of rock mass description in which the rock mass
'indices' or parameters, analogous to the soil indices, are identified and described. Where
possible a system of classification tests by which the indices may be determined is recom-
mended. Some indices may only be indirectly quantified by testing, and others (e.g. colour)
are amenable to description alone.
A rock mass may be considered as in situ rock material which has been made discon-
tinuous by planes of weakness generally of natural origin such as joints, faults and bedding
planes, which may be broadly referred to as discontinuities. The mass can therefore only be
fully described by the use of various indices which define aspects of the rock mass together
with indices which define the rock material. Many rock mass and material indices may be
quantified either directly or indirectly by carrying out classification tests.
It is recommended that the description of a rock mass should aim to assemble data in a
form amenable to subsequent processing and analysis. From this point onwards the data
THE DESCRIPTION OF ROCK MASSES FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES 357
may be selected, collated, weighted or treated in any other way in order to establish new
classifications or methods of assessment for the particular end-use required. If only selected
indices are defined initially, as in the case of some rock mass rating systems, this greatly
restricts the subsequent use of the data. The precise use to which the rock mass data might
be put cannot always be established early on in the life of a project.
3. Previous work
There is a broad division between those authors who have considered rock mass description
from the largely geological point of view and those authors who have been stimulated by
practical need to rationalise the description of rock masses. Indeed, in recent years, the
greatest stimulus has come from those rock mechanics engineers involved in underground
problems. A long and continuing need to determine the ability of rocks to stand unsupported
and to determine the type and degree of support needed, has produced many different
schemes for rock mass classification.
Terzaghi (1946) was the first to attempt any type of rock classification for engineering
purposes. He recognised the significance of discontinuities, their spacing and their filling
materials, and used this information to define certain types of ground which would influence
the load imposed on steel arches in tunnels. Stini (1950) and Lauffer (1958) carried on this
work and related the 'stand-up' time in tunnels to rock quality. John (1962), Coates (1965)
and Coates & Parsons (1966) further developed rock classifications and although these were
useful it is considered that they placed insufficient importance on the geological aspects.
In 1964 Deere endeavoured to produce the first rock mass rating based on his 'Rock
Quality Designation' index. This index determined from rock cores found wide practical
application especially when considered along with other rock properties, although limita-
tions on its use are recognised.
Detailed studies of rock material and rock mass parameters were made in the U.S.A. by
Deere & Miller (1966) and Deere, Merritt & Coon (1969) with the particular purpose of rock
assessment for military installations. Although more geological factors were taken into
account than in previous studies they were less concerned with recording the total description
of the rock than in recording the parameters most relevant to their engineering problems.
These authors were the first to make extensive use of correlations between parameters.
Work has been carried out by several authors to obtain easily identifiable rock para-
meters from simple tests (Duncan 1966, Franklin 1970, Cottiss et al. 1971, Franklin et al.
1971, 1972). Correlations have been obtained between the test results and rock properties
determined by more complex methods.
Piteau (1970) has described the significant factors in rock mass description for the
stability of slopes cut in rock.
The search for rock classifications useful for underground work has continued with
Bieniawski (1973, 1975) and Barton et al. (1974). These authors have tried to obtain classifi-
cations of jointed rock masses which depend on various weighted aspects of both the rock
material and the rock mass. As their objective has been to obtain rock mass ratings which
could be used for design, their classifications should be truly regarded as assessments.
Dearman (1974a, b) has considered rock mass description and has recommended a
system largely based on that produced by the Geological Society of London Engineering
Group (Anon. 1972). He has introduced a useful rock material classification as an aid to
identification and has endeavoured to distinguish between different types of weathering. His
paper represents the most extensive attempt to date to provide a multi-functional rock
classification for engineering purposes and this report is in agreement with his approach in
many respects.
The International Society for Rock Mechnaics has set up a series of working parties to
report on the classification and characterisation of rocks and engineering design tests as
part of their standardisation of laboratory and field tests. Draft copies of relevant sections
(Category 1, 9 and 10, rock mass field observations) are currently available. Similar studies
are also being made by the Institution of Civil Engineers in their revision of the British
Standard Code of Practice CP 2001.
4. Requirements of a scheme of description

4.1 Identification of indices
The complete specification of a rock mass requires descriptive information on the nature
and distribution in space of both the materials that constitute that mass (rock, soil, water
and air-filled voids), and the discontinuities that divide up the mass. As the behaviour of the
rock mass is determined in large measure by the type, spacing, orientation and character-
istics of the discontinuities, accurate collection of data concerning them is of importance. In
order to describe the mass it is necessary to decide which indices need to be measured. As
stated earlier in this report it is recommended that all, or most, of the selected indices should
be recorded. For many engineering purposes some parameters may be more relevant than
others and some selection may be made. Combinations of parameters may be collected by
means of some classification tests.
4.2 Division of study

The study of rock masses should be divided into two parts; a study of the rock material
(often referred to in earlier literature as intact rock) and a study of the discontinuous rock
mass. Some authors give scant attention to consideration of the rock material in rock descrip-
tion but it is emphasised that this important aspect must be treated adequately.
The rock material may be considered as a continuum or polycrystalline solid, consisting
of a natural aggregate of minerals. The properties of the rock material depend on the physical
properties of the constituent minerals and their type of bonding one to another (Deere &
Miller 1966). Parameters which could be included in a description of the rock material are
colour, grain size, texture, density, porosity, hardness, weathering, alteration, durability,
minor lithological characteristics, strength, primary (or intrinsic) permeability, seismic
velocity, modulus of elasticity, swelling, slake-durability, and petrological name. It is not
necessary, however, to describe all these parameters.
THE DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MASSES FOR E N G I N E E R I N G PURPOSES 359
The rock mass may be considered as a discontinuum consisting of rock material rendered
discontinuous by planes of weakness (or discontinuities). Parameters which could be in-
cluded in a description of the rock mass relate to the nature and distribution in space of its
structure (e.g. bedding, lamination) and discontinuities, as well as its strength, deformation
modulus, secondary permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) and seismic velocity.
Whilst these studies result in a rock description, it is recommended that arbitrary
distinctions between rock and soil should be disregarded and the system of description could
be used for any discontinuous material, whether it be a jointed granite or cleaved slate, a
fissured London Clay or a jointed glacial till. The generally accepted engineering distinctions
between soil and rock--'soil is a natural aggregate of mineral grains that can be separated by
such gentle mechanical means as agitation in water. Rock is a natural aggregate of minerals
connected by strong and permanent cohesive forces'--(Terzaghi & Peck 1967) have no par-
ticular relevance in this context. The grades of compressive strength have therefore been
continued below the arbitrarily accepted limit on rocks of 1.25MN/m ~ (MPa).
5. Rock material description

5.1 Choiceof approach
Rock material may be described in two ways:
(i) from a petrographic, or geological point of view, in which the prime consideration
is the mineral content of the rock, the interaction (physical/chemical) between
the grains, and the processes which have affected the rock after its formation; or
(ii) in a manner which places the main emphasis on those aspects of the rock material
which concern the engineering properties.
The first approach is rejected for the purposes of this report as it involves a detailed
consideration of the petrography of the rock, much of which is considered to be incidental
to rock mass description. Moreover, it provides little information on those rock properties
important to engineering behaviour. However, it must be emphasised that a basic petro-
graphic description is essential and it is strongly recommended that any petrographic data
should be provided by a geologist although it is recognised that rock masses are often de-
scribed for engineering purposes by engineers. Dearman (1974b) has endeavoured to satisfy
this requirement by producing a classification of rock material to provide a basic minimum
of information without utilising detailed petrographic descriptions.
5.2 Rock material indices

