ONLINE COURSE ON APPLICATION OF

PARAMETRIC TEST IN RESEARCH

20.05. 2020 – 22.05.2020

 Research
 Research is an essential and powerful tool.

 It leads man towards progress.

 Without systematic research there would have been very little progress.

 John W. Best has rightly said “The secret of our cultural development has
been research, pushing back the areas of ignorance by discovering new
truths, which in turn, lead to better ways of doing things and better
products. Scientific research leads to progress in some field of life”.
 New products, new facts, new concepts and new ways of doing things are being
found due to ever increasing significant research in the physical, the biological,
the social and the psychological fields.

 Research today is no longer confined to the science laboratory.

 The manufacturers, the agricultural experts and the archeologists are carrying
on research in their respective spheres, besides, the sociologists, anthropologists,
economists and educationists.
 Definition of Research

Fried Kerlinger : “ Research is an organised enquiry designed and

carried out to provide information for solving a problem”.

Francis Rummel : “ Research is a careful inquiry or examination to

discover new information or relationships and to expand and to
verify existing knowledge”
C.C. Crawford : “Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of
thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments & procedures in order to
obtain a more adequate solution of a problem than would be possible under
ordinary means.”
Purpose of Research

The purpose of research is gaining knowledge, which will be used for

solving problems (applied research) or for satisfying one’s thirst for

knowledge (Pure research)

 Why is research conducted?
 To gain a competitive advantage.

 To test new products and services.

 To solve a management / organizational problem.

 To provide information, which may help to avoid future business problems.

 To forecast future sales.

 To better understand shifts in consumer attitudes.

 To enhance profitability.
• To reduce operational costs.
• To enable the management to prioritize strategic options for the
future.
 Classification of Research

Action Research: The process by which practitioners attempt to study

their problems scientifically in order to guide, correct and evaluate
their decisions and actions is called Action Research

Eg. A teacher innovates a method to develop each ability of the student.

He develops teaching techniques, observes the response of the pupils
and records the data.
Descriptive Research

A descriptive study may be simple or complex. It determines what, when,

where and how. It is concerned with describing the characteristics,
discovering or testing whether certain variables are associated.

E.g How many will cash their Government bonds during a given period.
 Exploratory Research

When the purpose of research is gain familiarity with a phenomenon or

acquire new insights into it in order to formulate a more precise problem.
Exploratory research is felt to gain experience that will ne helpful in
formulating relevant hypothesis for more definite investigation.

E.g For instance, a researcher in the field of psychology is interested in

studying the influence of social environment on mental health.
 Historical Research

Historical Research is nothing but objective location, evaluation and synthesis of

evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions concerning the past.

Historical method has greater significance for social science research.

Eg. A study of factors influencing the growth of locations for cement plants in
Tamilnadu is an historical research
 Comparative Research

The research aims at comparing institutions, practices, concepts and

trends in economic variables, economies of different countries and the
like over a period of time

Eg. A study of the financial performance of two cotton textile mills in

terms of profitability over a period of time is a comparative study.
 Theory Construction Research

Theories galore in subjects like Economics, Sociology nd Psychology.

There are different schools of thought nd the views of scholars
diverge. A critical evaluation of these views in terms of empirical
justification and internal validity is a useful piece of research.

For example, two researchers have been involved in evolving a model

for fair rate of return in two engineering units.
Model Building Research

This type of research is mostly done in the field of Management. The basic
management science represent many theories.

E.g. Two researchers have been involved in evolving a model for fair rate of
return in two engineering units. A researcher can compare the models and
advantages of the models and state which model is better.
 Applied Research

Applied Research is undertaken with the aim of uncovering data to solve an

existing problem.

Eg. In the field of Economics a researcher may be interested in applying the

Lewis Model to an economy. The researcher may find out why the model
has not been applied and what modifications would be required.
Pure Research

Pure Research is being undertaken to satisfy the researcher’s thirst for

knowledge. It is concerned with singular situation and not suitable to
wide area.

It provides the basis for applied research

 Literature Review

Why is it important?
A literature review is important because it:
 Explains the background of research on a topic.
 Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
 Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
 Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
 Identifies critical gaps and points of disagreement.
 Discusses further research questions that logically come out of the previous
studies.
 Types of Literature Reviews

1. Argumentative Review

2. Integrative Review

3. Historical Review

4. Methodological Review

5. Systematic Review

6. Theoretical Review
 1. Argumentative Review

This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute

an argument

[e.g., Educational reform; Immigration control],

2. Integrative Review

Integrative reviews include both quantitative and qualitative studies, or, in

other words, both experimental and non-experimental studies.

