THEEM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

VEHICLE MAINTENANCE LAB

LABORATORY MANUAL

By:-
Prof. Nitin Sall
Prof. Mohd. Mustaque Ahmed
1
 Experiment no 01

Prepare A Layout Of An Automobile Repair, Service And

Maintenance Shop.

AIM : To draw the layout of an automobile repair, service and maintenance shop and study
the different sections of the layout.

DESCRIPTION :

SERVICE STATION :
A service is a place where in addition to care of the motor vehicle like mechanical service
and minor repairs, petrol is supplied, cars are lubricated, cleaned, washed and other types pf simpler services
that are required daily are performed. In general it includes a number of sections like garage general services,
mechanical service, major repair shop, tyre shop, paint shop, body shop etc.

A service station is addition to the equipment available is garage is usually run in conjuction with a sales
agency for a particular type of motor vehicle to provide comprehensive repair service for that particular
vehicle.

The equipment available, in general garage will be added with specialized equipment like lifting
tackle, and different types of jigs, fixtures and tools specially designed for checking, adjusting and repair of
particular type and make of vehicle. A service station may consist of a machine shop having a lathe, drilling
machine etc.

In case of big service station special types of machines like crankshaft grinding machine, valve
refacer, surface grinder, reboring and boring machine, brake drum lathe also will be used. In service station
fuel filling and water servicing facilities are available. It has a small workshop to provide repair for
particular make of vehicle. It may have sales agency for a particular type of vehicle. All the equipment in the
garage plus small workshop tools: viz, lathe, drilling machine, jigs, fixtures are available.

2
3
LAYOUT OF GARAGES AND SERVICE STATION :
The internal layout of a garage should be such as to make it water proof, clean and spacious to
provide sufficient space for small workbenches to storage and repair benches. Following considerations
should be made in the layout of garage and service stations:

➢ To provide light to the workbenches, openings the windows should be provided at the proper place.
➢ To keep the floor cleanable, it should be a smooth concrete floor with a surface-scaling compound.
➢ The doors are provided as many members as required for easy flow of men and materials.
➢ The electrical control should be accessible to the operators.
➢ To form a neat storage for hanging tools, hooks or screw eyes should be provided on the pegboards.
➢ To provide a deposit of waste material.

CONCLUSION : Thus, the general layout of an automobile repair, service and maintenance shop
was drawn and the functions of the different sections of the layout were studied.

Note:- The above diagram should be drawn on Drawing Sheets.

4
 Experiment no 02
Prepare Different Statements / Records Required For The Repair And
Maintenance Works.
AIM :To prepare and study the different statements and records required for the repair and
maintenance Works.

TYPES OF RECORDS :
1) Periodic maintenance check sheet.
2) Maintenance schedule sheet.
3) Trip sheet
4) Log book etc.

DESCRIPTION :
Periodic maintenance check sheet
The periodic maintenance check sheet is used to record the inspection status made during
the maintenance check operation. It contains various details such as the dealer name, place, date of sale,
manufacturers name, mileage, frame number, chassis number etc. the mileage and service type are indicated
in the various cells of the check sheet. The check sheet also contains the check item name, status and
remarks.

The check items include the following:

➢ Basic engine components.

➢ Engine oil
➢ Engine oil filter
➢ Ignition system
➢ Battery
➢ Fuel and Emission Control
➢ Pre- Filter
➢ Water sediment filter
➢ Air cleaner filter
➢ Chassis and Body
➢ Brake pedal, parking brake
➢ Brake pads and discs
➢ Brake linings & brake drums
➢ Clutch
➢ Power steering fluid
➢ Ball joints and dust covers
➢ Tyres and inflation pressures
➢ Lights, horns, wipers
➢ Steering wheel linkage & gear box oil etc.
The status and remarks for all the items mentioned above are indicated on the check sheet during the
maintenance operation.

5
 Table No. 2.1 Periodic Maintenance Check Sheet
Dealer: Ro No: Ro Date:
Place: Mileage: Kms: Engine No.
Date of Sale: Frame No:
SERVICE TYPE

Mileage(Kms) 10000 30000 50000 70000 90000 110000 130000 150000

Service type
Mileage(Kms) 170000 190000 210000 230000 250000 270000 290000 310000
Service type
Mileage(Kms) 330000 350000 370000 390000 410000 430000 450000 470000
Service type
Mileage(Kms) 490000 510000 530000 550000 570000 590000 610000 630000
Service type
S. No CHECK ITEM CHECK STATUS REMARKS
1 BASIC ENGINE COMPONENETS
Engine Oil R
Engine oil filter R
2 IGNITION SYSTEM
Battery T
3 FUEL AND EMISSION CONTROL
Pre-filter R
Water sediment filter CA
Air cleaner filter C

4 CHASSIS AND BODY

Brake pedal, Parking brake CA
Brake pads and discs CA
Brake linings and Brake drums CA
Brake line pipes and hoses CR
Brake fluid R
Clutch CA
Power steering fluid CR
Ball Joints and dust covers CR
Tyres and inflation pressures CA
Lights, horns, wipers CA
Steering wheel linkage and gear box oil CA
Front and rear suspension CA
Tightening of bolts and nuts T

5 AC / Cooler Refrigerant NA
C→ Clean; R → Replace; CA → Check& Adjust; CR → Check & Replace; T → Tighten
ADDITIONAL JOB:
MILEAGE 1.50,000 4,50,000
TIMING BELT Replace Replace
Name of the Inspector Signature

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Vehicle Reg No: Job No :
Chassis No : Date :

Table 2.2 Road Test Report

S.No Parameter to check Before work After work
1 Front side abnormal noise
2 Rear side abnormal noise
3 Front/rear suspension noise
4 Steering noise
5 Brake caliper noise
6 Misfiring / starting
7 Hunting problems / Stopping problems
8 Underbody noise
9 Abnormal noise from doors / glasses and body
10 Overheating of engine on AC and Non AC operation
11 Brakes poor / Weak line effective / noisy
12 Wheel bearings noisy
13 Drive shaft noise / vibration
14 Vehicle pulling to one side
15 Poor pick up of vehicle (with AC and without AC)

Table 2.3 TRIP SHEET

Name and Address of the Agency REPORT TO
Mr. / Mrs. -------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------

Engaged by Arranged by --------------------- No. --------------- Date: ------------------

Vehicle Number ------------------------------- Driver Name ------------------------------------
Closing Time -----------------
Starting Time ----------------- Rupees Paise
TOTAL Time ----------------- Hire Charges
Charge Per km
Driver Batta
Excess Hours
Signature of the Customer Excess Kms
Service Tax
Permit Charges

Advance Rs. --------------- TOTAL

Driver’s Signature For Agency

7
ROAD TEST REPORT:

1. The road test inspector or the machine makes the road test report after the completion of the
maintenance operation.
2. This report contains the vehicle reg number, chassis number, job no, date of test etc.
3. The parameters to be checked include the following:
➢ Front side and rear side abnormal noise.
➢ Steering and brake caliper noise.
➢ Ilunting, misfiring, sudden stoppage of vehicle.
➢ Brake condition.
➢ Wheel and bearing check.
➢ Pick up of the vehicle.
➢ Mileage of the vehicle etc.
The road test report gives a fare idea of the condition of the vehicle before and after the
maintenance operation.

TRIP SHEET :

The trip sheet gives the entire details of the vehicle before and after a trip. The starting km and
ending km, time of start and closing of the journey time and the charges per km and also the overall
cost of trip is described in the trip sheet.

LOGBOOK :

The logbook of a vehicle gives the details of the vehicle, which will be useful not only for the
owner of the vehicle but also to the mechanic who might take the job of vehicle maintenance latter.

The logbook contains the following details:

➢ Distance covered
➢ Fuel consumption
➢ Average fuel consumption
➢ Best and worst mileage
➢ Total maintenance cost
➢ Running costs
➢ Faults in the vehicle
➢ Likes and dislikes
➢ Date of the previous maintenance report

CONCLUSION : The different statements and records required for the repair and maintenance
works were prepared and the uses of records were studied.

8
 Experiment no 03
Perform minor and major tune-up activity of gasoline and diesel
engines.

AIM : To perform the major and minor tune-up activity of gasoline and diesel engines

TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED :

Cell tester, Double end spanner, Screw driver, Battery charger, Feeler gauge, Pliers, Ball-peen
hammers, socket spanner, Wrenches, Dial indicators, Hydrometer, Files, Piston ring expander, Piston ring
compressor, Valve spring compressor, Spark plug spanner, Grinding machine etc.

PROCEDURE :
PETROL ENGINE TUNE-UP :

Ridge in cylinder liner:

The wear starts in the linear from the height of ring travel i.e., on top of liner; there is practically no
wear. Since this portion does not come in contact with the rings. In worn out engine you can feel this area by
your finger running up and down in the liner. In case with worn out liner when rings have to be changed to
check up this ridge, in case it is prominent it should be cut with ridge cutter. Then only new set of rings can
be placed, otherwise there are chances of new rings being thicker in width then the used worn out rings may
strike the ridge and break. Secondly, the piston assembly can easily slide in Boring and honing of cylinder
liners.

