Modal Harmony in Andalusian, Eastern European, and Turkish Syncretic Musics

Author(s): Peter Manuel

Source: Yearbook for Traditional Music, Vol. 21 (1989), pp. 70-94
Published by: International Council for Traditional Music
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 MODAL HARMONY IN ANDALUSIAN,EASTERN
EUROPEAN,AND TURKISH SYNCRETICMUSICS
by PeterManuel

This articleexamines,in a cursoryform,the standardizedways of

harmonizingpredominantly modal melodiesin the contextsof a set of
interrelated urban folk and popular musicsof the Mediterraneanarea.
Insofaras thesemusicsemploya harmonic-melodic systemqualitatively
distinctfrom that of Westerncommon practice,they are worthyof
scholarlyattentionin themselves.This articlefurther seeksto revivethe
spiritof "ComparativeMusicology"and to suggestways in whichcross-
culturalcomparisonofselectedmusicalparametersmay revealnew sorts
of pan-regionalmusic areas.
Analytical descriptionsof modal musical systemshave played an
importantrole in ethnomusicology sincetheinceptionof thefield.From
d'Erlangerto Densmore,earlyethnomusicologists tookspecial interestin
documentingthe modal practices of traditionalnon-Westernmusic
cultures.The scholarlyconcentration on traditionalmodal systems(and
Westernartmusic)has nevertheless gaps in our analytical
leftsignificant
descriptionsof world musics. In particular,it has entaileda neglectof
thesyncreticmusicalsystemsthathave arisen,especiallyin thelast two
centuries,as productsoftheconfluenceofmodal traditions withWestern
chordal harmony.
This article employs the potentiallyambiguous terms"mode" and
"modalharmony,"whosemeaningas employedhereinshouldbe clarified.
Whilethesetermshave becomewoefullybroad, diverse,and ambiguous
in theirapplications,theyare retainedin thisarticleto denoteformsof
musical organizationdifferent from(althoughnot incompatiblewith)
chordal harmony. "Mode" is used hereinto denote a linear melodic
constructbased on scale or scale-type,witha tonicnote, and in many
but not all cases, morespecificmelodicfeatureslikepitchhierarchyand
characteristicphrases. One may furtherdistinguishbetween "modal
polyphony"(whereeach melodicline is governedby linearratherthan
harmonicprinciples),"chordalharmony,"of which Westerncommon
practiceharmonyis a special case, and formsof what we are here
describingas "modal harmony"which combineaspects of thesetwo.
Fromthe appearance of parallelorganumin the ninthcenturyto the
advent of common-practice harmonyin the 1600s, Westernart music
exhibiteda gradual process of evolution from melodic to harmonic
principlesof organization.Untilthelate sixteenthcentury,thedominant
theoreticalconceptionremainedthatof thelinearmelody,withtheuse
of polyphonyin cadences,transpositions, imitativepassages,and thelike
governedprimarily by linearmodal principles-hencetheuse of theterm
"modalharmony"to describetheappearanceofverticalsonoritieswhich
remainedconditionedby modal conceptions.Chordal harmonicorgan-
izationemergedovera periodofseveralcenturiesas a resultofthegrowth