5.2.1 Scope. In addition to the petrographic name the rock material may be described
in terms of other characters, some acquired, some inherent, and some inherent but modified
by processes subsequent to lithification. Deere & Miller (1966) have examined fully the
parameters of rock material description and have recommended a selection of useful
360 REPORT BY ENGINEERING GROUP WORKING PARTY
engineering index properties which can be easily determined. However, this report recom-
mends that full material descriptions should be obtained rather than the few chosen by
Deere & Miller.
The following indices provide a full description of the rock material.
Group 1
Rock type
Colour
Grain size
Texture and fabric Descriptive indices
Weathering
Alteration
Strength
Group 2
Hardness
Durability
Indices which can be determined by classifi-
Porosity
cation tests requiring little or no sample
Density
preparation
Strength
Sonic velocity
Group 3
Young's modulus of elasticity Indices for design normally only determined
Poisson's ratio by complex testing or requiring extensive
Primary permeability sample preparation, or both
Properties included in Group 1 are purely descriptive. Group 2 properties may be

determined by simple classification tests but direct results may not be obtained; thus some
of these properties may be regarded as being only semi-quantifiable. Group 3 properties
may be determined directly by testing and are quantifiable properties although the tests may
only be carried out for design purposes.
Sections 5 and 6 of the report deal with those properties of rock material and mass
respectively which can be described in the field. Section 7 deals with the classification tests.
Design tests covered by Group 3 are considered to be beyond the scope of this report.
Although it is recommended that the data collected should be recorded on data sheets
(Section 9) it will often be necessary to produce a general description of the rock mass. In
this event it is proposed that the same scheme of description should be used as in the Geo-
logical Society Engineering Group, Working Party Report on The Preparation of Maps and
Plans in Terms of Engineering Geology (Anon. 1972), section, 5.2, i.e. suffixes to the rock
name should relate to the main engineering properties.
5.2.2 Rock type. Because of the difficulties described in section 5.1 it is recommended
that Dearman's scheme of petrographic description should be adopted. His classification has
been amended slightly and is shown in Table 1. It should be used as a guide to providing a
broad petrographic name for the rock. Each major rock type has been given an identification
number for use in recording on the data sheets.
5.2.3. Colour. The overall rock colour is difficult to quantify and unaided assessments
can be very misleading. It is, however, a property which can be significant and therefore
should be given due importance. A rock colour chart has been produced by the Geological
Society of America (1963); the Munsell Soil Color Chart is obtainable from Tintometer
Ltd., Waterloo Road, Salisbury, England. Colours are based on the choice of three diagnostic
parameters: hue, chroma, and value. A simplified scheme (Anon. 1972) is shown in Table 2
and its use is recommended. A colour from Column 3 may be supplemented if necessary by
a term from Column 2 or Column 1, or both.
5.2.4 Grain size. The grain sizes used in the description of rocks should be the same as
those in widespread use for the description of soils as shown in Table 3.
5.2.5 Texture and fabric. The texture of a rock refers to the geometrical aspects of,
and the mutual relationship among the component particles or crystals. Examples of these
aspects are the size, shape and arrangement of the constituent elements of a sedimentary
rock; the crystallinity and granularity of the constituent elements of an igneous rock.
The texture of a rock, therefore, refers to individual grains. The arrangement of grains
is referred to as the rock fabric, which may show a preferred orientation. In sedimentary
rocks, fabric is the orientation (or lack of it) in space of the elements (discrete particles,
crystals, cement) comprising the rock. The term is used in igneous and other crystalline
rocks for the pattern produced by the shapes and orientation of the crystalline and non-
crystalline parts of the rock. It is dependent on the relative sizes and shapes of the parts and
their positions with respect to one another and to the groundmass (which may be glassy)
when present (Gary et al. 1972).
Terms frequently used include porphyritic, crystalline, crypto-crystalline, granular,
amorphous and glassy.
Examination of the rock texture may require the use of a hand lens, or the microscopic
examination of a thin slice of the rock.
5.2.6 Weathered and altered state. Weathering refers to those destructive processes,
caused by atmospheric agents at or near the surface, that produce an in situ mantle of waste
that has undergone little or no transport (saprolite). The effects may be separated into
mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition including solution (Dearman 1974a).
Mechanical weathering results in the opening of discontinuities, the formation of new
discontinuities by rock fracture, the opening of grain boundaries, and the fracture or cleavage
of individual mineral grains. Chemical weathering leads eventually to chemical changes in
the original minerals, often to form clay minerals; some minerals resist this action and
survive unchanged. Early stages of chemical weathering result in discoloration of the rock
material.
Alteration comprises those changes in the chemical or mineralogical composition of a
rock produced by the action of hydrothermal fluids. Typical forms of alteration would be
kaolinisation or mineralisation. It may be difficult to distinguish between the effects of
weathering and alteration in some rocks, although the effects of weathering invariably die out
in depth whereas alteration may have originated at very considerable depths within the rock
mass.
Rock material tends to deteriorate in quality due to the effects of weathering and/or
alteration. The effects of these changes may be detected by systematic measurements of

parameters such as the strength of rock material or fracture spacing, but a qualitative
assessment may be made on the basis of a visual estimate of the degree to which the rock
material has been affected. Although weathering and alteration occur in the rock material,
the processes are governed to a large degree by the discontinuities in the rock mass and can
often only be appreciated on the scale of rock exposures or excavations (6.3).
5.2.7 Strength. It may not be essential to know the strength of the rock material with
TABLE 1" Rock type classification
GENETIC CHEMICAL/
GROUP DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY PYROCLASTIC ORGANIC
Usual Structure BEDDED BEDDED

....
Grains of rock, At least 5000 of At least 50% of grains

quartz, feldspar grains are of are of fine-grained
Composition and minerals carbonate volcanic rock
Very Grains are of rock fragments

coarse Rounded grains
grained 60 9 Rounded grains: A G G L O M E R A T E (31)
t~ C O N G L O M E R A T E (10) CALCI- Angular grains
Coarse ~ Angular grains: RUD1TE VOLCANIC BRECCIA
grained 2 ~ BRECCIA (11) (21) (32)
er SALINE
ROCKS
Halite (41)
Anhydrite
(42)
Gypsum
(43)
I S A N D S T O N E Grains are mainly "~
mineral fragments '~
~ Q U A R T Z S A N D S T O N E (12): 95%
~ quartz, voids empty or cemented
A R K O S E (13): 75%, quartz, u p t o 2 5 0 , ~ CALC-
!~ ~ feldspar: voids empty or cemented ~ ARENITE
Medium Z
:_ ~ ARGILLACEOUS SANDSTONE Z (22)
grained ~ (14): 75~ quartz, 15% _L fine 0
0 detrital material. T U F F (33)
0.06
Fine-grained T U F F (34) CHERT (44)
Fine I~ M U D S T O N E (15)
grained ;u~ SHALE (16): fissile m u d s t o n e
SILTSTONE (17): 50% fine-grained CALCi-
~ particles SILTITE F L I N T (45)
0.002 O CLAYSTONE (18): 50% very fine- (23)
Very ~ grained particles Very fine-grained
fine ~ C A L C A R E O U S M U D S T O N E (19) T U F F (35) COAL (46)
grained 2~ CALCI-
9< ,d LUTITE (24)
OTHERS (47)
GLASSY
great accuracy as the strength of the mass is largely governed by the discontinuities within
the mass. However, it is useful to know the rock material strength in assessing the shear
strength of discontinuities (Barton 1974), and is essential when describing massive rocks
without discontinuities.
Estimation of the mechanical strength of the rock material in a rock mass will generally
require some form of laboratory or in situ test usually involving determination of the un-
confined compression strength or point load strength, possibly supplemented by the Schmidt
METAMORPHIC IGNEOUS
FOLIATED MASSIVE MASSIVE

..
Quartz, feld- Light coloured minerals are quartz, feldspar, Dark
spars, micas, mica and feldspar-like minerals minerals
acicular dark .,
minerals Acid rocks Intermediate rocks Basic rocks Ultrabasic rocks
..
PEGMATITE
M I G M A T I T E (51) HORNFELS (61) (81) PYROXENITE
(o~)
and
PERIDOTITE
GNEISS (52) MARBLE (62) GRANITE DIOR1TE GABBRO (02)
Alternate layers (71) (82) (92)
of granular and
flakey minerals
SERPENTINE
(03)
SCHIST (53) G R A N U L I T E (63)
Q U A R T Z I T E (64) MICRO-GRANITE MICRO-DIORITE DOLERITE