The cylinder bores do wear out after some use. The amount of wear can be controlled to some extent
by cleaning the air cleaner, keeping watch on proper working of cooling system and lubrication system, in
spite of all this care after 40 to 50 thousand kms in diesel engine and in petrol engine 60 to 70 thousand kms
wear is predominant in the liner which you can see when you dismantle the engine for overhauling. From the
worn out cylinder bores few more life can be taken by boring the same with boring machine. When using the
boring machine, the boring tool will leave very fine line on the bore, which cannot be seen by naked eyes.
Presence of these lines of honing is not desirable. To rub these lines, bores are honed, i.e., polished with the
help of honing stone fixed in the cylinder hone head. These hones are driven with portable electric hand drill
and while working quickly up and down motion are given.

Maintenance of flywheel :

Flywheel does not require much maintenance except that is mounting bolts with crankshaft
should be tightened with proper torque, the face where the clutch plate is fixed sometimes gets scored
because of loose rivals or rivets touching the face when lining is worn out. Under such circumstances the
face of flywheel should be got skimmed. The face of flywheel should be examined at each overhaul and
while changing clutch plates this face should be rubbed with emery paper to remove the glaze. The flywheel
9
after fitting should be checked that it is running true. For checking run out, place the crankshaft with the
flywheel mounted on V-block to avoid scoring of crankshaft main journal place paper in the V of V block.
Fix up dial guage. With its point resting on clutch plate mating surface, remove the crankshaft and note the
run out. It should not be more than 0.2 mm.

VALVE SERVICING :
The valve is subjected to very high temperature, runs at high speed and is one of the critical part
which requires careful examination at the time of overhaul while inspecting the valve, take care of the
following points:

Head :
Check the head for crack, burning, valve seat and radial run out. It should not have knife edge
warped and should have good margin. For checking radial runs out place the valve in V block, fix up the
pointer of dial guage on edge of valve head. Revolve the valve and note the reading if run out is more than
0.33 mm. Discord the valve.

Valve system :

Valve system should be straight without scoring. If it is slightly bent it can be straightened, but in
case it is bent too much, valve should be replaced.

Refacing of valve :

Valve after dismantling from the head should be examined, if there is a good margin still left over, it
can be refaced and reused. It is desirable to mark each valve as it is removed from the guide so that it may be
put back to its original position. This may save quite a lot of time in adjusting tappet clearance when the
engine is reassembled. Moreover, fitting valve back to its own-guide will ensure proper working clearance.
For refacing valve, refacing machine is used. It has a grinding wheel and a revolving chuck to hold the valve.
The post on which revolving chuck is fixed is movable, angle of which can be set and locked in any specific
angle.

Before starting grinding, check up that valve head is running true and valve head is not protruding
out much from the chuck. Otherwise it will not give desired finish, then start the coolant supply directing it
jet on grinding stone, bring the valve closer to the regular hammering action, the tip of the valve also gets
damaged, provision is also made in the valve-refacing machine to reface.

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GASOLINE ENGINE TUNE UP :

BATTERY
➢ Clean the battery terminals
➢ Check the loose connections.
➢ Check the battery for fixing in box or cradle.
➢ Check up electrolyte level in the battery.
➢ Check up the capacity of battery.

CHARGING SYSTEM
➢ Visually inspect the dynamo for any wear
➢ Check up for any loose connections
➢ Check the belt from which dynamo gets power
➢ Check the charging rate.

STARTING SYSTEM
➢ Visually inspect the self-starter, cable and switch
➢ Check the working switch for any loose connections
➢ Check the consumption of current by starter motor.

IGNITION SYSTEM
➢ Check the cable connections from distributor to spark plugs
➢ Check the distributor shaft bushes for any looseness
➢ Check the contact breaker point
➢ Check the wear on distributor cam.
➢ Check the wear in distributor cap
➢ Check the ignition system with oscilloscope

FUEL SYSTEM
➢ Visually inspect for any leak
➢ Clean the air cleaner
➢ Check the functioning of choke
➢ Check the fuel pump pressure
➢ Check the plunger assembly

CARBURETTOR
➢ Check the fuel line from fuel pump to float chamber
➢ Check the butterfly of the carburetor
➢ Adjust the height of the float
➢ Adjust the jet needle and needle jet
➢ After assembling, adjust the idle and high-speed adjustments

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LUBRICATION SYSTEM
➢ Check the level of lubrication oil in the crankcase
➢ Check the lubrication oil filter, if clogged replace it with new one
➢ If the oil is bad, remove the oil and introduce new oil of the correct grade

COOLING SYSTEM
➢ Check the radiator for any damage and blocks
➢ Check the hoses that connect radiator and engine
➢ Check for any leakage
➢ Check the fan belt
➢ Use clean water in the radiation

TRANSMISSION LINE
➢ Visually inspect the transmission line for damages, cracks etc.
➢ Check the propeller shaft
➢ Check the differential assembly
➢ Check the state of lubrication oil in the differential assembly

DIESEL ENGINE TUNE UP :

FUEL INJECTION PUMP

➢ Visually inspect the flow lines from tank to pump and to injector
➢ Check the injection pressure
➢ Check for any wear and tear in the fuel injection pump
➢ Check the entire components of the fuel pump

FUEL INJECTOR
➢ Check the injector nozzle for any block and clean it thoroughly
➢ Check the pressure at which the nozzle sprays the fuel droplets
➢ Adjust the screw for correct pressure

HEATER PLUG
➢ Check the heater plug by connecting it with battery terminal
➢ Check the heater plug for any dirt deposition
➢ Replace it after cleaning ii thoroughly
Also check the air induction system, fuel feed system and other important components have
to be checked for performing the tune up operations.

CONCLUSION : Thus the minor and major tune up of gasoline and diesel engines were
performed.

12
 Experiment No.4
Perform Wheel balancing on a Computerized Wheel Balancer.
AIM: To perform wheel balancing on a Computerized Wheel Balancer.

DESCRIPTION:
MAKE & MODEL: Computerized Wheel Balancer A-70L
Wheel weight : up to 65kg.
Rim dia. : passenger cars – 10” to 16”
Small trucks - up to 17.5”
Motorcycles - up to 23”
Rim width : up to 14”
Measuring time : 3secs.

PROCEDURE:
Preparatory work on wheel
Clean rim & tire.
Remove old balancing
weights. Check tire pressure.
Check for tire wear or damage to rim.
Remove stone pieces embedded in the tire treads.
Installing wheel on machine using positive centering flange.
Mount the tire on the centering cone of appropriate size and press it against the compression

ring. Hold the wheel carefully against the cone and at the same time push the clamping

jacket onto the flange shaft and tighten the rapid clamping nut by hand.

Rim data input.

Turn on main switch. The wheel rim diagram appears on the screen.
Press the OK/MEMORY key; page 1 of the menu appears on the screen, with allocation
numbers up to 32. Press OK to view menu from numbers 33 to 64.
Select the required rim data allocating number for the wheel to be balanced by entering it with
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 the number keys.
Press OK. The number appears on the screen along with the relevant rim data & rim diagram.

Slide out the rim distance sensor arm from the zero position until it touches the rim flange
and wait for acoustic signal. The value is displayed on the screen. The machine is now ready
for balancing procedure.

Selecting balancing method:-

Press key 4, 5 & 6 as desired for hammer-on, sticker-on weights and their locations.

Press GRAMME/OUNCE key to measure in grams or ounce as desired.

Press key no.17 once for fine balancing, twice for 5g suppression threshold and thrice for 10g
suppression threshold.
Balancing the wheel:-
Close the wheel guard. The machine starts automatically.
After 3secs the brake is applied automatically and the imbalance values along with the
direction are shown on the top of the screen.
The direction arrows shorten as the wheel is turned to the correct position. At the correct
balancing position, the arrows disappear & imbalance value changes from red to green.
The attachment point for the balancing weights for outer & inner planes is always 12 O’clock
position.
After attaching balancing weights, a check run is carried out. Correct balancing is shown as
a white “000” display.

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 OBSERVATION TABLE:

Wheel no. Inner side weights Outer side

(grams) weights (grams)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

DISCUSSIONS:
1. What is the necessity of wheel balancing?
2. What so you mean by static and dynamic balancing?
3. Explain the terms wheel wobble, shimmy and tramp.

Q.1) WHAT IS THE NECESSITY OF WHEEL BALANCING?

ANS: -Tire balance, also referred to as tire unbalance or imbalance, describes the distribution of
mass within an automobile tire or the entire wheel to which it is attached.
When the wheel rotates, asymmetries of mass may cause it to hop or wobble, which can cause ride
disturbances, usually vertical and lateral vibrations. It can also result in a wobbling of the steering
wheel or of the entire vehicle. The ride disturbance, due to unbalance, usually increases with speed.
Vehicle suspensions can become excited by unbalance forces when the speed of the wheel reaches a
point that its rotating frequency equals the suspension’s resonant frequency.
Tires are balanced in factories and repair shops by two methods: static balancers and dynamic
balancers. Tires with high unbalance forces are downgraded or rejected. When tires are fitted to
wheels at the point of sale, they are measured again on a balancing machine, and correction weights

15
are applied to counteract the combined effect of the tire and wheel unbalance. After sale, tires may
be rebalanced if driver perceives excessive vibration.

Q.2) WHAT SO YOU MEAN BY STATIC AND DYNAMIC BALANCING?

STATIC BALANCE:-
Static balance can be measured by a static balancing machine where the tire is placed in its vertical
axis on a non-rotating spindle tool. The spot on the tire with the greatest mass is acted upon by gravity
to deflect the tooling downward. The amount of deflection indicates the magnitude of the unbalance.
The angle of the deflection indicates the angular location of the unbalance. In tire manufacturing
factories, static balancers operate by use of sensors mounted to the spindle assembly. In tire retail
shops, static balancers are usually non-rotating bubble balancers, where the magnitude and angle of
the unbalance is observed by looking at the center bubble in an oil-filled glass sighting gauge. While
some very small shops which lack specialized machines still do this process, they have been largely
replaced in larger shops with machines.

