Presentation:

CE 452 Lectures

By
J. M. Tembo

UNZA
SEPTEMBER, 2011
 WATER TREATMENT

REASONS FOR TREATING WATER

Removal of unwanted constituents

Addition of wanted constituents

Stabilisation

disinfection
HOW IS TREATMENT
ACHIEVED
Through unit operations e.g

Coagulation/flocculation

Sedimentation

Filtration

Chlorination
TREATMENT STAGES

See figure on page 2

 COAGULATION/FLOCCULAT
ION
 Unit operation for the removal of colloids which are
usually responsible for turbidity and colour of natural
waters.

Coagulation = aggregation of colloidal particles
which can not under normal circumstances due to
charges (-ve charge = ZETA potential)

The process of coagulation can be enhanced by

Increasing the ion concentration

Adding di-or/and tri-valent cations
WHAT ARE THE
ADDVANTAGES OF TRI-VALENT
IONS?

Guess!
WHAT HAPPENS DURING
COAGULATION

Charge neutralized

Destabilised colloids come together

Type of mixing

Rapid for just about 1minute

Why? Avoid hydrolysis b4 coagulation

Al3+ + 3H2 O Al (OH)3 + 3H+
FLOCCULATION STEP

Upon complete neutralisation of charge on

colloids, surplus coagulant undergoes
hydrolysis

Al3+ + 3H2 O Al (OH)3 + 3H+

Fe3+ + 3H2 O Fe (OH)3 + 3H+

Type of Mixing

Gentle
FLOCCULATION STEP
CONT’

The Al and Fe hydroxides are not
discrete (stand-alone) molecules. They
are polymerized. Very large molecules
are formed leading eventually to a visible
floc. This floc will entrap the coagulated
colloids. This is what is called
FLOCCULATION
 pH and Alkalinity in C/F

Alkalinity improves buffering

Helps capture liberated H+ which would
otherwise lower pH leading to dissolution
of the floc

3Al3+ + 3HCO-3 3Al (OH) + 3 CO2

2Al3+ + 3 CO2-3 +3H2O 2Al (OH)3 + 3CO2

 pH and Alkalinity in C/F CONT’

Thus, it is important to add an alkali (e.g. Calcium

hydroxide) together with the coagulant to increase
the buffering capacity of the water. However, if
too much alkali is added, the pH will increase and
impair floc formation (redissolving).
HOW TO DETERMINE REQUIRED
AMOUNT OF COAGULANT

Through Jar Test

APPARATUS

1 to 6 I liter jars

various amounts of coagulants

a stirring device

(DETERMINE FOR COAGULANT DOSAGE AND

OPTIMUM Ph)
COAGULANT AIDS

Polymerized substances with long-chain

molecules
Improves flocculation in small doses by:

Forming floc more rapidly

Forming larger or/and heavier floc

Reducing coagulant dose

(They form larger molecules which
interlace the flocs)
 COAGULATION/FLOCULATI
ON IN PRACTICE
Material needed

A jar test kit

Solution storage tank (they should be of corrosive
materials)

Chemical feeder (constant head or other types
e.g. dry feed equipment)

Mixing chamber (Create turbulence e.g. by
plunging/cascading or hydraulic jump)

Flocculation tank (baffles, mechanical agitators,
upflow sedimentation tanks E.T.C.)
SEDIMENTATION
Unit operation for the removal, by settling of
settleable suspended solids
High removal efficiencies in sedimentation
tanks

Determines subsequent loading on filter

Has marked influence on capacity of filters

Affects filter run

Has influence on quality of filtered water
 SEDIMENTATION
CONTINUED
Sedimentation takes advantage of the gravitational
forces, density and size of the particles. Suspended
particles will only settle if: -

the particles size is greater than the colloidal range
as in this range, laws of diffusion are predominant

the density is greater than that of water (the liquid)
APPLICATIONS OF
SEDIMENTATION

in the removal of readily settleable

particles (plain sedimentation)

in the removal of flocculated
colloids

removal of precipitated hardness
and iron
 SIGNIFICANCE OF COLLOIDS
AND SUSPENDED PARTICLES