(72) (83) (93)
PHYLLITE (54)
AMPHIBOLITE (65)
SLATE (55)
MYLONITE (56 RHYOLITE (71) ANDESITE BASALT

(84) (94)
OBSIDIAN and PITCHSTONE TACHYLYTE

(74) (85) (95)
TABLE 2: Rock colour

1 2 3
light pinkish pink
dark reddish red
yellowish yellow
brownish brown
olive olive
greenish green
bluish blue
white
greyish grey
black
TABLE 3 : Grain size
Retained on B.S.
Particle Sieve No. (approx. Equivalent
Term Size equivalent Soil Grade
Very coarse-grained > 60 mm 2 in Boulders and Cobbles
Coarse-grained 2-60 mm 8 Gravel
Medium-grained 60 microns-2 mm 200 Sand
Fine-grained 2-60 microns Silt
Very fine-grained < 2 microns Clay
Note: grains > 60 microns diameter are visible to the naked eye
TABLE 4: Rock material strength
Unconfined
compressive
strength
Term MN/m 2 (MPa) Field estimation of hardness
Very strong > 100 Very hard rock--more than one blow of geological hammer required to
break specimen.
Strong 50-100 Hard rock--hand held specimen can be broken with single blow of
geological hammer.
Moderately 12.5-50 Soft rock--5 mm indentations with sharp end of pick.
strong
Moderately
weak 5.0-12.5 Too hard to cut by hand into a triaxial specimen.
Weak 1.25-5.0 Very soft rock--material crumbles under firm blows with the sharp end
of a geological pick.
Very weak rock
or hard soil 0.60-1.25 Brittle or tough, may be broken in the hand with difficulty.
Very stiff 0.30-0.60* Soil can be indented by the finger nail.
Stiff 0.15-0.30 Soil cannot be moulded in fingers.
Firm 0.08-0.15 Soil can be moulded only by strong pressure of fingers.
Soft 0.04-0.08 Soil easily moulded with fingers.
Very soft <0.04 Soil exudes between fingers when squeezed in the hand.
* The compressive strengths for soils given above are double the unconfined shear strengths.
rebound value. The point load test is very useful in this respect and has been correlated with
compressive strength (7.3). The strength of rock material determined in unconfined com-
pression is dependent on moisture content of the specimen, anisotropy of the material, and
the test procedure used. Where rock strengths are not measured, they can be estimated by
following the modified scheme of Piteau (1970) given in Table 4. Such field estimates can
only be very approximate and the actual criteria used must be established on the basis of
individual experience.
6. Rock mass description

In addition to description of the rock material, description of rock in the mass involves the
determination of structure and the distribution of the different rock types present. It also is
concerned with the description of the weathering profile and the distribution of any effects
due to alteration.
In contrast to texture and fabric which are features of the rock material, s t r u c t u r e refers
to the larger features of the rock mass that can only be examined at outcrop or in artificial
excavations. It includes such features as bedding, foliation, flow banding, jointing, cleavage,
and brecciation, and their interrelationships.
6.1 Rock mass indices

When the rock material has been fully described it is necessary to recognise and describe
those features dividing the mass. The following indices of the mass may be measured directly
in the field or can be obtained by the use of relatively simple classification tests. They are
grouped in a similar way to the rock material indices:
Group 1
Discontinuities
type
number of discontinuity orientations
location and orientation
frequency of spacing between discontinuities
aperture or separation of discontinuity surfaces Descriptive indices
persistence and extent
in filling
nature of surfaces
additional information
Weathered and altered state
Group 2
Permeability (secondary)* Indices which can be deter-
Seismic velocity* mined by relatively simple
Shear strength* classification tests
Group 3
Modulus of deformability Indices for design normally
Permeability (secondary)* only determinable by complex
Seismic velocity* testing.
Shear strength*
* Where indices have been included in both Groups 2 and 3 it is because at the design stage tests may be
repeated by an alternative m e t h o d to gain more reliable data on the same index.
6.2 Discontinuities
6.2.1 Definition. A discontinuity is considered to be a plane of weakness within the rock
across which the rock material is structurally discontinuous and has zero or low tensile
strength, or a tensile strength lower than the rock material under the stress levels generally
applicable in engineering. Thus a discontinuity is not necessarily a plane of separation.
6.2.2 Types. Discontinuities may have a wide variety of origins and forms but they tend
to fall into two basic types; those that occur in sets or systems, e.g. joints, cleavages, bedding
planes, and which are amenable to statistical analysis; and those that are unique, e.g. faults,
and have to be considered on an individual basis. Where possible it is desirable to differentiate
between the origins of the various types of discontinuity because the engineering properties
may be strongly related to the genesis. Goodman & Duncan (1971) stress the importance of
this especially in respect of those planes formed by extension and those by shear. The major
types of discontinuity are faults, joints, fissures, cleavages, schistosity, shear planes, tension
cracks, foliations, bedding planes, lamination and veins.
6.2.3 Number of discontinuity sets. The presence of discontinuities within a rock mass is
likely to change its properties,e.g, reduce its strength or increase its deformability or per-
meability. The degree to which this occurs depends not only on the direction of the disconti-
nuities but also on the number of sets present and their spacing. The number and orientations
of intersecting sets or unique discontinuities govern the ability of the rock to deform or fail
without involving fracture of rock material.
Discrete orientations of discontinuities, or sets of discontinuities, may be recognised
visually in the field, or alternatively may only be apparent when later plotted out onto a
stereogram.
6.2.4 Location and orientation. Sufficient information is required to locate each dis-
continuity in space. This may consist of ground co-ordinates plus elevation or the relative
position along a fixed datum line. Information should preferably be recorded visually on a
map or plan.
The orientation of each discontinuity surface should be expressed in terms of its dip and
dip direction. The use of strike rather than dip direction should be discouraged.
Dip and dip direction is normally measured with a clinometer and compass and should
THE DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MASSES F O R E N G I N E E R I N G PURPOSES 367
be expressed to the nearest degree. Since the majority of natural discontinuity surfaces are
rough, a significant amount of scatter may be expected to occur in the measurements if
these are made over a small area of the discontinuity surface. Some of this scatter can be
avoided if desired by using a 200 mm diameter aluminium measuring plate laid on the dis-
continuity before any measurements are made. Particular care is required in measuring the
orientation of discontinuities which dip at a low angle.
6.2.5 Spacing between adjacent discontinuities. The spacing between adjacent dis-
continuities should be measured by counting the number of discontinuities which cut a
traverse line of known length and expressed as a mean fracture spacing in metres or milli-
metres (as in core logging). The mean and range of spacings between discontinuities in each
set should also be measured and recorded. In order to allow for sampling bias resulting from
measurements along a single line, measurements should ideally be made along three mutually
perpendicular axes.
The descriptive terms for discontinuity spacing in Table 5 are recommended. Although
a separate set of terms for bedding spacing has generally been used, it is felt that there
should be one common set of terms for both bedding and all other forms of discontinuity
spacing.
TABLE 5: Discontinuity spacing

Term Spacing
Extremely wide >2 m
Very wide 600 m m - 2 m
Wide 200-600 m m
Moderately wide 60-200 mm
Moderately narrow 20-60 m m
Narrow 6-20 m m
Very narrow < 6 mm
6.2.6 Aperture of discontinuity surfaces. The degree to which a discontinuity is open, or

to which the faces of the discontinuity have been separated and the space subsequently in-
flled (such as in a vein or fault) is of major importance (Piteau 1970, Bieniawski 1973). The
mean separation should be measured and described using the terms in Table 6.
TABLE 6: Aperture of discontinuity surfaces