DYNAMIC BALANCE:-
Dynamic balance describes the forces generated by asymmetric mass distribution when the
tire is rotated, usually at a high speed. In the tire factory, the tire and wheel are mounted on a balancing
machine test wheel, the assembly is accelerated up to a speed of 300 RPM or higher, and sensors
measure the forces of unbalance as the tire rotates. These forces are resolved into static and couple
values for the inner and outer planes of the wheel, and compared to the unbalance tolerance (the
maximum allowable manufacturing limits). If the tire is not checked, it has the potential to wobble
and perform poorly. In tire retail shops, tire/wheel assemblies are checked on a spin-balancer, which
16
determines the amount and angle of unbalance. Balance weights are then fitted to the outer and inner
flanges of the wheel. Dynamic balance is better (it is more comprehensive) than static balance alone,
because both couple and static forces are measured and corrected.
The dynamic balance can only be conducted if the driver comes to the garage and has the
garage check for imbalances. With the existing sensors found in many cars, however, the imbalance
can be estimated in real time, as seen in a recent SAE paper: sensors such as the ABS wheel speed
sensors were used to detect an imbalanced tire or tires in real time.

Q.3) EXPLAIN THE TERM WHEEL WOBBLE, SHIMMY AND TRAMP?

ANS:-
WHEEL WOOBLE:-Wobble are all words and phrases used to describe a quick (4–10 Hz)
oscillation of primarily just the steerable wheel(s) of a vehicle. Initially, the rest of the vehicle remains
mostly unaffected, until translated into a vehicle yaw oscillation of increasing amplitude producing
loss of control. Vehicles that can experience this oscillation include motorcycles and
bicycles, skateboards, and in theory any vehicle with a single steering pivot point and a sufficient
amount of freedom of the steered wheel, including that which exists on some light
aircraft with tricycle gear where instability can occur at speeds of less than 50 mph; this does not
include most automobiles. However, coil-sprung vehicles with a track bar setup such as the Jeep WJ,
XJ, ZJ, TJ, and JK with both stock and after-market suspension lifts may also have this problem. The
initial instability occurs mostly at high speed and is similar to that experienced by shopping cart
wheels and aircraft landing gear.
SHIMMY:-Shimmy means the front wheels move in and out or vibrate at certain speeds. Shimmy is
definitely noticeable in the steering wheel. If the shimmy is bad enough, it can be very dangerous
because its force can break some of the steering parts. Shimmy can be caused by wheels and tires that
are out of balance or bent wheels, as well as other causes. Shimmy will be worse if the steering parts
are worn or out of adjustment.
WHEEL TRAMP:-Wheel tramp means the wheels are bouncing up and down. This also is
noticeable in the steering wheel, but as a vibration, whereas shimmy tries to turn the steering wheel
back and forth. Wheel tramp, like shimmy, is also caused by wheels and tires that are out of
balance. However, the outbalance portion is equal across the wheel or tire. This causes the wheel to
move straight up and down rather than sideways as in shimmy. Wheel tramp, like shimmy, will be
worse on a vehicle if some of the parts are loose, worn, or improperly adjusted.

17
 Experiment No.5
Perform wheel alignment activity to set proper steering geometry.

AIM: To find the Steering geometry of a vehicle using a Computerized Wheel Aligner.

THEORY: The computerized wheel aligners are advanced micro-processor controlled systems
capable of giving simultaneous displays of alignment readings of left and right wheels of all cars,
LCV’s and HCV’s. The measuring sensors incorporate highly sensitive devices for measuring the
wheel alignment parameters. The built-in database includes alignment data of all Indian and Imported
vehicles.

DESCRIPTION:
Make & Model: Charged Couple Device (CCD) Wheel Aligner 7000
RF
Wheel size : for cars-10” to 17’
For trucks-14” to 26”

MEASURING
MEASURING SCOPE RANGE
Total toe 100
Individual toe 50
Camber 80
Caster 180
King-pin inclination 180
Set back 50

PROCEDURE:
Checking the vehicle
Check the following features on the vehicle visually.
Matching wheel & tire sizes. Conditions of the king-pin, wheel bearings and track rod
pivots. Condition of suspension. Tire pressure.

18
Linking up the unit
Park the vehicle over the pit with the front wheels resting on the center of their respective turn tables
and apply the handbrake.
Attach the universal measuring equipment holder to front wheels only
Introduce the value sensors with arm into the front wheel measuring equipment holder and secure it
with the toggle screws. Fix elastic cords running along the rear wheels into both the front value
sensors measuring bars levers.
Start machine and select the appropriate vehicle from the vehicle data bank using Target/Actual Value
Comparison key (no. 19).Press Twin Sensor System key (no. 18).

Run out compensation

Set the steering visually to the straight ahead position. Lift the wheels approx. 6cm. above the ground
and set the value sensor in a horizontal position using the spirit level.
Press the Compensation key (no.30) on the value sensor until its LED lights up. Turn the wheel
through 900 in the direction of travel, set the value sensor to the horizontal using the spirit level and
again press Compensation key until the LED lights up.
Repeat the same for 1800 & 2700 rotation of the wheel. A red arrow appears on the screen to confirm
the compensating process for the particular wheel. Follow same procedure for other wheel.
Remove the turn table pins. Set down the wheel, and set both value sensors horizontal. Depress the
Lower Wheel key (no.31) on the value sensor until the LED lights up. The red arrow on the screen is
replaced by green ones.
Fully depress the brake pedal. Fit the brake lock. Rock the vehicle several times and check the
horizontal position of the value sensors. Press the Straight Ahead key (no.1). Turn the steering wheel
until the same alignment value is displayed for both the wheels.

Measurement of Caster, Camber, Toe and Setback. Press Caster key (no.5) to obtain the symbolic
caster display. A green “STOP” square is replaced by a red guide arrow indicating the direction in
which the wheels have to be steered.
Steer the wheels, the changes it’s color from red to green. A green “STOP” again appears.
Repeat the same for the other direction also. The measured values are then displayed, which is the
value of the caster angle on individual front wheels.
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Press King-pin Inclination key (no.6) for display of king-pin inclination values both the wheels.
Press Straight Ahead key (no.1) and equalize both the wheels and lock the steering wheel.
Press Left Camber key (no.8) for camber and individual toe values for left hand wheel.
Press Right Camber key (no.9) for camber and individual toe values for right hand wheel.
Press Individual Toe key (no.10) for measurement of individual toe values for both the wheels.
Press Total Toe and Set Back key (no. 11) for the measurement for Total Toe and Set-Back

OBSERVATION TABLE:

MAKE : DATE:
MODEL: KM RUN:

REG. NO.:

LOAD CONDITION: RIM DIA:

LEFT WHEEL RIGHT WHEEL

SPECIFIED
UNIT Measured Adjusted Measured Adjusted
VALUE
value value value value
TOE IN PARTIAL mm.

TOE IN TOTAL mm.

SET-BACK Deg.
CAMBER Deg
CASTER Deg.
KING-PIN
Deg.
INCLINATION

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DISCUSSIONS:

Q) Discuss various parameters which effect the wheel alignment of a vehicle.

Q) What is the effect of a) Incorrect camber, b) Incorrect caster?
Q) Discuss briefly the term cornering force and self-righting torque.

Q.1) DISCUSS VARIOUS PARAMETERS WHICH EFFECT THE WHEEL ALIGNMENT

OF A VEHICLE. ?
ANS: - The three major alignment parameters on a car are toe, camber, and caster. Most
enthusiasts have a good understanding of what these settings are and what they involve, but
many may not know why a particular setting is called for, or how it affects performance. Let's
take a quick look at this basic aspect of suspension tuning.

UNDERSTANDING TOE
When a pair of wheels is set so that their leading edges are pointed slightly towards each other,
the wheel pair is said to have toe-in. If the leading edges point away from each other, the pair
is said to have toe-out. The amount of toe can be expressed in degrees as the angle to which
the wheels are out of parallel, or more commonly, as the difference between the track widths
as measured at the leading and trailing edges of the tires or wheels. Toe settings affect three
major areas of performance: tire wear, straight-line stability and corner entry handling
characteristics.
For minimum tire wear and power loss, the wheels on a given axle of a car should point directly
ahead when the car is running in a straight line. Excessive toe-in or toe-out causes the tires to
scrub, since they are always turned relative to the direction of travel. Too much toe-in causes
accelerated wear at the outboard edges of the tires, while too much toe-out causes wear at the
inboard edges.

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So if minimum tire wear and power loss are achieved with zero toe, why have any toe angles
at all? The answer is that toe settings have a major impact on directional stability. The
illustrations at right show the mechanisms involved. With the steering wheel centered, toe-in
causes the wheels to tend to roll along paths that intersect each other. Under this condition, the
wheels are at odds with each other, and no turn results.
When the wheel on one side of the car encounters a disturbance, that wheel is pulled rearward
about its steering axis. This action also pulls the other wheel in the same steering direction. If
it's a minor disturbance, the disturbed wheel will steer only a small amount, perhaps so that it's
rolling straight ahead instead of toed-in slightly. But note that with this slight steering input,
the rolling paths of the wheels still don't describe a turn. The wheels have absorbed the
irregularity without significantly changing the direction of the vehicle. In this way, toe-in
enhances straight-line stability.
If the car is set up with toe-out, however, the front wheels are aligned so that slight disturbances
cause the wheel pair to assume rolling directions that do describe a turn. Any minute steering
angle beyond the perfectly centered position will cause the inner wheel to steer in a tighter turn
radius than the outer wheel. Thus, the car will always be trying to enter a turn, rather than
maintaining a straight line of travel. So it's clear that toe-out encourages the initiation of a turn,
while toe-in discourages it.