They make aesthetically unpleasant

They are associated with micro-organisms

They shorten filter runs (rapid clogging of filters)

May settle in the distribution system
SETTLING CHARACTERISTICS
DISCRETE
 Particle does not change shape or size during
settling with adequate distance between them
to avoid disturbances (drag)

Stokes law as follows:-

STOKES LAW CONT’

Where

Vs = terminal velocity

d = diameter of particle

S = specific gravity of particle

g = gravitational constant

µ = kinematic viscosity
SIGNIFICANCE OF ABOVE
CALCULATIONS AND GRAPHS

To get Vs which is important for
design of sedimentation tanks
 OTHER TYPES OF
SETTLING
HINDERED SETTLING

Where particles are densely dispersed within
the fluid, resulting in drag thus reducing the Vs.

FLOCCULENT SETTLING

Particles keep on growing. Hence initially, the
settling velocity increases. But as the particles
go towards the bottom, the effects of hindered
settling come into play.
HINDERED SETTLING
FLOCCULENT SETTLING
SEDIMENTATION IN
PRACTICE

Continuos and not batch

Sedimentation tanks are
"continuos flow basins".

Particle move both vertically
(downwards) and horizontally.
 IDEAL SEDIMENTATION

Under ideal conditions, the following assumptions

are made:-

There are quiescent conditions in the settling zone
(no currents no turbulences)

The flow is uniform and steady across the settling
zone

The concentration of the suspended solids is
uniform when the water enters the settling zone

Once the particles have reached the bottom, they
stay there.
IDEAL SETTLING BASIN
IDEAL SETTLING CONT’

In above case, all particles with Terminal

Velocity Vo greater than the horizontal
velocity will settle out and will be
deposited at the bottom.

Otherwise, they will float away
DESIGNING
SEDIMENTATION TANKS

First determine settling velocity of
smallest particle to be removed

This can be through calculations or
experimentally

Assuming the tank of Volume V will treat
a quantity of water =Q, then
 DESIGNING SEDIMENTATION
TANKS cont’

Retention time to = V/Q -------------------- (1)

Also vo = ho/to ------------------------------- (2)

From (2) to = ho/vo --------------------------- (3)

Equating (1) and (3) we get

Vo = ho/V/Q = Qho/V
 DESIGNING SEDIMENTATION
TANKS cont’

But Volume V = ho * A

ThereforeVo = Q/A ((m3/s)/m2) or m/s

The above is the most important parameter in

the design of sedimentation tanks and is called
the OVERFLOW RATE or THE SURFACE
LOADING RATE or THE FLOW THROUGH
VELOCITY
 SETTLING BASINS IN
PRACTICE
Conditions are non ideal and settling efficiency is
reduced by factors like:-

CURRENTS

Eddy currents (set up by incoming water - whirlpools)
due to non existence of ideal inlet

Surface currents - induced by wind

Vertical convection currents (when surface gets cooler
than bottom)

Density currents (when incoming water cooler than
water in the basin)
 SETTLING BASINS IN
PRACTICE
SHORT CIRCUITING (RETARDATION)

Where water is not uniformly distributed at the
inlet and/or at the outlet

SCOURING (OF BOTTOM DEPOSITS)

This occurs when the tank length is very long
compared to its depth (or width). When
designing, make sure the length to depth ration is
less than 10 (i.e. l/d < 10)
SIGNIFICANCE OF NON -
IDEAL CONDITIONS

Surface area to be increased

Or flow rate to be reduced
TYPES OF SEDIMENTATION
TANKS

Rectangular manually cleaned

Rectangular mechanically cleaned

Circular usually mechanically cleaned
 OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
OF SEDNTATION TANKS
i. DEPTH: Ranges between 2.5 to 5m but generally
3.0 – 3.5m
ii. DIAMETER: Can go up to 70m but generally only up to
35m (Currents)
iii. LENGTH: Can go up to 100m but gerally 35m is taken as
limit (Currents)
iv. WIDTH: 5 to 10m
v. LENTH TO DEPTH RATIO: <10
vi. BOTTOM SLOPES 8% and 1% for Circular and
rectangular tanks respectively
INLET AND OUTLET
HYDRAULICS
 Aim at uniform distribution and collection
 EXAMPLE