Aperture (discontinuities)
Thickness (veins, faults)
Wide > 200 m m
Moderately wide 60-200 m m
Moderately n a r r o w 20-60 m m
Narrow 6-20 m m
Very n a r r o w 2-6 m m
Extremely narrow > 0-2 m m
Tight Zero
6.2.7 InfiHing. The infilling between discontinuity surfaces may be gouge or breccia in
the case of faults, or materials introduced into the opening, for example clay and other soils,
calcite and other mineral matter. The resistance to sliding along a discontinuity can be
either increased or decreased depending on such factors as the degree of separation, the
thickness of the infilling, the nature (type and hardness/consistency) and the character of
the discontinuity walls. If, for example, the infilling is sufficiently thick, the discontinuity
walls will not touch and the strength of the discontinuity will be that of the infiUing material.
The thickness of the infilling is taken as the width of the material separating the host
rock surfaces. Measurements are made in the same way as for discontinuity aperture (Table
6). H o e k & Bray (1974) suggest that the influence of the infilling is a function of the relation-
ship between its thickness and the amplitude of the asperities on the discontinuity walls. The
influence of the wall rock on the strength of the discontinuity may not become insignificant
until the infilling is over 100 mm thick.
The nature of the infilling material should be identified and a complete engineering
geological description given according to the recommended system for the description of
rock and soil.
The unconfined compressive strength of the infilling material should be either assessed
visually according to the system described in Anon. 1972, or should be measured using a
pocket penetrometer or pocket vane tester in the case of soils and a point load tester or
Schmidt Hammer in the case of rocks.
6.2.8 Persistence or extent. Persistence is an expression of the extent to which any
particular discontinuity can be traced. It may thus give some measure of the percentage of
the rock material which would have to be sheared during failure along a surface. Alterna-
tively it may demonstrate the degree to which failure would have to take place along en
echelon joints, or stepped surfaces.
Persistence is one of the most important factors in discontinuity description and is also
one of the most difficult to quantify. Often, particularly in the case of major joints, the planes
are continuous beyond the confines of the rock exposure and it may be impossible to
estimate their actual persistence. It is recommended that the maximum trace length should
be measured. Some comment may be made on the data sheet to indicate whether the total
trace length can be seen, and whether the discontinuity terminates in solid rock or against
another discontinuity.
6.2.9 Nature o f surfaces. The nature of a discontinuity surface may be considered to
have three aspects, viz. waviness, roughness and condition of the walls. Waviness and rough-
ness differ from each other in terms of scale and their effect on the shear strength of the dis-
continuity or the characteristics of the discontinuity during shearing (Piteau 1970) and will
depend to a large degree upon the normal stress across the plane. Waviness refers to those
first order wall asperities which appear as undulations of the plane and would be unlikely
to shear off during movement. Roughness refers to second order asperities of the plane
which because they are sufficiently small would be sheared off during movement.
The effects of waviness do not change with displacements along the discontinuity
surface since no shearing takes place through the asperities. Waviness therefore modifies the
apparent angle of dip but not the frictional properties of the discontinuity. On the other
hand, increased roughness of the discontinuity walls results in an increased effective friction
angle along the discontinuity; however these effects are found to diminish or disappear in
the presence of infilling.
Waviness may be measured by means of a standard tape or rule placed on the exposed
THE DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MA S S ES F O R E N G I N E E R I N G PURPOSES 369
discontinuity surface in a direction normal to the trend of the waves and this direction should
be recorded. In this way the mean wave length and maximum amplitude are determined.
Fecker & Rengers (1971) have described an alternative method in which a large number of
dip angle and dip direction measurements are made. The mean scatter of these measure-
ments gives a measure of the waviness angle.
A variety of techniques are used to measure roughness. A seven point visual classification
modified from the table given by Piteau (1970) is recommended (Table 7) for use when quan-
titative measurements are not made.
It should be stressed that such a table is meaningful only when the direction of the
irregularities in the surface is in the least favourable direction to resist sliding. It can be en-
visaged that the angle of frictional resistance along a surface being sheared normal to the
axis of slickensiding would be higher than along a surface with defined ridges where the
movement was parallel to the ridges. It is therefore necessary to specify the trend of
the lineation on the surface of the discontinuity in relation to the direction of shearing.
TABLE 7: Roughness categories

Category Degree of roughness
1 Polished
2 Slickensided
3 Smooth
4 Rough
5 Defined ridges
6 Small steps
7 Very rough
In order to ensure such a classification is as objective as possible it is recommended that

at each site where it is used typical examples of each category should be identified and p h o t o
graphed to maintain uniformity of assessment. Quantitative measurements of roughness
using a profilometer or photogrammetric methods have been described by Ross-Brown &
Walton (1975).
The condition or strength of the rock material forming the walls of the discontinuity can
have a significant effect on the shear strength of the discontinuity especially where the infilling
is thin or absent and roughness becomes of importance. The rock material should be de-
scribed or measured as recommended in Section 5. Where the effects of weathering have
penetrated deeply inwards from a discontinuity, a wide weak zone may be present.
6.2.10 Additional information. Any information considered relevant, but not covered in
any of the other sections is recorded in this section. This may include such information as
the presence of groundwater seepages, water levels in wells or other excavations, the presence
of swelling materials, indications of recent or past movement or instability.
6.3 Weathered and altered state

The terms weathering and alteration have been defined in section 5.2.6 in terms of their
effects on rock material. The weathering of the rock mass may be described relative to the
distribution of the weathered materials within it and the effect of weathering on discon-
370 R E P O R T BY E N G I N E E R I N G G R O U P W O R K I N G PARTY
tinuities. It m a y only be possible to appreciate weathering profiles from recently formed

natural exposures, e.g. along shorelines, or from artificial excavations.
The generalised descriptive terms for a scale of weathering grades of the rock mass
given in Table 8 are recommended. The terms given are general and m a y be modified to suit
particular situations; subdivision may be necessary. It should be noted that this scheme is
not applicable to all types of rock masses and ad hoe schemes such as those devised for
Keuper Marl (Chandler 1969) and chalk (Ward et al. 1968) m a y be necessary.
It should be noted that all grades of weathering m a y not be seen in a given rock mass,
and that in some cases a particular grade may be present to a very small extent. Distribution
of the various weathering grades of rock material in the rock mass m a y be related to the
porosity of the rock material and the presence of open discontinuities of all types in the rock
mass. Examples of 'fossil' weathering overlain by fresh younger material, as in some volcanic
sequences, may be encountered.
In logging cores the distribution of weathering grades of rock material m a y be recorded;
distribution of weathering grades of the rock mass from which the cores were obtained has
to be inferred from this type of evidence.
TABLE 8" Weathering~alteration grades
Term Description Grade

Fresh No visible sign of rock material weathering. IA
Faintly weathered Discoloration on major discontinuity surfaces. IB
Slightly weathered Discoloration indicates weathering of rock material and discontinuity I1
surfaces. All the rock material may be discoloured by weathering and
may be somewhat weaker than in its fresh condition.
Moderately weathered Less than half of the rock material is decomposed and/or disintegrated III
to a soil. Fresh or discoloured rock is present either as a continuous
framework or as corestones.
Highly weathered More than half of the rock material is decomposed and/or disintegrated IV
to a soil. Fresh or discoloured rock is resent either as a discontinuous
framework or as corestones
Completely weathered All rock material is decomposed and/or disintegrated to soil. The V
original mass structure is still largely intact.
Residual soil All rock material is converted to soil. The mass structure and material VI
fabric are destroyed. There is a large change in volume, but the soil has
not been significantly transported.
6.4 Discontinuity spacing in three dimensions

Although the shape and size of the blocks of rock material formed by the discontinuities can
be defined by the spacings and orientations of the discontinuities, a series of general descrip-
tive terms are also recommended.
The following terms define shape:
blocky -- approximately equidimensional

tabular -- one dimension considerably shorter than the other two
columnar -- one dimension considerably larger than the other two
THE D E S C R I P T I O N OF ROCK MASSES FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES 371
The orientation of the long or short dimensions should be specified in tabular and columnar
blocks respectively. Additionally it may be helpful to state the ratio of the orthogonal
dimensions, e.g. 1 vertical: 2 north: 6 east. The block size may be described using the terms
in Table. 9.
TABLE 9: Block size

Equivalent
Block discontinuity spacings
Term size in blocky rock
Very large > 8 ma Extremely wide
Large 0.2-8 m a Very wide
Medium 0.008--0.2 m 3 Wide
Small 0.0002q3.008 m3 Moderately wide
Very small < 0.0002 m 3 Less than moderately wide
6.5 Permeability (secondary)

The permeability of a rock mass (i.e. secondary permeability) results from flow through dis-
continuities or solution voids under the influence of hydraulic pressure. A great variety of
techniques have been described for measurement but it is beyond the scope of this report to
consider methods in any detail. However. the most common quick method for determining
rock mass permeability is the Lugeon or packer test which is considered in Section 7.6.1. The
permeability of the rock material, the primary permeability, is generally often small in
comparison with the secondary permeability and may not need to be considered for rock
mass description. It is usually necessary to measure primary permeability in the laboratory.
Although the secondary permeability is much affected by the size of the apertures and
degree of infilling of the discontinuities, some estimate of the permeability can be made based
on the frequency of discontinuities. However, any such estimates should be treated with
extreme caution and cannot be applied to rocks susceptible to solution. It should be em-
phasised that there is no adequate substitute for in situ permeability testing. (See Section
7.6).
6.6 Seismic velocity