22
With toe-in (left) a deflection of the suspension does not cause the wheels to initiate a turn as
with toe-out (right).
The toe setting on a particular car becomes a trade-off between the straight-line stability
afforded by toe-in and the quick steering response promoted by toe-out. Nobody wants their
street car to constantly wander over tar strips-the never-ending steering corrections required
would drive anyone batty. But racers are willing to sacrifice a bit of stability on the
straightaway for a sharper turn-in to the corners. So street cars are generally set up with toe-in,
while race cars are often set up with toe-out.
With four-wheel independent suspension, the toe must also be set at the rear of the car. Toe
settings at the rear have essentially the same effect on wear, directional stability and turn-in as
they do on the front. However, it is rare to set up a rear-drive race car toed out in the rear, since
doing so causes excessive over steer, particularly when power is applied. Front-wheel-drive
race cars, on the other hand, are often set up with a bit of toe-out, as this induces a bit of over
steer to counteract the greater tendency of front-wheel-drive cars to under steer.
Remember also that toe will change slightly from a static situation to a dynamic one. This is is
most noticeable on a front-wheel-drive car or independently-suspended rear-drive car. When
driving torque is applied to the wheels, they pull themselves forward and try to create toe-in.
This is another reason why many front-drivers are set up with toe-out in the front. Likewise,
when pushed down the road, a non-driven wheel will tend to toe itself out. This is most

23
noticeable in rear-drive cars.
The amount of toe-in or toe-out dialed into a given car is dependent on the compliance of the
suspension and the desired handling characteristics. To improve ride quality, street cars are
equipped with relatively soft rubber bushings at their suspension links, and thus the links move
a fair amount when they are loaded. Race cars, in contrast, are fitted with steel spherical
bearings or very hard urethane, metal or plastic bushings to provide optimum rigidity and
control of suspension links. Thus, a street car requires a greater static toe-in than does a race
car, so as to avoid the condition wherein bushing compliance allows the wheels to assume a
toe-out condition.
It should be noted that in recent years, designers have been using bushing compliance in street
cars to their advantage. To maximize transient response, it is desirable to use a little toe-in at
the rear to hasten the generation of slip angles and thus cornering forces in the rear tires. By
allowing a bit of compliance in the front lateral links of an A-arm type suspension, the rear axle
will toe-in when the car enters a hard corner; on a straightaway where no cornering loads are
present, the bushings remain undistorted and allow the toe to be set to an angle that enhances
tire wear and stability characteristics. Such a design is a type of passive four-wheel steering
system.

THE EFFECTS OF CASTER

Caster is the angle to which the steering pivot axis is tilted forward or rearward from vertical,
as viewed from the side. If the pivot axis is tilted backward (that is, the top pivot is positioned
farther rearward than the bottom pivot), then the caster is positive; if it's tilted forward, then
the caster is negative.
Positive caster tends to straighten the wheel when the vehicle is traveling forward, and thus is
used to enhance straight-line stability. The mechanism that causes this tendency is clearly
illustrated by the castering front wheels of a shopping cart (above). The steering axis of a
shopping cart wheel is set forward of where the wheel contacts the ground. As the cart is pushed
forward, the steering axis pulls the wheel along, and since the wheel drags along the ground, it
falls directly in line behind the steering axis. The force that causes the wheel to follow the
steering axis is proportional to the distance between the steering axis and the wheel-to-ground
contact patch-the greater the distance, the greater the force. This distance is referred to as
"trail."
Due to many design considerations, it is desirable to have the steering axis of a car's wheel
24
right at the wheel hub. If the steering axis were to be set vertical with this layout, the axis would
be coincident with the tire contact patch. The trail would be zero, and no castering would be
generated. The wheel would be essentially free to spin about the patch (actually, the tire itself
generates a bit of a castering effect due to a phenomenon known as "pneumatic trail," but this
effect is much smaller than that created by mechanical castering, so we'll ignore it here).
Fortunately, it is possible to create castering by tilting the steering axis in the positive direction.
With such an arrangement, the steering axis intersects the ground at a point in front of the tire
contact patch, and thus the same effect as seen in the shopping cart casters is achieved.
The tilted steering axis has another important effect on suspension geometry. Since the wheel
rotates about a tilted axis, the wheel gains camber as it is turned. This effect is best visualized
by imagining the unrealistically extreme case where the steering axis would be horizontal-as
the steering wheel is turned, the road wheel would simply change camber rather than direction.
This effect causes the outside wheel in a turn to gain negative camber, while the inside wheel
gains positive camber. These camber changes are generally favorable for cornering, although
it is possible to overdo it.
Most cars are not particularly sensitive to caster settings. Nevertheless, it is important to ensure
that the caster is the same on both sides of the car to avoid the tendency to pull to one side.
While greater caster angles serve to improve straight-line stability, they also cause an increase
in steering effort. Three to five degrees of positive caster is the typical range of settings, with
lower angles being used on heavier vehicles to keep the steering effort reasonable.

Like a shopping cart wheel (left) the trail created by the castering of the steering axis pulls the
wheels in line.
Camber is the angle of the wheel relative to vertical, as viewed from the front or the rear of
the car. If the wheel leans in towards the chassis, it has negative camber; if it leans away from
the car, it has positive camber (see next page). The cornering force that a tire can develop is
highly dependent on its angle relative to the road surface, and so wheel camber has a major
effect on the road holding of a car. It's interesting to note that a tire develops its maximum
cornering force at a small negative camber angle, typically around neg. 1/2 degree. This fact is
25
due to the contribution of camber thrust, which is an additional lateral force generated by elastic
deformation as the tread rubber pulls through the tire/road interface (the contact patch).
To optimize a tire's performance in a corner, it's the job of the suspension designer to assume
that the tire is always operating at a slightly negative camber angle. This can be a very difficult
task, since, as the chassis rolls in a corner, the suspension must deflect vertically some distance.
Since the wheel is connected to the chassis by several links which must rotate to allow for the
wheel deflection, the wheel can be subject to large camber changes as the suspension moves
up and down. For this reason, the more the wheel must deflect from its static position, the more
difficult it is to maintain an ideal camber angle. Thus, the relatively large wheel travel and soft
roll stiffness needed to provide a smooth ride in passenger cars presents a difficult design
challenge, while the small wheel travel and high roll stiffness inherent in racing cars reduces
the engineer's headaches.
It's important to draw the distinction between camber relative to the road, and camber relative
to the chassis. To maintain the ideal camber relative to the road, the suspension must be
designed so that wheel camber relative to the chassis becomes increasingly negative as the
suspension deflects upward. The illustration on the bottom of page 46 shows why this is so. If
the suspension were designed so as to maintain no camber change relative to the chassis, then
body roll would induce positive camber of the wheel relative to the road. Thus, to negate the
effect of body roll, the suspension must be designed so that it pulls in the top of the wheel (i.e.,
gains negative camber) as it is deflected upwards.
While maintaining the ideal camber angle throughout the suspension travel assures that the tire
is operating at peak efficiency, designers often configure the front suspensions of passenger
cars so that the wheels gain positive camber as they are deflected upward. The purpose of such
a design is to reduce the cornering power of the front end relative to the rear end, so that the
car will understeer in steadily greater amounts up to the limit of adhesion. Understeer is
inherently a much safer and more stable condition than oversteer, and thus is preferable for
cars intended for the public.
Since most independent suspensions are designed so that the camber varies as the wheel moves
up and down relative to the chassis, the camber angle that we set when we align the car is not
typically what is seen when the car is in a corner. Nevertheless, it's really the only reference
we have to make camber adjustments. For competition, it's necessary to set the camber under
the static condition, test the car, and then alter the static setting in the direction that is indicated
by the test results.
26
The best way to determine the proper camber for competition is to measure the temperature
profile across the tire tread immediately after completing some hot laps. In general, it's
desirable to have the inboard edge of the tire slightly hotter than the outboard edge. However,
it's far more important to ensure that the tire is up to its proper operating temperature than it is
to have an "ideal" temperature profile. Thus, it may be advantageous to run extra negative
camber to work the tires up to temperature

(TOP RIGHT) Positive camber: The bottoms of the wheels are closer together than the tops.
(TOP LEFT) Negative camber: The tops of the wheels are closer together than the bottoms.
(CENTER) When a suspension does not gain camber during deflection, this causes a severe
positive camber condition when the car leans during cornering. This can cause funky handling.
(BOTTOM) Fight the funk: A suspension that gains camber during deflection will compensate
for body roll. Tuning dynamic camber angles is one of the black arts of suspension tuning.

Q.2) WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF A) INCORRECT CAMBER, B) INCORRECT CASTER?

ANS:-Camber angle is the angle made by the wheels of a vehicle; specifically, it is the angle
between the vertical axis of the wheels used for steering and the vertical axis of the vehicle
when viewed from the front or rear. It is used in the design of steering and suspension. If the
top of the wheel is farther out than the bottom (that is, away from the axle), it is called positive
camber; if the bottom of the wheel is farther out than the top, it is called negative camber.