Design a rectangular sedimentation tank given

the following information

Smallest particle to be removed =10-3cm

Specific gravity = 2.5

Flow = 100m3/h
Solution

In this case, get Vo from Graphs = 8*10-

3cm/s = 0.29m/h

Get Area from Vo = Q/A
A = 100m3/h/0.23m/h
A= 345m2
Select h = 3.5
 EXAMPLE CONT’

Calculate Length
Condition: l/d >10
l/3.5 >10
Therefore l = 35m
Width: A=l*w = w = A/l = 345/35 = 9.85m OK

Retention time = V/Q or ho/vo = (345*3.5)/100 or

3.5/0.29 = 12hours.
WHAT TO REMEMBER

 CALCULATIONS ARE BASED ON

IDEAL CONDTIONS
 THEREFORE DIMENSION WOULD
HAVE TO BE ADJUSTED TO MEET
REAL SITUATION CONDITIONS
 FILTRATION
Unit operation for the removal of suspended
solids and micro-organisms (SSF)
Applied :-

As only unit operation for surface water

After plain sedimentation

After coagulation/flocculation and
Sedimentation

After precipitation of hardness

After aeration in removal of Fe an Mn
 WHAT IS A FILTER?

A basin or tank filled with sand and

gravel

Several types exist among which are:

slow sand filters

Rapid Sand Filters (RSF) [Gravity
and Pressure Rapid Sand Filters]
SLOW SAND FILTER
RAPID SAND FILTER
WHAT ARE THE MAIN
FEATURES

Column of water

Sand bed

Support gravel

Filter bottom and underdrains

Inlet and outlet control systems
EXAMPLE: UNDER DRAIN
 BASIC FILTRATION THEORY

TRANSPORT MECHANISM

Screening: removes particles larger than the
pores of the filter bed

Sedimentation: Separation by gravity of

settleable solids. In the filter, this is enhanced
by reduced distance through which particle has
to move before reaching surface on which to
settle. (phenomenon upon which tube settlers
TUBE SETTLERS
BASIC FILTRATION THEORY CONT’

Interception: The process which
enhances particle removal through
gradual reduction of the pore size
caused by accumulated material (Partly
reason why quality improves as we
approach end of filter run)
BASIC FILTRATION THEORY CONT’

Hydrodynamic forces: Responsible for

the water in the filter to flow continuously
without stagnating. As water has to
move round the sand grains, the flow
lines are not straight. Hence particles
can be thrown off into quiescent zones
where they can settle (Body continues in
its…… unless…)
 BASIC FILTRATION THEORY CONT’

ATTACHMENT MECHANISM:

Mass attraction and electrostatic forces – OR
ADSORPTION: Process through which removal is
enhanced by MASS PARTICLE ATTRACTION (Van
der Waals Force) and attraction between opposite
electrically charged particles

Biological activity: Biological layers form around filter

sand (slime e.g schemudzedecke). Particles readily
adhere to this organic matterial
 BASIC FILTRATION THEORY CONT’

TRANSFORMATION:
i. Biochemical oxidation: Process through
which organic matter is converted or
oxidised to water, carbon dioxide and
inorganic salts.
ii. Also part of the dissolved matter removal
is exposed to these reactions
iii. This process also enhances precipitation
and removal of iron and manganese.
 FILTRATION EFFICIENCY
Depends on:

Depth of filter bed (However if too deep, filter
becomes expensive to construct; difficult to
operate)

Fineness of filter media (Too fine results in
higher head loss. Very high water column would
be required if production is to be maintained)

Rate of filtration (Higher = poor quality)
 FILTER SAND

Filter Sand is the most important component

of filter. Nature of sand depends on type of
filter (e.g. SSF or RSF). Some of the
requirements are that it:

Should be clean

Should be inert

Should be graded (Effective Size and
Uniformity Coefficient)
 FILTER SAND CONT’

Effective size: Obtained from sieve analyses. It is
defined as the diameter of grain from a sand
sample, of which 10% are smaller and 90% are
larger. (Sieve size that will retain 90% of the
particles)

Uniformity Coefficient: Ratio of the sieve size

passing 60% of the sand to the sieve passing 10%
of it.
 FILTRATION RATE AND
FILTER TYPE

Filtration rate or Surface loading rate:

SLR = Q/A : Measured in m/h; m/d; or/and m3/m2

per hour or day

Filter Type

Slow Sand

Rapid Sand
SLOW SAND FILTER
SSF FEATURES

Under drain

Support gravel as follows:

15cm coarse: Effective size = 10mm

5cm finer: Effective size = 7mm

5cm finer: Effective size = 4mm

Sand bed

ES = 0.2 to 0.4mm

UC = 1.7 to 2.5

Most of the treatment is on the surface
 CONT’

Hence cleaning is by scrapping top layer

of sand

Filtration rate = 5 to 12m/day

Filter runs can go to months
RAPID SAND FILTER
RSF FEATURES

False floor to facilitate backwashing

Bigger filter media

More uniform to avoid hydraulic grading

Treatment is by the whole sand bed

Cleaning is by back washing

Filter runs are only for a maximum of a
few days
CONT’

Backwashing achieved by reversing flow

Filter bed should be expanded until it is
fluidised so that all particles a moving –
to enhance scabbing action

Compressed air also used otherwise to
much treated water would be wasted

REFER TO PAGE 161 FOR DETAILS
 COMPARISON BTWN SS &RS

SLOW SAND FILTERS RAPID SAND FILTERS

Eff size = 0.2 - 0.4mm Eff size = 0.5 - 0.7mm
Uni Coef = 1.7 – 2.5 Uni Coef < 1.8
D. S. Bed = 0.9-1.2m D. S. Bed = 0.9-1.2m
Head > 1.2m Head > 1.2m
Rate 2 – 5m/d Rate 5 – 12m/h (120 -
Cleaning by Scrapping 290m/d)
Cleaning by backwashing
 ADVANTAGES

SLOW SAND FILTERS RAPID SAND FILTERS

Simple Design Smaller land requirements
Cheap to build and operate
No skilled labour required
No electric energy required
High quality of filtrate –
microbiologically fit and
removes colloids
*Requires large areas
MORE ADVANTAGES

SSF: As removal of colloids is good,

chlorination is more effective with less
doses
EXAMPLE

Design a SSF and RSF to treat

100m3/hour.
 DISINFECTION

Unit operation for (disinfection) inactivation

of microorganisms
Disinfection methods include

Heating

UV irradiation

Ozonation

chlorination
 CHLORINATION - ADVANTAGES

Has good disinfection properties

Harmless to man in bactericidal doses

Provides long lasting residuals

Easy to handle

Easy to detect and determine

Cheapest disinfectant available
 PROPERTIES OF CHLORINE
GAS

Greenish yellow in colour

2.5 times heavier than air

70 times more soluble in water than oxygen

Belongs to the halogen group. Mostly derived from
NaCl by electrolysis

Easily liquified (5 – 10 bars)

Strong oxidant and is corrosive

Toxic as gas at lower concentrations irritating to
mucous membranes, eyes and lungs (Need for gas
masks in treatment plants)
BACTERIACIDAL ACTION OF
CHLORINE

Less than 1mg/l is adequate for
disinfection

Kills by diffusing through cell wall and
disturbing metabolic enzymes
FACTORS AFFECTING
CHLORINATION

Contact time

Concentration

pH

Temperature
FACTORS AFFECTING
CHLORINATION CONT’

Contact time (the longer the better)

Concentration (the higher the faster but
two high impart an objectionable taste
and smell)

pH (the lower the faster)