Seismic velocity normally refers to the velocity of propagation of pressure waves through a
rock mass.
Unlike many other indices seismic velocity is not an independent variable; it is a func-
tion of many rock properties including density, porosity, mineral composition, cementation
and degree of fracturing.
In the case of a fractured rock mass it is often possible to correlate the seismic velocity
with variations in the degree of fracturing throughout the rock mass. Examples of this are
described by Grainger et al. (1973) in a study of the Chalk at Mundford and by Knill (1970)
in a study of grout-take in rock. It is also possible to obtain an index of fracturing based on
the ratio of the laboratory and field seismic velocity values (see Section 7.7).
7. Techniques for carrying out classification tests

7.1 Choiceof method
This report is concerned with description of rock masses and an arbitrary line has had to be
drawn between classification tests which may commonly be used to describe a rock mass
(including the rock material) and more specific design tests; some classification tests may,
however, also be used as specific design tests. The suitability of any test for the purposes of
general description is governed to a large degree by the interrelated factors of cost, speed,
convenience and the nature of the engineering project.
The following recommended classification tests have been found to provide quantitative
or semi-quantitative data rapidly and at low cost. Some of the field tests, however, require
considerable organisation of equipment and staff and thus must be the subject of an opera-
tion separate from the general collection of geological data. Their singular advantage lies in
the large number of tests which can be carried out to give a better indication of the variability
of the rock than might be achieved by more subjective methods; they generally yield indirect
rather than direct results. Care must be taken that these results are not used in isolation
from other rock mass indices.
7.2 Schmidt rebound hammer test

The Schmidt Rebound Hammer determines the hardness of a rock material by measuring
the degree to which a steel hammer will rebound from a prepared rock surface. A 'rebound
number' is indicated which has been shown to correlate with uniaxial compressive strength
after taking dry density of the rock into account. (Hucka 1965, Deere & Miller 1966,
Hendron 1968, Dearman 1974). Typically, however, there is only a 75 per cent probability
that the laboratory determined uniaxial compressive strength will lie within 50 per cent of
the strength determined from the correlation charts prepared by Deere & Miller and re-
produced with minor modification as Fig. 1.
The equipment is light and easy to use in the field but care must be exercised in selecting
the places at which the measurements are made. It is necessary for normal use that surface
coatings and unevenness should be removed before testing. However, where it is desired to
obtain the strength of the rock forming the wall of the discontinuity, no preparation should
be carried out. At least ten readings should be taken at each place after disregarding off-
shots which deviate from the mean by more than five rebound units. The method is only
applicable to rocks in the strong to very strong strength range.
It should be emphasised that the test relates to a rock material index and that it is
essential to ascertain that the results are not being influenced, for example, by local dis-
continuities, weathering effects or large crystals.
Dispers;on MN/m=
/;r/
o +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
t /,
/ Z,
200 i!
"E 150 ,,- -- ---
e-
100
/ "/// / X . ~-
9C
8g
7O J/HI'l,."
E 60
o
50 L :
9",,.5, I
I
1
I
I
20 I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Schmidt Hardness, R (L - H a m m e r )
FIG. 1. Rock strength chart based on Schmidt hardness using the L. Hammer (after Deere & Miller 1966).
Note, hammer vertical downwards, and dispersion limits defined for 75% confidence.
7.3 Point load test

A second method for determining rock material strength is the point load test which enables
a large number of determinations to be made in the field (Franklin, Broch & Walton 1971,
Broch& Franklin 1972, Bieniawski 1973 & 1975), particularly on rock cores.
The core is usually loaded to failure between two points across a diameter, but other
directions may also be tested. For the diametral test the length of the core should be at least
0.7 times the diameter. If a length of core is tested along the core axis the length of the core
should be approximately 1.1 times the diameter. If core is not available an irregular lump
test may be performed with loading along the longest axis which should be about 50 mm
long compared with the shortest axis of about 40 mm. Results from the latter type of test are
likely to display considerably more scatter than those where core is used. Sufficient tests
should be performed to give a statistically meaningful result.
The uncorrected point load index Is is obtained by dividing the force at failure by the
square of the length of the loaded axis. Various corrections may be made to this figure for
shape and size effects and if such corrections are made their nature should be stated. Follow-
ing Bieniawski (1975) this report recommends that results should be expressed as equivalent
compressive strengths ~c~ using the empirical conversion factor which varies with the length
of the axis loaded during the test (Fig. 2) for the range shown. The method of testing and
the source of the correlation factor should, however, be quoted.
A significant strength reduction is sometimes observed with increasing moisture content.
Except in special circumstances, such as when dealing with rocks from an arid environment,
or with argillaceous specimens which have previously been dried, tests should be carried out
as far as practicable with water saturated specimens. In practice, however, there is usually
relatively little strength difference between fully and partially saturated specimens.
It is envisaged that this test would be used for the majority of cases when only the
compressive or tensile uniaxial strength of the rock material is required.
7.4 Portable shear box

A portable shear box has been developed for use in the field in order to obtain quickly and
simply index shear strengths along discrete discontinuities or prepared surfaces (Hoek &
Bray 1974, Ross-Brown & Walton 1975). Advantages of the apparatus are that many tests
can be done, and repeated, all within a limited budget, allowing a more representative range
of results to be obtained than in the conventional in situ test.
There are several relatively simple portable shear boxes commercially available which
permit testing of specimens up to 140 mm cube, or cores up to 140 mm diameter. The
apparatus consists of a split box in which the two halves of the specimen are mounted so
that the discontinuity is parallel to the split. One hydraulic ram provides a normal force and
another the shear force. A third ram may be provided to permit reversal of the shear
direction. Displacements are measured using dial gauges and a total cumulative displacement
of 100 mm is normally required to obtain the residual shear strength along a surface; this
O~ '
20 0 0 60
Length of Loaded A x i s d (ram)
FIG. 2. Size correlation chart for point load strength to unconfined compressive strength
conversion (Oc should read acs).
involves several displacement cycles. In dealing with irregular discontinuity surfaces a

correspondingly irregular load-displacement relationship will be obtained, sometimes lead-
ing to uncertainty about the proper value for the loads, and in such cases a range of friction
angles should be calculated.
7.5 Slake durability test

The durability of a rock, or its ability to withstand weathering processes likely to cause
short-term disintegration or chemical breakdown, can be estimated by the slake durability
test. Although it is often possible to predict durability from a study of the mineralogy and
micro-structure of the rock it is considered to be quicker and more reliable to carry out a
test.
After giving consideration to the large variety of techniques available to assess that
property, Franklin & Chandra (1972) developed an apparatus for measuring a slake dura-
bility index. Their method involves the selection of ten rock samples weighing 40-60 grams
each which are subjected to oven-drying and wetting cycles. After oven-drying the rock is
placed in a standard test drum half immersed in water and rotated; slaked fragments pass
through the 2 mm meshed exterior of the drum. After ten minutes rotation at 20 r.p.m, the
sample is again oven-dried, and weighed to determine the loss in weight. The ratio of the
weights of the dry material retained to that in the drum at the start of the cycle is known as
the slake durability index. Results are claimed to be reproducible to within approximately
5 per cent (using consistent samples) and relate closely to in situ observations of weathering
performance. The second cycle slake durability index is recommended as a standard for
purposes of classification but samples with second cycle indices from 0-10 per cent should
be further characterised by their first cycle index and by their plasticity index. The initial
and final rock materials should be described.
The test can only be undertaken within reach of transport in the field and is best carried
out in a laboratory. It is quick, cheap and reliable. It should be regarded as a classification
test only and not a comprehensive test for durability. There is undoubtedly significant
abrasion of weaker rocks; also breakdown, which may occur as the result of causes other
than wetting, drying and abrasion, is not covered by the test.
7.6 Permeability tests