27
Camber angle alters the handling qualities of a particular suspension design; in particular,
negative camber improves grip when cornering. This is because it places the tire at a better
angle to the road, transmitting the forces through the vertical plane of the tire rather than
through a shear force across it. Another reason for negative camber is that a rubber tire tends
to roll on itself while cornering. The inside edge of the contact patch would begin to lift off of
the ground if the tire had zero camber, reducing the area of the contact patch. This effect is
compensated for by applying negative camber, maximizing the contact patch area. Note that
this is only true for the outside tire during the turn; the inside tire would benefit most from
positive camber.
On the other hand, for maximum straight-line acceleration, the greatest traction will be attained
when the camber angle is zero and the tread is flat on the road. Proper management of camber
angle is a major factor in suspension design, and must incorporate not only idealized geometric
models, but also real-life behavior of the components; flex, distortion, elasticity, etc. What was
once an art has now become much more scientific with the use of computers, which can
optimize all of the variables mathematically instead of relying on the designer's intuitive feel
and experience. As a result, the handling of even low-priced automobiles has improved
dramatically in recent years.
In cars with double wishbone suspensions, camber angle may be fixed or adjustable, but in
MacPherson strut suspensions, it is normally fixed. The elimination of an available camber
adjustment may reduce maintenance requirements, but if the car is lowered by use of shortened
springs, the camber angle will change. Excessive camber angle can lead to increased tire wear
and impaired handling. Significant suspension modifications may correspondingly require that
the upper control arm or strut mounting points be altered to allow for some inward or outward
movement, relative to longitudinal centerline of the vehicle, for camber adjustment.
Aftermarket plates with slots for strut mounts instead of just holes are available for most of the
commonly modified models of cars.

28
Caster angle is the angular displacement from the vertical axis of the suspension of a steered
wheel in a car, bicycle or other vehicle, measured in the longitudinal direction. It is the angle
between the pivot line (in a car - an imaginary line that runs through the center of the upper
ball joint to the center of the lower ball joint) and vertical. Car racers sometimes adjust caster
angle to optimize their car's handling characteristics in particular driving situations. In Figure,
θ is the caster angle, red line is the pivot line, and grey area is the tire. A positive caster angle
is shown with the front of the vehicle being to the left. SuperPro origins were born out of
vehicles that were not a pleasure to drive due to caster differences. These were commonly
known as a ‘’pull to the left ‘’cars. Manufacturers tend to build in preset alignment
specifications and in many vehicles caster adjustment was simply not offered on an original
vehicle suspension system. When wheel-aligning a car, I always went to great lengths to correct
the caster on a vehicle where possible, however this was not possible that often. As a young
wheel alignment mechanic, I knew motor sport offered all sorts of suspension angle adjustment
so why not offer some to my customers. So, in 1987 the first SuperPro bushing were born,
tested and successfully starting the large range we now have available.

Q.3) DISCUSS BRIEFLY THE TERM CORNERING FORCE?

ANS: -Cornering force or side force is the lateral (i.e., parallel to the road surface) force
produced by a vehicle tire during cornering. Cornering force is generated by tire slip and is
proportional to slip angle at low slip angles. The rate at which cornering force builds up is
described by relaxation length. Slip angle describes the deformation of the tire contact patch,
and this deflection of the contact patch deforms the tire in a fashion akin to a spring.
As with deformation of a spring, deformation of the tire contact patch generates a reaction
force in the tire; the cornering force. Integrating the force generated by every tread element
29
along the contact patch length gives the total cornering force. Although the term, "tread
element" is used, the compliance in the tire that leads to this effect is actually a combination of
sidewall deflection and deflection of the rubber within the contact patch. The exact ratio of
sidewall compliance to tread compliance is a factor in tire construction and inflation pressure.

The diagram is misleading because the reaction force would appear to be acting in the wrong
direction. It is simply a matter of convention to quote positive cornering force as acting in the
opposite direction to positive tire slip so that calculations are simplified, since a vehicle
cornering under the influence of a cornering force to the left will generate a tire slip to the right.
The same principles can be applied to a tire being deformed longitudinally, or in a combination
of both longitudinal and lateral directions. The behavior of a tire under combined longitudinal
and lateral deformation can be described by Traction Circle.

30
 Experiment No.6
Perform removal and refitting of tyre using an automatic tyre
changer.

AIM: Removing and refitting tire using an Automatic Tire Changer.

THEORY: To safeguard all the tires against any damages and thus prolonging the tire life
and achieving economy in tire. The pneumo-electric automatic tire changer is designed and
works in such a way that, the hard to break bead is first separated from the wheel rim by
applying a uniform pneumatic force all around the bead portion without damaging even
the small portion of the tire. A well designed tool head ease out the fitting on as well as
removal of the tire bead from it’s rim in a fraction of a moment without causing even the
slightest damage to the bead rubber/rim.
SPECIFICATION:
Make and Model : Autech TC 550
Clamping diameter range:
a. LCV/TRUCK WHEELS : 16” to 18”
b. CAR WHEELS : 10” to 20”
c. TWO WHEELERS : 8” to 23”

PROCEDURE:

Unseating the tire bead.

Open the valve cap and unscrew the valve pin and allow the tube fitted in tire to deflate
complete. Place the deflated wheel between the three rubber support pads and the
opened bead breaker blade. Holding the tire in this unseating position, press the extreme
right bead breaker cylinder operating pedal P3, which will bring the arm close to the
wheel and the blade will press the portion of tire bead with force uniformly all around
and push it off the seating of the rim.
Turn the wheel through 1800 and unseat the remaining portion of the bead. Bring the
other side of wheel in the unseating position and repeat pressing of pedal in two or three
positions as required so that the tire bead of other side is also free off the rim.

31
 Clamping of the wheel
The jaws are first allowed to close i.e. come in the central position by first pressing the
pedal P2. By lifting the pedal the jaws start moving outward and come in contact with
the inner periphery of the wheel rim, thus holding it firmly from inside to outside.
For releasing the rim the jaw pedal is to be pressed, allowing the jaws to move inward
thus releasing the holding pressure and the rim/tire can be removed
Setting the swinging arm.
The horizontal swinging arm is to be positioned in such a way that the mounting tool
head neck is just in line with the flange of the rim. The height of this shaft is so adjusted
that the tool head just rests on the flange of the rim and the same is locked thereby
pulling the cam lever type locking device.
The lateral rim and tool head clearance is to be set to 3 to 4mm by rotating the adjusting
hand wheel inward, so that the work can now be carried out away from the rim.
Positioning tire bead on tool head
The tire lever is then to be inserted in between the bead and the rim, and bead lifted
upward taking the support on the notched peak of the tool head, simultaneously
pressing the tire with other hand into the well of rim from the opposite end of tool head.
The lifted portion of the bead is to be placed on the round shoe portion of tool head.
Taking out the bead
Press down the extreme left motor switch pedal P1 and the wheel will turn clockwise.
The slow rotary motion of the clamping plate automatically lifts the tire bead upward
above the rim flange and the tire bead and can be removed as soon as the initial tension
is released during further movement of the wheel.
After the top bead is completely cleared off the flange, the lower bead of the tire can
also be removed in the same manner. Finally when both beads are removed the entire
tire can be taken out, after first lifting the hex. Shaft and swiveling the horizontal arm
away.

Mounting tire on rim

First clamp the bare rim on the jaws if the same is released after removal procedure. Place
the tire duly lubricated at both of its beads on to the rim. Insert the tube positioning the
valve stem in the rim opposite to tool head. Swivel the horizontal arm into the work
position. Set necessary rim and tool head clearance as earlier.
32
 The portion of bead opposite the valve stem should first be taken for mounting. By using
tire lever bring the lower tire bead onto the tool head rear heal portion in such a way that it
rests there, and passes through under the rounded portion of tool head.
Once the initial position has been reached operate the clamping plate by pressing down the
tire from nearby so as to keep the bead above the tool simultaneously stretches the tire bead,
thereby adjusting it suitably. The round toe portion of tool head goes on continuously
pushing the tire bead on to the rim seat. Thus lower bead is fitted first.
After the lower bead is pressed in the upper tire bead is also mounted in the same manner.
Ensure that both the tire are firmly securing the seat of the rim.

DISCUSSIONS:
1. Discuss the different types of wheels used in an automobile. Draw and explain the
construction of any one.
2. Draw cross-section of an automobile tire and show it’s various constructional features.
3. How do you designate a tire?

Q.1) Discuss the different types of wheels used in an automobile. Draw and explain the
construction of any one..
ANS: -
Automobile wheel is an integral component of each contemporary automobile. The basic idea
of each car, truck or SUV is to transport the passengers from point A to point B by means of
moving along a road. The task of an auto wheel is to move a vehicle on a road and to change
the direction of the movement. Each modern vehicle has two pairs of wheels: front and rear.
Depending on where a vehicle's engine and drive wheels are found, the automobile layout can
be divided into following categories: front-, rear- and four-wheel drive.
A rim is a necessary part of every automobile wheel. Depending on the material, used in wheel
rim production, there are several most common rim's types available in the contemporary
automobile market:
•Steel wheel rim. It is a standard type of a rim. Due to its properties, steel is one of the most
important engineering and construction material. Steel features great formability,
impermeability and durability. Its notch-toughness makes it possible to resist cracks that may
lead to sudden collapse of a product structure. Steel is a cost-effective material as it is less
33
exotic material and its manufacturing process is not so complicated. This type of wheels are
usually easy to repair. Compared to other materials, one of the main disadvantages of steel is
its heavy weight.