Temperature (the higher the faster)
 FACTORS AFFECTING
CHLORINATION CONT’

Contact time (the longer the better)

Nt = Noe-kt

Where Nt = Organisms after time = t

No = Organisms before chlorination
K = Reaction constant depending on variables
t = contact time
***Contact time inversely related to concentration
 SURVIVAL CURVE OF MICROORGANISMS

120

100
NUMBER OF SURVIVORS

80

60

40

20

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

UNIT TIME
FACTORS AFFECTING
CHLORINATION CONT’

pH ( The lower the better)
 EFFECT OF pH ON CHLORINATION EFFECTIVENESS

100.0
F ACTO R

10.0

1.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

pH
 FACTORS AFFECTING
CHLORINATION CONT’

 Therefore, for high pH, if dose is remains

constant, contact time has to be lengthened
if same result is to be obtained.
WHY THIS OBSERVATION

We go to chemistry of chlorine in water

Cl2 + H2O HOCl + H+ + Cl-
(Hydrolysis)

HOCl = Disinfectant and is referred to as
FREE AVAILABLE CLHLORINE

The HOCl needs time (Contact time) to
diffuse and react with metabolic
enzymes
 WHY THIS OBSERVATION

The H+ produced is in low concentration and

does not affect the pH of the treated water so
much

HOCl is a weak acid and partially ionises
depending on the pH

HOCl H+ + OCl-
 WHY THIS OBSERVATION

Both HOCl and OCl- are consiered as Free

Available Chlorine

But HOCl is about 80 to 100 times more
effective.

Smaller than OCl-

OCl- is charged has its infusion into the

cell membrane is resisted (repulsion)
 EFFECT OF pH
120

98 96
100
Contribution by Percent

80
80
72

60

40
27
20
20

2 4

0
pH 6 7 8

pH
HOCl (%) Ocl - (%)
FACTORS AFFECTING
CHLORINATION CONT’

Temperature (The higher the better)

Concentration (The higher the better)

 SOURCES OF CHLORINE

We have so far looked at Cl2 gas

However salts of hypochlorous acid can also be
used (Mostly salts of Ca and Na)

Calcium Hypoclorite (70% Free available Chlorine –
HTH)

Ca(OCl)2 Ca 2+ + 2OCl-

OCl- + H+ HOCL
SOURCES OF CHLORINE
CONT’

Sodium Hypochlorite or JIK –
Strong but unstable

NaOCl Na+ + OCl-

OCl- + H+ HOCL
 REACTIONS

Cl2 is strong oxidant – reacts with reducing
agents and other compounds like organics

Reactions with organic matter results in
halogenated hydrocarbons

Water exerts a ‘CHLORINE DEMAND’ =
Cl2 required to react with substances in it

Difficult to predict as it depends on a
number of factors (including the Cl2 dose
and contact time
 REACTIONS CONT’
IMPORTANT EQUATION TO REMEMBER

Cldose = Cl2 demand + Cl2 residual

 REACTIONS CONT’

Significance of Cl2 demand as a function of

time = Depletion hence Satelite dosing
stations
 REACTIONS CONT’

Formation of Chloramines

NH3 + HOCl NH2Cl + H2O (Monochloramine)

NH2Cl + HOCl NHCl2 + H2O (Dichloramine)

NHCl2 + HOCl NCl3 + H2O (Trichloramine)
 REACTIONS CONT’

The chlorine in chloramines = COMBINED

AVAILABLE CHLORINE

PROPERTIES = Less disinfective properties but
long lasting residuals

E.g FAC = 15MINS

CAC = 1 – 2hrs

Also chloramine is more stable than chlorine
(Water with High Free Cl2 Demand consumes
much less Chloramine
 REACTIONS CONT’

APPLICATIONS

Where demand is high

Where distance to consumer is
excessive

BREAK POINT CHLORINATION =

NEXT SLIDE
 CHLORINATION IN PARACTICE

1. Dosage (Should have residual = 0.2 –

0.5mgll)
2. Requirements

Low turbidity required

Low pH

Low levels of Organic matter

Low levels of oxidizable constituents

Contact time 15 – 20 mins
 CHLORINATION IN PARACTICE CONT’

Chlorine Contact tanks

required at treatment plant if nearest consumer
is very near.