The U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation (1974) has published detailed
information on permeability testing.
7.6.1 Packer or Lugeon test. The classification test generally utilised for rock mass
permeability determination is the packer or Lugeon test sometimes called a water absorption
test, so-called because its use was first recommended by Lugeon (1932). This test is carried
out in a drillhole in which a single or double packer is inflated by mechanical, pneumatic or
hydraulic means to seal off a section of the rock. Water is pumped into the test section under
pressure and after allowing for the saturation of the ground the loss of water over a specified
period is recorded. By definition, the test should be carried out over a one metre test section
at a pressure of 10 kg/cm 2 (145 lb/in2). A rate loss of 1 litre/minute is said to equal one
kugeon unit (or approximately a permeability of 10 -7 m/sec). The standard size of hole is
NX but it has been shown that, within the limits of accuracy of the test, the size of hole is
not critical.
The test has wide application for providing an initial indication of permeability. The
main constraints are as follows: only clean water must be used; allowance must be made for
the static head applied by the water column above the water table; a correction should be
made for head losses in the pipes; the test must be carried out in stages utilising increasing
and decreasing pressures because of silting up, or washing out, of the filling in discontinu-
ities; pressures must not be so high as to cause hydraulic fracture.
Because hydraulic fracture may occur when the applied water pressure exceeds the
weight of overburden, pressures lower than those implied by the definition of the Lugeon
test must be used at shallow depths. Extrapolation of the results permits the Lugeon value
to be determined.
7.6.2 Other permeability tests. Rising, falling or constant head permeability tests, al-
though generally used to determine the permeability of soils, may also be used for the
determination of rock mass permeabilities. Specific testing for aquifer properties are con-
sidered to be beyond the scope of this report.
Rising and falling head tests involve adding water to a hole or bailing out water from
the standing water column in a hole, and measuring the change of level with time. In the
case of the constant head test (more suitable for measurement in formations of low per-
meability) an applied static head of water is kept constant by means of the addition of a
measured flow of water using a floating ball valve arrangement.
Although generally quick and cheap to carry out, the tests have a number of inherent
disadvantages: they are unable to apply the pressures to the rock mass similar to those which
may subsequently be applied by the engineering structure; they may test only a small volume
of rock; they depend on the casing to seal off the upper sections of the drillhole, often in-
effectively; and the formation may silt up with the falling head test, or internal erosion may
occur with the rising head test. However, their advantage is that many tests can be carried
out within a short time and an approximate order of magnitude of rock mass permeability
can be obtained.
The theories developed for the different conditions of flow in the above tests are based
upon the various assumed geometries of the borehole, casing and formation (Cedergren
1967). Thus the results may not be representative of the in situ conditions. The calculated
results therefore require careful consideration.
7.7 Seismic survey

Seismic surveys for engineering purposes generally use refraction techniques which are
particularly applicable for investigation of the rock mass to shallow depths. These may be
used in conjunction with laboratory determinations of the sonic velocity in the rock material
as noted in 6.6.
A basic seismic refraction survey (Griffiths & King 1965) consists of transmitting an
acoustic pulse into the rock mass and recording the energy received at a geophone array
positioned on the surface of the mass at various distances from the acoustic source. In a
THE DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MASSES FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES 377
typical case, a falling weight is used to generate an acoustic pulse, which is detected by a 12-
geophone receiving array coupled to a seismograph, producing a direct print of the received
signals. These records may be used to pick out the direct and refracted arrivals and from
these results travel time graphs can be constructed. In the ideal case, the travel time graph
will consist of a number of straight line sections; the slope of each section corresponds to a
velocity of sound characteristic of one particular stratum. From the graph it is possible to
compute the depth to each stratum using standard intercept theory. More complex analysis
may be required; for example a model having a smooth increase of velocity with depth may
be used to investigate certain weathering profiles.
Simplified surveys in which only the first compression wave arrival is recorded are often
utilised for determining the velocity of the overburden or depth to bedrock. More complex
surveys utilising explosives or multi-geophone arrangements are not covered in this report.
When required for use in conjunction with the sonic velocity in the rock mass, the sonic
velocity in the rock material is normally determined by measuring the travel time of an
acoustic pulse through a machined rock specimen. In a typical laboratory test, the sample
has a nominal diameter of 40 mm and a length of approximately 80 mm with the sample ends
ground flat and parallel. The acoustic pulse transmitted through the sample is detected by a
receiver, the transmission time recorded and the velocity calculated from the time and
length of the specimen. The sample should first be tested in a dry state and then water-
saturated. The temperature of the sample should also be recorded.
8. Techniques for obtaining data

8.1 Observations
Observations may be made singly (point observations) or in groups (area observations). It is
often desirable to divide a rock mass up into zones of well-defined characteristics from a
number of point observations. When the zones have been thus identified, area observations
may be undertaken fully to describe the mass within the various zones.
Rock mass zoning may be based on a large number of different parameters depending on
the nature of the engineering problem. The most common parameters are likely to be litho-
logy, rock strength, weathering and/or alteration, discontinuity frequency and rock quality.
Other parameters such as permeability could be included.
Rock mass zones based on lithology are commonly identified directly by geological
mapping or from the interpretation of air photographs. The differences in lithology may or
may not have engineering significance; in fact lithological zones have proved to be positively
misleading in some cases (Dearman 1974). It is likely that lithology would be only one
parameter of several considered in the description of a zone and need not be diagnostic of
the engineering characteristics.
If several parameters are chosen as the basis for zoning, areas of varying rock quality
can be determined. The most widely accepted measure of quality is RQD (Rock Quality
Designation) recommended by Deere (1964). RQD is defined as the percentage of the total
core in a drill-run which is formed by fully circular core of length greater than 100 mm
(originally 4 in). It has been found to correlate with some other indices (Deere, Merritt &
Coon 1969). However some correlations, especially those interrelating RQD, seismic
velocity and rock quality, should be treated with caution. Nevertheless the measurement of
RQD can represent a rapid method of zoning a rock mass so that subsequent area observa-
tions can be made. Although RQD is generally measured on core it has also been adapted to
surface outcrops and tunnel exposures by using the correlation between discontinuity
spacing and RQD (Deere, Merritt & Coon 1969). Based upon a mean discontinuity fre-
quency per metre (A), Priest & Hudson (1976) derived a relationship giving a theoretical
equivalent value of the RQD (RQD*)
viz. RQD* ~ 100e -~ (0.1A + 1).
8.2 Discontinuity surveys