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MANUEL MODAL HARMONY/ 71

of new hierarchiesof chordallystructuralpitches and non-structural

passing-tones,appoggiaturas,and suspensions(see Powers 1980: 417).
The uses of modal harmonyin Renaissanceart musicdiffered in their
organizationalprinciples from those of themusics discussed in thisarticle.
In thelatter,chordalstructures werenot used to controlthepolyphonic
superimposition of linearmodal melodies.Rather,in each case, thebasic
chordal types-i.e., major and minor triads-appear to have been
borrowedfromexistingWesternpracticeand employedto accompany
a solo, predominantly modal melody,albeitoftenin mannersquitedistinct
fromcommonpracticeharmony.The overalltextureand principlecould
thus be called "monodic",in the sense that it consistsof melodywith
chordal accompaniment.
In thissyncreticmonody,melodyretainsa modal character.First,it
generallyemploys scales derivingfroma purely modal tradition,as
opposed to theWesternmajorand minorscales. Accordingly, thechordal
vocabularies-i.e., thespecificrepertoire of major and minortriads-as
wellas theircharacteristicprogressions, arenotrootedin Westerncommon
practicetonality,butratherin thepotentialities and idiosyncracies of the
mode in use. Consequently,formostofthemusicdiscussedin thisarticle,
the chordal accompaniment,althoughsignificant and expressive,tends
not to play a structuralrole, in thesensethatit does in commonpractice
harmony.In Westerntonality,themusicalimportoftenarisesas much
fromthe harmonyas fromthe melody, such that the latteris often
inexpressive,ifnot unintelligible withouttheformer;by contrast,in the
modal harmonydiscussedhere,triadsare oftenused primarilyforcolor,
or for sonority,or in the contextof a simpleoscillationbetweentwo
chords.Chordsmaybe limitedto thisdecorativefunctioneven when(as
in ex. 5 below) the melody has evidentlybeen composed withspecific
chordalprogressions inmind.The term"modalharmony"is thusemployed
in this article to describe such standardizedapplications of chordal
accompanimentin otherwisemodal musics.
The confluenceof Turko-Arab and EasternEuropean musics with
Westernmusichas generateda numberof syncretichybridsover thelast
severalcenturies.In theeasternMediterranean, acculturated urbanmusics
synthesizing featuresof regionaland Westerntraditionshave arisenin
Turkey,Greece,and theBalkans,and have come to be firmly established
in thetwentieth century as contemporary popularstyles.In southern Spain,
flamenco and other formsof Andalusian folk music (especially the
fandango)can be seento derivefromsimilaracculturativeprocesses,and
indeedbear remarkableaffinities witheasternMediterraneanhybridsin
termsof melodic-harmonic principles.

Andalusian PhrygianTonality
The synthesisof Arab and Europeanmusicsin southernSpain appears
to have startedduringtheextendedperiodof Moorishrulecommencing
in A.D. 711. Duringthisepoch,Arab and Berbermodal musicsflourished
in southernSpain, both on aristocraticand folklevels,as did themodal
liturgicalmusicsof theChristianand SephardicJewishcommunities, who

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72 / 1989YEARBOOKFOR TRADITIONALMUSIC