To be designed so that short circuits are
avoided

Dosing

Get required dose

Get flow of water

Calculate dosage depending on nature of Cl2
to be dosed (E.g gas vs HTH)

Feed constantly at required rate
 CHLORINATION IN PARACTICE
CONT’

CHECKING FOR RESIDUAL CHLORINE

Several times at treatment plant

Daily in distribution system at various
points (near and far)

When collecting samples for
microbilogical examination
CHLORINATION IN PARACTICE
CONT’

Chlorination is also applied in
disinfecting water supply facilities

Newly installed infrastructure

After repairs

When dirt or growth
accumulates.
 PRECIPITATION AND ION
EXCHANGE

Unit operation for the removal of dissolved
constituents

Addition of chemical to precipitate the
unwanted compound

Precipitate can the be removed by

C/F – Sed- Filt

Sed – Filt

Filt
 APPLICATIONS OF
PRECIPITATION IN WS

Removal of excessive hardness or
softening

Removal of excessive iron

Removal of excessive Manganese
 WATER SOFTENING BY
PRECIPITATION

LIME SOFTENING (Removal of carbonate
hardness)

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 + 2CaCO3

+ H2O

For Mg pH has to be very high so that Mg(OH)2

is formed which is insolube (at pH >11)
 WATER SOFTENING BY
PRECIPITATION CONT’

LIME – SODA SOFTENING (Removal of

non-carbonate hardness)

CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + NaCl

Sodium Carbonate is also called Soda Ash.

 WATER SOFTENING BY
PRECIPITATION CONT

EXCESS – LIME TREATMENT

In normal treatment, like above, residual hardness of
about 40mg/l remains at pH 9.4.

For Better results, excess lime is added to get pH > 10
(Excess lime Treatment)

This is followed by pH adjustment or stabilisation unit
operation

As the CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 are very fine precipitates,
better results are obtained if coagulates added
together with the lime
 WATER SOFTENING BY
PRECIPITATION CONT’

REMOVAL OF IRON AND MANGANESE

Use gas transfer unit operation

Or prechlorination unit operation

The reaction are pH sensitive

Removal of Fe pH should be around 7 or
slightly less

For Mn, pH > 8.5. If not add lime
 ION EXCHANGE

Unit operation for the removal of dissolved

constituents (removal of ions)

Objectionable ions exchange for less
objectionable

This unit completely removes total
hardness and total dissolved solids
 ION EXCHANGE CONT’

Total hardness produced by Ca and Mg

removed through exchange with Na+ ions

Demineralisation or desalination (Removal of
TDS) achieved by removal of cations and
anions by the H+ and OH- beds
 BASIC REACTIONS IN ION-
EXCHANGERS

WHAT IS AN ION EXCHANGER: A solid
synthetic substance called RESIN

TYPES = Cation-exchanger

= Anion-exchanger
 STRUCTURE OF ION
EXCHANGERS

Contains FUNCTIONAL IONS which are fixed to
the matrix

Also present are motile ions of the opposite
charge in the pores to counter the charge of the
functional group. Electrostatically connected

In absence of other ions in solution, these remain
intact.

If same charged ions in solution, exchange will
take place
 TERMINOLOGY

ION EXCHANGE CAPACITY

EXHAUSTION

REGENERATION

NaR + Ca2+ CaR + 2Na+

SOFTENING IN PRACTICE

 COMPLETE VS PARTIAL
 PARTIAL ACHIEVED BY BYPASSING
 CAPACITY

Dependant on:

Capacityof resin

Hardness of the water
 DISADVANTAGES OF ION-
EXCHANGE

Resins and equipment are expensive

Operations expensive (NaCl and Acid)

Skilled operators required

Disposal of wastes may cause problems
END

THANK YOU