8.2.1 Techniques available. Within any particular area it may be necessary to carry out
surveys to obtain statistically representative information on discontinuities. Three main
techniques may be used:
(i) direct measurements
(ii) measurements from drill holes
(iii) surface photographic methods
8.2.2 Direct measurement. Direct measurement on the ground is perhaps the most
widely used method for collecting discontinuity data. There are two basic levels at which a
survey may be carried out depending upon the amount of detail that is required : a subjective
survey in which only those structures which appear to be important are measured and re-
corded, and an objective survey in which all structures intersecting a fixed line or area of the
rock face are measured and recorded.
Any system of measurement of discontinuities which relies on the judgement of the
geologist to recognise the relative importance of the discontinuity sets can greatly reduce the
volume of data and allow the effort to be concentrated on the apparently significant sets.
However in this way there is always the risk of missing or discounting sets which nevertheless
might be of importance. The risk is greatly reduced when techniques are used in which all
the discontinuities intersecting a face of limited size or a line of limited length are sampled.
Before any discontinuity survey is initiated, conventional geological mapping of the area
must be carried out to determine rock type, delineate major geological structures such as
faults, dykes, lithological contacts, and any other features that form major discontinuities
in the rock mass. It is only after becoming familiar with the geology that the most efficient
and accurate way of conducting the discontinuity survey can be defined.
Several different methods have been adopted in the past for carrying out systematic
discontinuity surveys. Muller (1959) and Pacher (1959) recorded discontinuities that
occurred on two mutually perpendicular surfaces. Weaver & Call (1965) and Halstead et al.
(1968) used a technique which they called fracture set mapping, which involved recording all
discontinuities occurring in 6 m by 2 m bands spaced at 30 m intervals along a face. Da
Silveira et al. 0966) suggested that sampling should consist of choosing portions of the
surface areas (squares, rectangles or circles) to form a mesh in such a way that the dimensions
and distributions of these areas ensured adequate representation. Similarly Knill (1971) ad-
vocated the use of area sampling on a rock face. Piteau (1970), Robertson (1970) and Broad-
bent & Rippere (1970) all preferred a line sampling method which in the latter case consisted
of stretching a measuring tape at waist height along the exposed face and recording the
location and features of interest of every discontinuity that intersected the tape. Measuring
distances of 30 m were used and it was suggested that to ensure complete representation the
survey should be continuous, i.e. should not be terminated at intervals.
The line sampling approach appears superior to other types of sampling techniques and
gives more detail than other methods on the discontinuity intensity and attitude variability.
It is also indiscriminate in that all discontinuities that intersect the tape, whether large or
small, are recorded. To ensure that all discontinuity sets are recorded, line sampling on
three approximately mutually perpendicular axes would be necessary, but this is rarely
possible in practice.
When sampling is undertaken on a single line only, or on a planar rock face, errors
associated with non-random sampling may arise due to the fact that the frequency of dis-
continuities lying in approximately the same plane as the face may be under estimated. In
such cases it is possible to apply corrections to compensate for the sampling bias (Terzaghi
1965, Robertson 1970). However, these corrections, because they assume the rock face on
which the measurements are carried out is planar, tend to over-correct the results since
natural and artificial rock faces are invariably somewhat irregular. It is therefore recom-
mended that where non-random sampling is believed to occur, all data should be presented
uncorrected, but that measurements made on differently orientated faces should be com-
pared to determine whether there is any sampling bias in the results.
Any completely objective approach to sampling suffers from the major disadvantage
that it is time-consuming, and without some form of automatic data processing system is
very difficult to analyse effectively. Usually, therefore, discontinuity surveys tend to be
conducted in a somewhat subjective manner. This is particularly the case in the early stages
of any investigation where the object is to reveal the major structural trends at a site
quickly.
Prokopovich (1972) has compared the two approaches and concluded that a subjective
approach is adequate to define regional discontinuity trends providing that a sufficient
number of observations are made to ensure statistical reliability. A similar conclusion was
reached by Broadbent & Rippere (1970) who concluded that a subjective approach saved
time and effort and also revealed all discontinuity systems subsequently found by more
objective sampling techniques. They do, however, suggest that a subjective set of data does
not constitute an adequate input for mechanical stability analyses. John (1968), in contrast,
suggests that a discontinuity survey should be limited to absolutely necessary data with the
incorporation of comments on the data collection sheets to help identify those features of
particular relevance.
With regard to the number of measurements that are necessary to ensure statistical
reliability, although opinion seems to differ, a minimum of 200 readings per locality is
recommended.
It is concluded that in most cases a subjective survey carried out by a trained and
competent engineering geologist or engineer will furnish the necessary data for an adequate
rock mass description provided that an adequate number of measurements are made. In
particularly complex areas, or where trained staff are not available, objective methods will
tend to be used. An optimum method of survey would perhaps consist of the measurement
of the apparent discontinuity sets in all natural and artificial exposures, together with detailed
objective surveys in a limited number of more critical areas, to ensure that all discontinuity
systems have been identified.
8.2.3 Measurements from drillholes. A limited amount of information can be obtained
on discontinuity characteristics and patterns from drillhole cores, thus providing data from
otherwise inaccessible areas within the rock mass. The major limitations with such methods
are that they are dependent on the quality of the core recovered, the poor quality rock and
gouge being most likely to be lost during drilling. Unless orientated core is obtained only
information on the dip and not the dip-direction of discontinuities can be obtained from
any single vertical hole and it is difficult or impossible to assess the persistence, separation,
thickness of infilling or to determine the waviness of the discontinuity faces.
8.2.3.1 Core orientation. Various commercial methods of core orientation are available
including the Craelius core orientator and the Rocha integral sampler (Rocha 1971). In the
former method the instrument is lowered to the bottom of the hole at the start of a core run
and a series of prongs takes up the shape of the core-stub. As the orientation of the instru-
ment can be determined and the upper end of the core on the next drill-run can be related to
the instrument, the core can often be orientated on recovery from the hole but this may be
difficult or impossible in some cases, for example with fragmented rock. With the Rocha
method a pilot hole is drilled and an orientated rigid dowel is grouted into place. Overcoring
then permits recovery of the dowel and core as an intact and orientated cylinder. Other
methods involve the use of compasses grouted into the base of the hole and the inscribing of
reference marks on the core during drillings. No method is fully satisfactory. They all suffer
from being inconvenient during the drilling operation; some leave room for doubt in the
results and others are expensive.
8.2.3.2 Down-hole methods. Various techniques for borehole inspection and photography
have been utilised for discontinuity observations and commented upon by various authors
including Broadbent & Rippere (1970), Knill (1971), Hock & Bray (1974); they may form a
valuable adjunct to core logging. Problems may arise in connection with turbidity which
exists in some holes below the water table. The main methods are as follows:
The borehole periscope consists of a rigid tube which supports a system of lenses and
prisms. It is probably the most successful instrument for borehole examination in that it is
rapid to use, involves direct inspection and the equipment is simple. A major advantage of
the system is that it is orientated from outside the hole but it has the disadvantage that
currently it is only effective to depths of approximately 30 m.
A number of borehole cameras have been developed (Le Roy 1951, Burwell & Nesbitt
1954, Hock & Pentz 1968). The orientation of the camera is recorded and an illuminated
conical mirror enables a photograph to be taken of a length of the borehole wall. By pro-
jecting back over a conical mirror it is possible to obtain a view of the actual borehole wall.
The television camera has the advantage over conventional photography that a direct
view of the borehole is obtained and a videotape recording may be made. Although Broad-
bent & Rippere (1970) achieved only limited success with such a camera, further advances in
technology are likely to render this a much more important tool in the future.
Devices such as the Televiewer reported by Zemanek (1968) produce an acoustic
picture of the borehole wall and present information similar to that provided by a borehole
camera. One advantage of the acoustic method is that boreholes do not need to be flushed
before surveying.
THE DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MASSES FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES 381
8.2.4 Surface photographic methods. A large amount of information relating to dis-

continuity distribution, spacing, persistence, planarity, and zones of influence is given by
photographs of a rock mass exposure. Such photographs can show the relationship between
several discontinuity systems and the influence of discontinuity sets upon the rock mass
structure.
Photographs are generally either taken from the air looking vertically (or occasionally
obliquely) down on the rock mass (air photographs), or from the ground generally looking
horizontally at the mass (terrestrial photographs). Such photographs may or may not have
survey control.
Uncontrolled photographs are usually taken of rock faces using standard hand-held
cameras. Stereo-pairs can easily be obtained by taking two photographs of the same face
from positions approximately 5 per cent of the distance to the face apart along a line parallel
to the face. Such photographs provide a good basis for delineating major discontinuity
patterns and for preliminary subdivision of the face into structural zones. The major dis-
advantages with such photographs is that data cannot be accurately transferred from them
onto maps and plans, other than visually, and no detailed, accurate measurements can be
made.
Controlled photographs are taken in such a way that information on them can, with the
necessary equipment, be accurately located in space and plotted on to maps and plans. Such
photographs are normally obtained by either air photography with complementary ground
control or ground based phototheodolite surveys. Air and ground based photography is
normally carried out using panchromatic film but the use of colour and infra-red 'false
colour' techniques is becoming more widespread.
The interpretation of aerial photographs using the techniques of photogeology and
photogrammetry is now considered to be a basic tool in structural geology. The technique
has proved to have considerable potential in the investigation of natural discontinuity
patterns in rocks. Existing air photographs may be used but generally the scales are too
small for detailed discontinuity studies. For major schemes, specially taken photographs are
usually used, and the scale may be selected. In this way other specialised requirements may
also be introduced such as low-sun-angle photographs.
Terrestrial photogrammetry is now a conventional surveying technique and can readily
be adapted for use as a photogeological tool particularly during project construction (Ross-
Brown et al. 1972, 1973). In this way accurate data can be collected easily and at relatively
low cost. Photographs obtained with a phototheodolite can be viewed in a stereo-com-
parator, or similar instrument, which produces a stereoscopic model. Measurements of the
location in space of points in this 3-dimensional model can be made to an accuracy of about
1 part in 5 000 of the mean object distance. Hence a point on a face photographed from 50 m
can be located to an accuracy of 10 mm. Thus the orientation, frequency and persistence
of discontinuities can be readily and accurately determined. Such techniques are of particular
use when inaccessible or unsafe faces are being investigated. Terrestrial photogrammetry is
especially suited to steep surfaces, as for example in a gorge, where air photographs would
yield only poor and inaccurate data.
8.2.5 Comparison of discontinuity survey methods. The various methods of carrying out
discontinuity surveys vary in the quality and type of information they are capable of pro-
ducing. The various types of survey are contrasted in Table 10. It is apparent from this table
TABLE 10: Quality of informationfrom different types of discontinuity survey