•Alloy wheel rim. This automobile part is manufactured from an alloy of magnesium or
aluminium. One of the main benefits is the lightweight that results in better handling and
reduction of unsprung weight. When installed on a vehicle, alloy wheels reduce the overall
weight that in its turn lead to fuel saving. Compared to steel wheels, alloy rims provide better
heat conduction. This improves braking performance as the heat is dissipated from the vehicle's
brakes. It also reduce a possibility of overheating. The disadvantage of the alloy rims includes
inability to withstand corrosion. It is necessary to apply a paint layer or another coatings to
prevent rust. Higher price is another disadvantage of this material. Alloy wheels are also
difficult to repair. Unlike steel wheels that are mostly popular among devotees of vintage
appearance, alloy rims are commonly used as they are available in dozens of styles and may
add stylish accent to vehicle exterior.

•Carbon fibre wheel rim. Compared to alloy and steel wheels, this type of rims is less popular
as its major disadvantage is high price. This material is widely used in high-end automobile
racing. Carbon fibre wheels are available as the automotive aftermarket add-ons. They benefit
in terms of attractive appearance and high-end performance. Carbon fibre composites have
high strength-to-weight ratio. The material pros include toughness, resilience and great fatigue
strength. Due to its advantages, carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer is used in manufacturing of
supercars. Along with the reduced fuel consumption and longer service life, this type of wheels
benefits to performance as well as handling.

34
Every automotive wheel consists of a rim, disk and tire. A wheel manufacturing is a complex
work that integrates a various production technologies and equipment. Depending on the wheel
structure and applied materials, the following types of wheel production are used:

•Forging is a manufacturing process by which metal is heated up to the required temperature,

placed in a certain die and then the compressive force is applied. Forging improves the physical
properties of the metal and refines its grain structure. This results in the increased strength of a
wheel. This manufacturing process eliminates the porosity and voids that may cause the
corrosion and cracks. The pros include the limited variation of shapes and high production
costs due to the complex manufacturing technology that lead to the increased price of the
product.

•Casting is a solidification process. Molten aluminium is poured into a mold, which contains a
cavity of the required shape and then the process of the solidification takes place. Casting has
the advantage of allowing to implement various ideas in terms of style. Until recently, gravity
casting was widely used by the wheel manufacturers. At present this technology is replaced by
low pressure die casting. This technique is aimed at reducing porosity, which is among the
main disadvantages of casting.
In terms of construction, a wheel rim is made as a one-, two- and three-piece auto part. Each
type has its place in today's automobile market. Most alloy wheels are constructed as one-piece
product. For this type the name speaks for itself. A wheel is made in a mold as a single piece.
This type of rims is widely used due to its affordability and strength of the structure.
Unfortunately, these wheels are hard to repair. In case of damage, the most reliable variant is
to replace it with another one. One-piece rims are available with less options compared to multi-
piece wheels.
As for two-pieces rim, the wheel is manufactured of centre and outer barrel. Then these separate
parts are welded or bolted together. This type of wheels has more options in sizes. This is
possible owning to the separated parts. This also benefits to repair. There is no necessity to
replace the whole wheel in case one of its parts is damaged. A lot of custom options are
available for this type. The main disadvantage is the assembling process. In case a wheel is
assembled improperly it can leak air.
When an inside rim half, outside rim half and centre are joined using the top-notch fasteners,
35
this type is called a three-piece rim. This type is subject to customization. Three-piece wheels
are offered in a great variety of sizes and offsets. Custom paint, chrome plating and powder
coat are most common types of finishes available for wheels. Three-piece rim has nearly the
same drawbacks as a two-piece wheel: air leakage when not assembled correctly and high price.

Q.2) Draw cross-section of an automobile tire and show it’s various constructional features.
ANS:-
A cross-section of a tire. Number 12 indicates the radial-ply. Numbers 14 and 16 are bias-
plies.

Construction:- With only radial cords, a radial tire would not be sufficiently rigid at the contact
with the ground. To add further stiffness, the entire tire is surrounded by additional belts
oriented closer to the direction of travel, but usually at some "spiral" angle. These belts can be
made of steel (hence the term steel-belted radial), polyester, or Aramid fibres such as Twaron
or Kevlar. In this way, low radial tires separate the tire carcass into two separate systems:
The radial cords in the sidewall allow it to act like a spring, giving flexibility and ride comfort.
The rigid steel belts reinforce the tread region, giving high mileage and performance.
Each system can then be individually optimized for best performance.

36
Q) How do you designate tyre?
ANS: -Tyre size markings can be found on the tyre's sidewall and usually look similar to this:

Tyre dimension may be prefixed by a letter which denotes tyre's intended usage. Here is what
each means:
195 mm Section Width. Nominal section width of the tyre in millimetres.
65 Aspect Ratio. The sidewall height as a percentage of the section width. For example,
sidewall height of this tyre will be 195 x 0.65 = 126.75 mm
R Construction Code. Denotes radial construction which is dominant for passenger tyres.
15 Rim Size. Wheel diameter in inches to which the tyre fits.
91 Load Index. Load capacity of the tyre which is the maximum weight the tyre can carry. You
may look up the value in the load index table.
T Speed Index or Speed Rating. Maximum speed at full load. You may look up the value in
the speed index table.

37
 Experiment No.7
Detect faults using Fault diagnosis techniques in electrical ignition
system, gasoline fuel system, diesel fuel system by On-Board
Diagnostics Kit.

AIM: Study the On-Board Diagnostics

Introduction
On-board diagnostics (OBD) is an automotive term referring to a vehicle's self-diagnostic
and reporting capability. OBD systems give the vehicle owner or repair technician access to
the status of the various vehicle sub-systems. The amount of diagnostic information available
via OBD has varied widely since its introduction in the early 1980s' versions of on-board
vehicle computers. Early versions of OBD would simply illuminate a malfunction indicator
light or "idiot light" if a problem was detected but would not provide any information as to the
nature of the problem. Modern OBD implementations use a standardized digital
communications port to provide real-time data in addition to a standardized series of diagnostic
trouble codes, or DTCs, which allow one to rapidly identify and remedy malfunctions within
the vehicle.
History
● 1969: Volkswagen introduces the first on-board computer system with scanning
capability, in their fuel-injectedType 3 models.

38
● 1975: Datsun 280Z On-board computers begin appearing on consumer vehicles, largely
motivated by their need for real-time tuning of fuel injection systems. Simple OBD
implementations appear, though there is no standardization in what is monitored or how
it is reported.
● 1980: General Motors implements a proprietary interface and protocol for testing of the
Engine Control Module (ECM) on the vehicle assembly line. The 'assembly line
diagnostic link' (ALDL) protocol communicates at 160 baud with Pulse-width
modulation (PWM) signaling and monitors very few vehicle systems. Implemented on
California vehicles for the 1980 model year, and the rest of the United States in 1981,
the ALDL was not intended for use outside the factory. The only available function for
the owner is "Blink Codes". The Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTC's) can be interpreted
through the blinking pattern of the "Check Engine" (MIL) light.
● 1986: An upgraded version of the ALDL protocol appears which communicates at 8192
baud with half-duplex UART signaling. This protocol is defined in GM XDE-5024B.
● 1988: The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) recommends a standardized
diagnostic connector and set of diagnostic test signals.
● 1991:[1] The California Air Resources Board (CARB) requires that all new vehicles sold
in California in 1991 and newer vehicles have some basic OBD capability. These
requirements are generally referred to as "OBD-I", though this name is not applied until
the introduction of OBD-II. The data link connector and its position are not
standardized, nor is the data protocol.
● ~1994: Motivated by a desire for a state-wide emissions testing program, the CARB
issues the OBD-II specification and mandates that it be adopted for all cars sold in
California starting in model year 1996 (see CCR Title 13 Section 1968.1 and 40 CFR
Part 86 Section 86.094). The DTCs and connector suggested by the SAE are
incorporated into this specification.
● 1996: The OBD-II specification is made mandatory for all cars sold in the United States.
● 2001: The European Union makes EOBD mandatory for all gasoline (petrol) vehicles
sold in the European Union, starting in MY2001 (see European emission standards
Directive 98/69/EC).
● 2004: The European Union makes EOBD mandatory for all diesel vehicles sold in the
European Union

39
 ● 2008: All cars sold in the United States are required to use the ISO 15765-4signaling
standard (a variant of the Controller Area Network (CAN) bus).
● 2008: Certain light vehicles in China are required by the Environmental Protection
Administration Office to implement OBD (standard GB18352) by July 1, 2008. Some
regional exemptions may apply.
● 2010: HDOBD (heavy duty) specification is made mandatory for selected commercial
(non-passenger car) engines sold in the United States.
Standard interfaces
ALDL
GM's ALDL (Assembly Line Diagnostic Link) is sometimes referred as a predecessor to, or a
manufacturer's proprietary version of, an OBD-I diagnostic. This interface was made in
different varieties and changed with power train control modules (aka PCM, ECM, and ECU).
Different versions had slight differences in pin-outs and baud rates. Earlier versions used a 160
baud rate, while later versions went up to 8192 baud and used bi-directional communications
to the PCM.