This is the most common form of review in the social sciences.

3. Historical Review

Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical

literature reviews focus on examining research throughout a period
of time

Often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory,

phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution
within the scholarship of a discipline.
 4. Methodological Review

A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they
came about saying what they say [method of analysis].

Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at

different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches,
and data collection and analysis techniques],
5. Systematic Review

 The goal is to deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize

scientifically all of the research about a clearly defined research problem.

 Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question often posed in a

cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?"

 Example: This type of literature review is primarily applied to examining

prior research studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is
increasingly being used in the social sciences.
 6. Theoretical Review

The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist,
the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have
been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested.
Structure and Writing Style

I. Thinking About Your Literature Review

II. Development of the Literature Review
III. Ways to Organize Your Literature Review
IV. Writing Your Literature Review
V. Common Mistakes to Avoid
 I. Thinking About Your Literature Review
The critical evaluation of each work should consider:
 Provenance – Place of Origin, History of something
 Methodology – a system of methods used in a particular area of study or
activity
 Objectivity – object or goal of one's efforts or actions
 Persuasiveness – favorable to one argument or unfavorable to the other
argument
 Value – How much its contributes to the study
 II. Development of the Literature Review
Four Stages
1. Problem formulation -- which topic or field is being examined and what are its
component issues?

2. Literature search -- finding materials relevant to the subject being explored.

3. Data evaluation -- determining which literature makes a significant contribution

to the understanding of the topic.

4. Analysis and interpretation -- discussing the findings and conclusions of

pertinent literature.
II. Development of the Literature Review
Consider the following issues before writing the literature review:

 How many sources should I include

 Types of sources should I review, books, journal, websites; scholarly versus popular sources

 Summarize, synthesize, or critique sources by discussing common theme.

 Should I evaluate the sources

 Should I provide subheadings and other background information's

 Narrow the Topic

 Consider Whether Your Sources are Current

III. Ways to Organize Your Literature Review

 Current Situation • Summarize and Synthesize

 History • Keep Your Own Voice

• Use Caution When Paraphrasing

 Selection Methods

 Standards

 Questions for Further Research

 Use Evidence

 Be Selective

 Use Quotes Sparingly

 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
S.no Authors Objectives
1 Chow et al(2008) To study the association of
supply
chain management
components and
organizational performance
through structural equation
modeling
Variables and Constructs used Methodology Findings
Supply chain concerns, Supply chain Perceptions of Supply chain competencies
competence middle-line have positive effects on
and organizational performance managers in the US organizational
and Taiwan performance.
and
Supply chain practices and
competencies are
significantly associated in
both the US and Taiwan.
31
 Common Mistakes to Avoid
These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research
literature.
 Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem;
 You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevant sources to use in the literature
review related to the research problem;
 Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant primary research studies
or data;
 Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than examining
critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
 Does not describe the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to review;
 Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi squared or meta-analytic methods;
and,
 Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary findings and alternative
interpretations found in the literature.
 From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement
 Constant variable - has only one category or value, for example, taxi, tree and
water;

 Dichotomous variable - has only two categories, as in male/female, yes/no,

good/bad, heads/tails, up/down and rich/poor

 Polytomous variable can be divided into more than two categories, for example
religion (Christian, Muslim, Hindu); political parties (Labour, Liberal,
Conservative); and attitudes (strongly favourable, favourable, uncertain,

unfavourable, strongly unfavourable).

Interval Scale
The interval scale is the 3rd level of measurement scale. It is defined as a quantitative
measurement scale in which the difference between the two variables is meaningful.
In other words, the variables are measured in an exact manner, not as in a relative way
in which the presence of zero is arbitrary.
Example:
Likert Scale
Net Promoter Score(NPS)
Bipolar Matrix Table
Ratio Scale

The ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement scale, which is quantitative. It is a type of variable measurement scale. It
allows researchers to compare the differences or intervals. The ratio scale has a unique feature. It possesses the character of
the origin or zero points.

Example:

An example of a ratio scale is:

What is your weight in Kgs?