coexistedwiththoseof theMuslims.The fallof Granada in 1492 and the

expulsionof manyMoors a few decades laterdid not signal the end of
Arab influenceon Andalusian music, for many converted Moors
(moriscos)remainedin Spain, and by thistimemostAndalusianmusic
may be presumedto have been heavily,ifnot overwhelmingly Moorish
in character.Much ofAndalusianfolkmusicretainsArab/Mediterranean
elementsin theformof melismaticvocal styleand, morevisibly,in the
distinctivemodal-harmonicsystemwhichis occasionallyreferredto as
"Phrygiantonality."
ThisPhrygiantonalityis mostprobablya syncretic productofthemodal
traditionsof pre-MoorishSpain, Arab modal musics, and Western
common-practice tonality.Whileverylittleis knownabout Moorishfolk
musics,it may be assumedthattheybore some relationto Moorish art
musics;documentation ofthelattercan be foundin contemporary sources
and, in a moreobliquefashion,in thecontinuanceofMoorishAndalusian
art music traditionsin NorthAfrica. Contemporarydescriptionsand
currentsurvivalssuggestthat such music, like traditionalArab urban
musicsin general,was sophisticated,monophonic,and based on a set of
modes(maqam~at, s. maqam),someofthemostimportant ofwhichappear
to have resembledthose in use in Arab musicstoday.
AndalusianrPhrygian tonality reflectscertain affinitieswith two
maqamat-Bayati and Hijaz. The scales of thesemodes,whichhave been
forseveralcenturiesamong the most popular maqamat in Arab urban
musics,are givenbelow:
Bayati: EFtFG ABC DEDC BAG F tE
Hijaz: E F G#-AB CI"D ED C# BA G#F E
In bothofthesemodes,thefourth degree(here,A) functionsas a secondary
tonicand as a relativelystable restingpitch.
In Andalusian Phrygiantonality,chordal accompanimentplays an
importantrole, but the triadicvocabularyis drawnprimarilyfromthe
pitchresourcesof the Phrygianand, to some extent,the Hijaz modal
configurations.Thus,thePhrygiankey,takingE as "tonic,"wouldemploy
minortriadson thefourthand seventhdegrees(A and D), and majorones
on thesecond, third,and sixthdegrees(F, G, and C). The standarduse
of a major tonic triad(i.e., E major) ratherthan a minorone suggests
affinitieswiththeHijaz mode insofaras it occasionstheuse of theraised
thirdin some contexts,affordingthe characteristic augmentedsecond
intervalof Hijaz. Chordsbuilton the fifthdegreeare avoided. Rather,
theroleofthe"dominant"(i.e., thatchordwhichmoststronglydemands
resolutionto the tonic) is played by chords on the lower and, more
importantly, theupperleading-tonesto thetonic(viz., Dm and F). The
mostcharacteristic chordprogression-also incorporating thisPhrygian
"dominant-tonic"pattern-would be Am-G-F-E. This progression
functionsnot only as a cadential figure,but indeed as the basis of
Andalusianfolk musicemployingPhrygiantonality.In Westernterms
thisprogressionmightbe analyzedas i-VII-VI-V,but in theAndalusian
contextit should be seen as iv-III-II-I;while the iv (Am) chord may

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MANUEL MODAL HARMONY / 73

constitutea relativelystablerestingpoint,it remainssubsidiaryto theE

chord, whichfunctionsas a tonic and finalis.
The juxtapositionof the G#of the E major chord with the G of this
progressioncan be seen in termsof theuse of Hijaz and Phrygianscales,
respectively.One interesting "resolution"of theincompatibility of these
pitchesis thefrequentvocal intonationof the thirddegreein a neutral,
half-flat manner.The use of secondarydominantsprecedingone or more
of the chordsin thisprogressionreflectsEuropean influence.
Andalusian folk musics include Europeanized sub-genreslike the
pasadoblesand tangosofCadiz Carnivalmusic,inwhichPhrygian tonality
is less common.Othergenresmaybe seen as representing confluencesof
Phrygiantonalityand commonpracticeharmony.This synthesisis most
obvious in the fandango, which, in its numerousregional varieties,
constitutesperhapsthesinglemostrepresentative and popularAndalusian
folksong-type. Mostfandangosalternate sungverses(coplas)accompanied
by I-IV-Vharmonies, withinstrumental (especiallyguitar)ostinati(falsetas)
consistingprimarilyof reiteratedand/orornamentediv-III-II-Iprogres-
sions. Thus, simplecommon-practice harmonyis employedin theverses,
and Phrygiantonalityin the falsetas.The patternmay be schematized
as follows (proceedingfromleftto right):

falseta copla falseta

(chords:) I : Am G F E:| C F C G7 C F i:E Am G F E :I (etc.)
EPhryg i : iv III III:I i II i|: I iv III III:11
Cmajor: I IV I V7 I IV

Example 1:
(Guitar:E7 Am G F E7 repeatad lib)

Sa be

-e ca-da vez que ha - blocon ti - go tie-ne ce - lo quientu sa - be-

C 'G
.. .