OBD-I
The regulatory intent of OBD-I was to encourage auto manufacturers to design reliable
emission control systems that remain effective for the vehicle's "useful life".The hope was that
by forcing annual emissions testing for California,and denying registration to vehicles that did
not pass, drivers would tend to purchase vehicles that would more reliably pass the test. OBD-
I was largely unsuccessful as the means of reporting emissions-specific diagnostic information
was not standardized. Technical difficulties with obtaining standardized and reliable emissions
information from all vehicles led to an inability to implement the annual testing program
effectively.The Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTC's) of OBD-I vehicles can usually be found
without an expensive 'scan tool'. Each manufacturer used their own Diagnostic Link Connector
(DLC), DLC location, DTC definitions, and procedure to read the DTC's from the vehicle.
DTC's from OBD-I cars are often read through the blinking patterns of the 'Check Engine Light'
(CEL) or 'Service Engine Soon' (SES) light. By connecting certain pins of the diagnostic
connector, the 'Check Engine' light will blink out a two-digit number that corresponds to a
specific error condition. The DTC's of some OBD-I cars are interpreted in different ways,
however. Cadillac (gasoline) fuel-injected vehicles are equipped with actual on-board
diagnostics, providing trouble codes, actuator tests and sensor data through the new digital
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Electronic Climate Control display. Holding down 'Off' and 'Warmer' for several seconds
activates the diagnostic mode without the need for an external scan tool. Some Honda engine
computers are equipped with LED's that light up in a specific pattern to indicate the DTC.
General Motors, some 1989-1995 Ford vehicles (DCL), and some 1989-1995 Toyota/Lexus
vehicles have a live sensor data stream available, however, many other OBD-I equipped
vehicles do not. OBD-I vehicles have fewer DTC's available than for OBD-II equipped
vehicles.

OBD-1.5
OBD 1.5 refers to a partial implementation of OBD-II which General Motors used on some
vehicles in 1994, 1995, & 1996. (GM did not use the term OBD 1.5 in the documentation for
these vehicles — they simply have an OBD and an OBD-II section in the service manual.)
For example, the 94–95 Corvettes have one post-catalyst oxygen sensor (although they have
two catalytic converters), and have a subset of the OBD-II codes implemented. For a 1994
Corvette the implemented OBD-II codes are P0116-P0118, P0131-P0135, P0151-P0155,
P0158, P0160-P0161, P0171-P0175, P0420, P1114-P1115, P1133, P1153 and P1158.[9]
This hybrid system was present on the GM H-body cars in 94-95, W-body cars (Buick Regal,
Chevrolet Lumina ('95 only), Chevrolet Monte Carlo ('95 only), Pontiac Grand Prix,
Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme) in 94-95, L-body (Chevrolet Beretta/Corsica) in 94-95, Y-body
(Chevrolet Corvette) in 94-95, on the F-body (Chevrolet Camaro and Pontiac Firebird) in 95
and on the J-Body(Chevrolet Cavalier and Pontiac Sunfire) and N-Body (Buick Skylark,
Oldsmobile Achieva, Pontiac Grand Am) in 95 and 96 and also on '94-'95 Saab vehicles with
the normally aspirated 2.3.
The pin out for the ALDL connection on these cars is as follows:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

For ALDL connections, pin 9 is the data stream, pins 4 and 5 are ground, and pin 16 is battery
voltage.
An OBD 1.5 compatible scan tool is required to read codes generated by OBD 1.5.
Additional vehicle-specific diagnostic and control circuits are also available on this connector.
For instance, on the Corvette there are interfaces for the Class 2 serial data stream from the
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PCM, the CCM diagnostic terminal, the radio data stream, the airbag system, the selective ride
control system, the low tire pressure warning system, and the passive keyless entry system.
An OBD 1.5 has also been used on Mitsubishi cars of '95 '97 vintage,some1995 Volkswagen
VR6'sBuick Riviera of 1995 vintage and in the Ford Scorpio since 95.

OBD-II
OBD-II is an improvement over OBD-I in both capability and standardization. The OBD-II
standard specifies the type of diagnostic connector and its pin out, the electrical signaling
protocols available, and the messaging format. It also provides a candidate list of vehicle
parameters to monitor along with how to encode the data for each. There is a pin in the
connector that provides power for the scan tool from the vehicle battery, which eliminates the
need to connect a scan tool to a power source separately. However, some technicians might
still connect the scan tool to an auxiliary power source to protect data in the unusual event that
a vehicle experiences a loss of electrical power due to a malfunction. Finally, the OBD-II
standard provides an extensible list of DTCs. As a result of this standardization, a single device
can query the on-board computer(s) in any vehicle. This OBD-II came in two models OBD-
IIA and OBD-IIB. OBD-II standardization was prompted by emissions requirements, and
though only emission-related codes and data are required to be transmitted through it, most
manufacturers have made the OBD-II Data Link Connector the only one in the vehicle through
which all systems are diagnosed and programmed. OBD-II Diagnostic Trouble Codes are 4-
digit, preceded by a letter: P for engine and transmission (powertrain), B for body, C for chassis,
and U for network.
OBD-II diagnostic connector

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Female OBD-II connector on a car

Female OBD-II connector pinout - front view

The OBD-II specification provides for a standardized hardware interface—the female 16-pin
(2x8) J1962 connector. Unlike the OBD-I connector, which was sometimes found under the
hood of the vehicle, the OBD-II connector is required to be within 2 feet (0.61 m) of the steering
wheel (unless an exemption is applied for by the manufacturer, in which case it is still
somewhere within reach of the driver). SAE J1962 defines the pin out of the connector as:

1 Manufacturer discretion. 9 Manufacturer discretion.

GM: J2411 GMLAN/SWC/Single-Wire GM: 8192 baud ALDL where fitted.
CAN.
VW/Audi: Switched +12 to tell a scan tool
whether the ignition is on.
2 Bus positive Line of SAE-J1850 PWM 10 Bus negative Line of SAE-J1850 PWM
and SAE-1850 VPW only (not SAE-1850 VPW)
3 Ford DCL(+) Argentina, Brazil (pre OBD- 11 Ford DCL(-) Argentina, Brazil (pre
II) 1997-2000, USA, Europe, etc. Chrysler OBD-II) 1997-2000, USA, Europe, etc.
CCD Bus(+) Chrysler CCD Bus(-)
4 Chassis ground 12 Not connected
5 Signal ground 13 Manufacturer discretion
Ford: FEPS - Programming PCM
voltage
6 CAN high (ISO 15765-4 and SAE-J2284) 14 CAN low (ISO 15765-4 and SAE-
J2284)
7 K line of ISO 9141-2 and ISO 14230-4 15 L line of ISO 9141-2 and ISO 14230-4
8 Manufacturer discretion. 16 Battery voltage
Many BMWs: A second K-Line for non
OBD-II (Body/Chassis/Infotainment)
systems.

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The assignment of unspecified pins is left to the vehicle manufacturer's discretion.
EOBD
The EOBD (European On Board Diagnostics) regulations are the European equivalent of
OBD-II, and apply to all passenger cars of category M1 (with no more than 8 passenger seats
and a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of 2500 kg or less) first registered within EU member states
since January 1, 2001 for petrol (gasoline) engined cars and since January 1, 2004 for
dieselengined cars.
For newly introduced models, the regulation dates applied a year earlier - January 1, 2000 for
petrol and January 1, 2003 for diesel.
For passenger cars with a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of greater than 2500 kg and for light
commercial vehicles, the regulation dates applied from January 1, 2002 for petrol models,
and January 1, 2007 for diesel models.
The technical implementation of EOBD is essentially the same as OBD-II, with the same
SAE J1962 diagnostic link connector and signal protocols being used.
With Euro V and Euro VI emission standards, EOBD emission thresholds will be lower than
previous E

EOBD fault codes

Each of the EOBD fault codes consists of five characters: a letter, followed by four numbers.
The letter refers to the system being interrogated e.g. Pxxxx would refer to the powertrain
system. The next character would be a 0 if complies with the EOBD standard. So it should look
like P0xxx.
The next character would refer to the sub system.
● P00xx - Fuel and Air Metering and Auxiliary Emission Controls.
● P01xx - Fuel and Air Metering.
● P02xx - Fuel and Air Metering (Injector Circuit).
● P03xx - Ignition System or Misfire.
● P04xx - Auxiliary Emissions Controls.
● P05xx - Vehicle Speed Controls and Idle Control System.
● P06xx - Computer Output Circuit.
● P07xx - Transmission.
● P08xx - Transmission.
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The following two characters would refer to the individual fault within each subsystem.
EOBD2
The term "EOBD2" is marketing speak used by some vehicle manufacturers to refer to
manufacturer-specific features that are not actually part of the OBD or EOBD standard. In this
case "E" stands for Enhanced.
JOBD
JOBD is a version of OBD-II for vehicles sold in Japan.
ADR 79/01 & 79/02 (Australian OBD standard)
The ADR 79/01 (Vehicle Standard (Australian Design Rule 79/01 – Emission Control for Light
Vehicles) 2005) standard is the Australian equivalent of OBD-II.
It applies to all vehicles of category M1 and N1 with a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of 3500 kg
or less, registered from new within Australia and produced since January 1, 2006 for petrol
(gasoline) engined cars and since January 1, 2007 for dieselengined cars.
For newly introduced models, the regulation dates applied a year earlier - January 1, 2005 for
petrol and January 1, 2006 for diesel.
The ADR 79/01 standard was supplemented by the ADR 79/02 standard which imposed tighter
emissions restrictions, applicable to all vehicles of class M1 and N1 with a Gross Vehicle
Weight rating of 3500 kg or less, from July 1, 2008 for new models, July 1, 2010 for all
models.[15]
The technical implementation of this standard is essentially the same as OBD-II, with the same
SAE J1962 diagnostic link connector and signal protocols being used.