 Less than 55 kgs

 55 – 75 kgs

 76 – 85 kgs

 86 – 95 kgs

 More than 95 kgs

3. Nominal data

 Nominal data is used just for labeling variables, without any type of quantitative
value. The name ‘nominal’ comes from the Latin word “nomen” which means
‘name’.
 The nominal data just name a thing without applying it to an order. Actually, the
nominal data could just be called “labels.”
Examples of Nominal Data:
 Gender (Women, Men)
 Hair color (Blonde, Brown, Brunette, Red, etc.)
 Marital status (Married, Single, Widowed) & Ethnicity (Hispanic, Asian)
 As you see from the examples there is no intrinsic ordering to the variables. Eye
color is a nominal variable having a few categories (Blue, Green, Brown) and there
is no way to order these categories from highest to lowest.
4. Ordinal data
 Ordinal data shows where a number is in order. This is the crucial difference
with nominal types of data.
 Ordinal data is data which is placed into some kind of order by their position
on a scale. Ordinal data may indicate superiority.
 We can also assign numbers to ordinal data to show their relative position. But
we can not do math with those numbers. For example: “first, second,
third…etc.”
Examples of Ordinal Data:
 The first, second and third person in a competition.
 Letter grades: A, B, C, and etc.
 When a company asks a customer to rate the sales experience on a scale of 1-10.
 Economic status: low, medium and high.
 Discrete vs Continuous Data

 Discrete data

 Discrete data is a count that involves only integers. The discrete values cannot
be subdivided into parts. For example, the number of children in a class is
discrete data. You can count whole individuals. You can’t count 1.5 kids.

 To put in other words, discrete data can take only certain values. The data
variables cannot be divided into smaller parts.

 It has a limited number of possible values e.g. days of the month.

Examples of discrete data

 The number of students in a class.

 The number of workers in a company.

 The number of test questions you answered correctly.

Continuous data

 Continuous data is information that could be meaningfully divided into finer

levels.

 It can be measured on a scale or continuum and can have almost any numeric
value.

For example, you can measure your height at very precise scales — meters,
centimeters, millimeters and etc.
 The continuous variables can take any value between two numbers. For example,
between 50 and 72 inches, there are literally millions of possible heights: 52.04762
inches, 69.948376 inches and etc.
 A good great rule for defining if a data is continuous or discrete is that if the point of
measurement can be reduced in half and still make sense, the data is continuous.
Examples of continuous data:
 The amount of time required to complete a project.
 The height of children.
 The square footage of a two-bedroom house.
 The speed of cars.
 Conclusion

 All of the different types of data have a critical place in statistics and data science.

 Data types work great together to help organizations and businesses from all industries
build successful data-driven decision-making process.

 Working in the data management area and having a good range of data science
skills involves a deep understanding of various types of data and when to apply them.
 HYPOTHESIS
These are tentative statements for the presumed behavior of variable (s) or phenomenon /
phenomena or relationship / interrelationship between them.
Following are the some of the characteristics of the hypothesis.
•Hypothesis should be clear and precise and should state the behavior of a variable or the
relationship between variables in case of relational hypothesis.
•Hypotheses should be capable of being empirically tested.
•Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation.
•Hypotheses help in the process of generalization of the behavior of variables and their
relationships.
Null hypothesis an alternative hypothesis

In statistical analysis, the null hypothesis is generally symbolized as H0 and the

alternative hypothesis as Ha.

Symbolically, this can be expressed as follows:

H0: Mean or average of the sample (Usually denoted as X) = µ

Ha as the alternative hypothesis.

Level of Significance

 Significance levels are expressed in percentage terms such as 1%, 5%, and 10%.

 They refer to a particular distribution and the area under the curve. These
levels denote the risk a researcher is taking while testing a hypothesis and
rejecting a null hypothesis.

 For example let us say that researcher is rejecting a null hypothesis of no

difference between the sample mean and the population mean at 1% level of
significance.
Contd.,

This would mean that he is taking a risk of 1% while confirming that

there is a difference between the sample and the population mean.
This assumes a great importance in the decision making process
relating to the process of generalization of the behavior of the
variables and also the relationship.
Type I and type II errors

 In theoretical specifications, Type I error is denoted by alpha (α) known as α

error, also called the level of significance of test, and Type II error is denoted
by beta (β) known as beta error.

 The probability of Type I error indicates the level of significance of testing

the hypothesis.

 For example, if Type I error is at 1%, it would mean that there are about 1%
chance out of 100% that we will reject Hq when H0 is true.
 It may be mentioned here that in empirical research, the sample size at times
becomes fixed. In such cases, the researcher normally tries to reduce the Type I
error.

 However, in doing so, he may deal with the problem of high level of Type II error
since probabilities of both the errors cannot be reduced simultaneously.
Table : 1

Null hypothesis is true Null hypothesis is false

Rejecting Null hypothesis Error Type I Correct Outcome

Accepting Null Hypothesis Correct Outcome Error Type II