Orientated
Type of Direct Surface drillhole Drillhole Acoustic
information measurement photography core camera methods
Location Good Good Good Good Medium
Type of Discontinuity Good Medium Good Good Poor
Description of rock
material Good Poor Good Poor None
Orientation: Dip Good Medium Medium Medium Poor
Orientation: Dip direction Good Good Medium Medium Poor
Frequency Good Good Medium Medium Poor
Persistence Good Good Poor Poor Poor
Aperture Good Poor Medium/Poor Medium Medium
Gouge: nature Good Poor Medium Poor None
Gouge thickness Good Poor Medium Medium Medium
Surface asperities:
waviness Good Medium Poor Poor Poor
Surface asperities:
roughness Good Medium Medium Poor None
Ranking:Good feature measured reliably
Medium feature measured but not easily and often with poor reproducibility
Poor feature difficult to measure
None impossible to identify feature
how m u c h data are to be gained from direct measurements in comparison with other
methods. It is strongly recommended that every discontinuity survey should include at least
some direct measurements, possibly supplemented by measurements carried out by other
techniques.
0 Procedures for recording and presenting descriptive data

on rock masses
This section deals with the format for recording and presenting data so that they can sub-
sequently be used for a particular design or construction purpose.
9.1 Recording of data

It is strongly recommended that all data should be recorded on data sheets amenable to
subsequent automatic processing. In this way not only is the information recorded in a
standard fashion, using accepted terminology, but it ensures that important features are not
overlooked. A previous working party (Anon. 1970) has considered how data from drill
cores should be regarded as complementary. The process of data recording should be a
stage between those of data collection and data presentation.
Two types of data sheet are recommended for recording data on rock mass description,
the rock mass description sheet and the discontinuity survey data sheet (Figs. 3 and 4). All
the data considered in the previous sections of the report, using the nomenclature recom-
mended, can be plotted on to one or other of these forms. The forms are simple and have
been designed to facilitate the subsequent production of punched-cards. It is not suggested
that the forms have to be fully completed. In many cases it will be necessary to collect only
a certain amount of the information shown. However, the fact that the complete range of
rock mass indices is specified should ensure that no parameter is overlooked.
9.2 Presentation of data

When the data have been recorded, either in the form of data sheets or drillhole/borehole
logs, then they have to be presented in some form amenable to easy assimilation and assess-
ment. Because geological data often have strong spatial interrelationships they are usually
presented in a cartographic, graphical or tabulated form. A previous working party (Anon.
1972) considered how geotechnical information from all sources, including rock mass data,
might be presented in the form of maps and plans. Whilst maps and plans can be used solely
for presenting rock mass data they do not by themselves easily permit the orientation or
importance of discontinuities one to another to be compared.
The three methods most commonly employed to present angular relationships are the
rose diagram, the histogram and the spherical projection. The rose diagram can indicate the
ranges of both dip and dip-direction but is relatively insensitive; the histogram only shows
the distribution of any single feature; the spherical projection permits the consideration of
both linear and planar features and their angular relationships.
Spherical projections or the representation of three-dimensional data on a two-dimen-
sional figure, fall into two main types:
(i) the equal-angle projection in which the angular relationships between features
are accurately represented (as plotted on the Wulff net).
(ii) the equal-area projection in which the spatial distribution of data is accurately
represented (as plotted on the Lambert or Schmidt net).
H o e k & Bray (1974) have summarised the methods of presenting data using such pro-
jections and have discussed the interpretation of the resulting diagrams within the context of
slope stability studies. The reader is referred to their work for detailed consideration of
spherical projections in geotechnical engineering. The projection most commonly used is
the equal-area projection. This permits the assessment of statistical distributions, whilst still
permitting planes and lines to be plotted but with reduced accuracy.
Where a statistical assessment of data is required it is usual to plot orientation measure-
ments of planes as a series of points representing normals or poles to planes on a Schmidt
equal-area net. Contouring of the density of the pole concentrations on the resuIting scatter
diagram allows the rapid assessment of these data although it is recognised that the con-
touring process itself can produce inaccurate weightings of the data. It is recommended
that where contoured diagrams are presented, the original point diagrams should always
accompany them.
Various types of data can be plotted on the same scatter diagram by the use of different
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symbols. The data can also be plotted and contoured automatically if required either from
the basic data sheets or from punched cards produced from them. However, where only small
quantities of data are involved, or the results are needed in the field, it is preferable to plot
manually.
I0. Conclusion
In conclusion, it is emphasised that the necessity for the introduction of clear, concise and
uniform methods in rock mass description is long overdue. Whilst it will never be possible
to produce terminology which is acceptable to all branches of geotechnical engineering in
various parts of the world, standardisation of accepted practice in Britain should go a long
way to help in this respect. It is thus hoped that the foregoing recommendations will be used
in practice.
II. Membership of the working party

R. Chaplow, Sir Alexander Gibb & Partners, Reading, U.K. (formerly Lecturer in
Engineering Geology, Imperial College, London).
J. M. Edmond, Wimpey Laboratories Ltd., Hayes, Middlesex, U.K.
D. McCann, Institute of Geological Sciences, London. U.K.
G. E. Rawlings, Golder Brawner & Associates Ltd., Vancouver, Canada. (Chairman),
(formerly of Binnie & Partners, London, U.K.)
Although not a formal member of the Working Party, Prof. W. R. D e a r m a n (Geology
Dept, University of Newcastle upon Tyne) made a substantial contribution to the
report.
Acknowledgements: The working party wish to acknowledge the valuable assistance and advice which they
have received from individuals and organisations during the preparation of this report.
References
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BARTON,N., LIEN, R., & LUNDE,J. 1974. Analysis of rock mass quality and support practice in tunnelling
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Q. JIEngng Geol. 1977. Vol. 10. pp. 355-388, 4 figs, 10 tables.

Printed in Great Britain

THE DESCRIPTIONOF ROCKMASSESFOR

3. Previous work 357 7. Techniques for carrying out classification

4. Requirements of a scheme of description

4.2 Division of study

5. Rock material description

5.2 Rock material indices

The following indices provide a full description of the rock material.

Properties included in Group 1 are purely descriptive. Group 2 properties may be

alteration. The effects of these changes may be detected by systematic measurements of

TABLE 1" Rock type classification

Usual Structure BEDDED BEDDED

Grains of rock, At least 5000 of At least 50% of grains

Very Grains are of rock fragments

FOLIATED MASSIVE MASSIVE

SCHIST (53) G R A N U L I T E (63)

Q U A R T Z I T E (64) MICRO-GRANITE MICRO-DIORITE DOLERITE

MYLONITE (56 RHYOLITE (71) ANDESITE BASALT

OBSIDIAN and PITCHSTONE TACHYLYTE

TABLE 2: Rock colour

TABLE 3 : Grain size

TABLE 4: Rock material strength

6. Rock mass description

6.1 Rock mass indices

TABLE 5: Discontinuity spacing

6.2.6 Aperture of discontinuity surfaces. The degree to which a discontinuity is open, or

TABLE 6: Aperture of discontinuity surfaces

TABLE 7: Roughness categories

In order to ensure such a classification is as objective as possible it is recommended that

6.3 Weathered and altered state

tinuities. It m a y only be possible to appreciate weathering profiles from recently formed

TABLE 8" Weathering~alteration grades

Term Description Grade

6.4 Discontinuity spacing in three dimensions

blocky -- approximately equidimensional

TABLE 9: Block size

6.5 Permeability (secondary)

6.6 Seismic velocity

7. Techniques for carrying out classification tests

7.2 Schmidt rebound hammer test

"E 150 ,,- -- ---

7.3 Point load test

7.4 Portable shear box

involves several displacement cycles. In dealing with irregular discontinuity surfaces a

7.5 Slake durability test

7.6 Permeability tests

7.7 Seismic survey

8. Techniques for obtaining data

8.2 Discontinuity surveys

8.2.4 Surface photographic methods. A large amount of information relating to dis-

TABLE 10: Quality of informationfrom different types of discontinuity survey

0 Procedures for recording and presenting descriptive data

9.1 Recording of data

9.2 Presentation of data

II. Membership of the working party

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