OBD-II signal protocols

There are five signaling protocols that are permitted with the OBD-II interface. Most vehicles
implement only one of the protocols. It is often possible to deduce the protocol used based on
which pins are present on the J1962 connector:
● SAE J1850 PWM (pulse-width modulation — 41.6 kB/sec, standard of the Ford Motor
Company)
o pin 2: Bus+
o pin 10: Bus–
o High voltage is +5 V
o Message length is restricted to 12 bytes, including CRC

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 o Employs a multi-master arbitration scheme called 'Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Non-Destructive Arbitration' (CSMA/NDA)
● SAE J1850 VPW (variable pulse width — 10.4/41.6 kB/sec, standard of General
Motors)
o pin 2: Bus+
o Bus idles low
o High voltage is +7 V
o Decision point is +3.5 V
o Message length is restricted to 12 bytes, including CRC
o Employs CSMA/NDA
● ISO 9141-2. This protocol has an asynchronous serial data rate of 10.4 kBaud. It is
somewhat similar to RS-232; however, the signal levels are different, and
communications happens on a single, bidirectional line without additional handshake
signals. ISO 9141-2 is primarily used in Chrysler, European, and Asian vehicles.
o pin 7: K-line
o pin 15: L-line (optional)
o UART signaling
o K-line idles high, with a 510 ohm resistor to Vbatt
o The active/dominant state is driven low with an open-collector driver.
o Message length is Max 260Bytes. Data field MAX 255.
● ISO 14230 KWP2000 (Keyword Protocol 2000)
o pin 7: K-line
o pin 15: L-line (optional)
o Physical layer identical to ISO 9141-2
o Data rate 1.2 to 10.4 kBaud
o Message may contain up to 255 bytes in the data field
● ISO 15765 CAN (250 kBit/s or 500 kBit/s). The CAN protocol was developed by
Bosch for automotive and industrial control. Unlike other OBD protocols, variants are
widely used outside of the automotive industry. While it did not meet the OBD-II
requirements for U.S. vehicles prior to 2003, as of 2008 all vehicles sold in the US are
required to implement CAN as one of their signaling protocols.
o pin 6: CAN High
o pin 14: CAN Low
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All OBD-II pinouts use the same connector, but different pins are used with the exception of
pin 4 (battery ground) and pin 16 (battery positive).

OBD-II diagnostic data available

OBD-II provides access to data from the engine control unit (ECU) and offers a valuable source
of information when troubleshooting problems inside a vehicle. The SAE J1979 standard
defines a method for requesting various diagnostic data and a list of standard parameters that
might be available from the ECU. The various parameters that are available are addressed by
"parameter identification numbers" or PIDs which are defined in J1979. For a list of basic
PIDs, their definitions, and the formula to convert raw OBD-II output to meaningful diagnostic
units, see OBD-II PIDs. Manufacturers are not required to implement all PIDs listed in J1979
and they are allowed to include proprietary PIDs that are not listed. The PID request and data
retrieval system gives access to real time performance data as well as flagged DTCs. For a list
of generic OBD-II DTCs suggested by the SAE, see Table of OBD-II Codes. Individual
manufacturers often enhance the OBD-II code set with additional proprietary DTCs.

OBD Applications
Various tools are available that plug into the OBD connector to access OBD functions. These
range from simple generic consumer level tools to highly sophisticated OEM dealership tools
to vehicle telematics devices.

Hand-held Scan Tools

Multi-brand vehicle diagnostics system handheld Autoboss V-30 with adapters for connectors
of several vehicle manufacturers.
A range of rugged hand-held scan tools is available.
● Simple fault code readers/reset tools are mostly aimed at the consumer level.

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 ● Professional hand-held scan tools may possess more advanced functions
o Access more advanced diagnostics
o Set manufacturer- or vehicle-specific ECU parameters
o Access and control other control units, such as air bag or ABS
o Real-time monitoring or graphing of engine parameters to facilitate diagnosis
or tuning
Mobile Device Based Tools and Analysis
Mobile device applications allow mobile devices such as cell phones and tablets to display and
manipulate the OBD-II data accessed via USB adaptor cables or Bluetooth adapters plugged
into the car's OBD II connector

PC-based Scan Tools and Analysis Platforms

Typical simple USB KKL Diagnostic Interface without protocol logic for signal level
adjustment.

A PC-based OBD analysis tool that converts the OBD-II signals to serial data (USB or serial
port) standard to PCs or Macs. The software then decodes the received data to a visual display.
Many popular interfaces are based on the ELM or STN1110 OBD Interpreter ICs, both of
which read all five generic OBD-II protocols. Some adapters now use the J2534 API allowing
them to access OBD-II Protocols for both cars and trucks.
In addition to the functions of a hand-held scan tool, the PC-based tools generally offer:
● Large storage capacity for data logging and other functions
● Higher resolution screen than handheld tools
● The ability to use multiple software programs adding flexibility

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The extent that a PC tool may access manufacturer or vehicle-specific ECU diagnostics varies
between software products as it does between hand-held scanners.
Data Loggers

TEXA OBD log. Small data logger with the possibility to read out the data later on PC via
USB.
Data loggers are designed to capture vehicle data while the vehicle is in normal operation, for
later analysis.
Data logging uses include:
● Engine and vehicle monitoring under normal operation, for the purpose of diagnosis or
tuning.
● Some US auto insurance companies offer reduced premiums if OBD-II vehicle data
loggers or cameras are installed - and if the driver's behavior meets requirements. This
is a form of auto insurance risk selection
● Monitoring of driver behavior by fleet vehicle operators.
Analysis of vehicle black box data may be performed on a periodic basis, automatically
transmitted wirelessly to a third party or retrieved for forensic analysis after an event such as
an accident, traffic infringement or mechanical fault.
Emission Testing
In the United States, many states now use OBD-II testing instead of tailpipe testing in OBD-II
compliant vehicles (1996 and newer). Since OBD-II stores trouble codes for emissions
equipment, the testing computer can query the vehicle's onboard computer and verify there are
no emission related trouble codes and that the vehicle is in compliance with emission standards
for the model year it was manufactured.
In the Netherlands, 2006 and later vehicles get a yearly EOBD emission check.

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Driver's Supplementary Vehicle Instrumentation
Driver's supplementary vehicle instrumentation is instrumentation installed in a vehicle in
addition to that provided by the vehicle manufacturer and intended for display to the driver
during normal operation. This is opposed to scanners used primarily for active fault diagnosis,
tuning, or hidden data logging.
Auto enthusiasts have traditionally installed additional gauges such as manifold vacuum,
battery current etc. The OBD standard interface has enabled a new generation of enthusiast
instrumentation accessing the full range of vehicle data used for diagnostics, and derived data
such as instantaneous fuel economy.
Instrumentation may take the form of dedicated trip computers,computer or interfaces to PDAs,
smartphones, or a Garmin navigation unit.
As a computer is essentially a PC, the same software could be loaded as for PC-based scan
tools and vice-versa, so the distinction is only in the reason for use of the software.
These enthusiast systems may also include some functionality similar to the other scan tools

Vehicle Telematics
OBD II is no longer only used by professionals and hobbyists to repair vehicles. OBD II
information is commonly used by vehicle telematics devices that perform fleet tracking,
monitor fuel efficiency, prevent unsafe driving, as well as for remote diagnostics and by Pay-
As-You-Drive insurance. Although originally not intended for the above purposes, commonly
supported OBD II data such as Vehicle Speed, RPM, and Fuel Level allow GPS based fleet
tracking devices to monitor vehicle idling times, speeding, and over-revving. By monitoring
OBD II DTCs a company can know immediately if one of its vehicles has an engine problem
and by interpreting the code the nature of the problem. OBD II is also monitored to block
mobile phones when driving and to record trip data for insurance purposes.
Security issues
Researchers at the University of Washington and University of California examined the
security around OBD, and found that they were able to gain control over many vehicle
components via the interface. Furthermore, they were able to upload new firmware into the
engine control units. Their conclusion is that vehicle embedded systems are not designed with
security in mind.
There have been reports of thieves using specialist OBD reprogramming devices to enable
them to steal cars without the use of a key. The primary causes of this vulnerability lie in the
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tendency for vehicle manufacturers to extend the bus for purposes other than those for which
it was designed, and the lack of authentication and authorization in the OBD specifications,
which instead rely largely on security through obscurity.

Experiment No.8
Calibration of fuel injectors by fuel injection pump

AIM: To study the calibration of fuel injectors by fuel injection pump for a multi cylinder
diesel engine.

TOOLS REQUIRED: Fuel injection testing Machine and Fuel Injectors.

PROECDURE:

• The calibration test is usually carried to check correct quality of fuel is

injected for various load and speed condition. Various test of the
Injectors are performed.
• They are basically to mode Automatic and Manual.
• In Automatic we just press the button of Automatic Clean it does all
the process viz, Clean Test, Spray test, RPM Test and Leak Test.
• In Manual we generally press the button of each test as per the
technician desire.

RESULT: Thus the calibration of fuel injectors by fuel injection pump for a multi cylinder
diesel engine is carried out.

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