-s e-so se - ra mien-trasvi - va por-que tu tie - nes la Ila - ve

-C F . E (Guitarvampasbefore)

-e de mi al - ma y de mivi - da

Example1, a traditionaland familiarfandangode Huelva, illustrates this

juxtapositionofcommon-practice and Phrygiantonalities.'Note how the
vocal melodyadheresto the C major scale (whichcorrespondsto the E
Phrygianscale). The transition
to Phrygiantonalityat theend ofthecopla
is the dramaticclimaxof the pattern,and is generallyintensified either
by prolongedmelismaor, as, in thiscase, by the melodicpeak.

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74 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

"Pure"Phrygiantonality--including whatwe are referring to as modal

harmony-is moremarkedin flamenco,whichconstitutes a distinctkind
ofAndalusianfolkmusic,emerging in theearlynineteenthcenturyamong
settled,primarily urbangypsiesof Sevilleand Cadiz provinces.Flamenco
exhibitsmany of Andalusianmusic'smost markedlyMoorish features,
whichthegypsies,since theirarrivalvia the northfromthe late 1400s,
evidentlyabsorbedfrommoriscosand fromAndalusianmusicin general.
Flamencocomprisessome two dozen basic cantes,or song-typesdistin-
guishedby meter,tempo,harmony,and melody. These includeforms
derivedfromAndalusianfolkmusic-such as thenumerousvarietiesof
fandango-as well as cantes specificallyassociated with the gypsy
community.2 The latter,themostimportant ofwhichare bulerias,soleares,
and siguiriyas, exhibitconsiderablymoremodalflavorthanthenon-gypsy
withArabmusics,notably,additive
cantes,and also includeotheraffinities
metersand an ornamented,melismaticvocal style.
Whileflamencois perhapsbestknownoutsideSpain foritsguitarand
dance styles,thegenreis originallyand primarilya vocal music,withor
withoutguitaraccompaniment.Several archaicgenres(e.g., martinete,
tonad)are sung withoutguitaraccompaniment.In these cantes, vocal
melodiesare entirely modal in character,adheringcloselyto thePhrygian
scale, withsome occasional usage of the raised or neutralthirddegree
reminiscent of Hijaz. All thegypsy-derivedcantesmaystillbe performed
withoutguitaraccompaniment.In thesecantes(as well as in thepopular
tientosand tangosof uncertainderivation),theguitaraccompaniment,
wherepresent,invariablyconsistsof an ornamentedoscillationbetween
twochords-usually,thetonicand flatsupertonic-withoccasionalforays
in theminorfourthchord,thencedescendingto thetonicvia thefamiliar
iv-III-II-I pattern. Individual chords are frequentlyenriched with
appoggiaturas,suspensions,and othernon-triadicnotes takenfromthe
Phrygianscale; thevoicingsmakeconsiderableuse of open stringson the
guitarand thusreflecttheimportantrole thatthatinstrument has played
in the evolutionof the chordal vocabulary(see Manuel 1986).

Example2:
E
E F
L L LI I L
II
Am G F E

los o-jos de mi ca - ra se me te-ni - an que ha-ber sar - ta - o

F Am 3 Am G E

loso-ji-tosdemi ca-ra seime te-ni - a que ha-ber sar-ta-o

F G7
-
G7 C 3 m 3 G F E
c
cuan-do pu-se mi sen - ti - o en quie - -en mal pa-go (me) ha da -(d) o
F C m 3 G7 F E
G7

cuan-do pu-se mi sen- ti - o en quie - -en mal pa-go m(e) a da o

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MANUEL MODAL HARMONY / 75

Example2, showingone stanzaofa typicalsoleares,exhibitsthefeatures

describedabove, notably:the Phrygianmodal melody,withoccasional
use of the neutral thirddegree; the oscillationbetween tonic E and
"dominant"F chords;theascentto iv (Am, in m. 4), and subsequentAm-
G-F-Edescent;and, finally,theevanescentsuggestionof simpleEuropean
common practiceharmonyin the modulationsto C major (mm. 6, 8),
which thenresolveto E Phrygianin the followingmeasures.3

Modal Harmonyin Greece, Turkey,and EasternEurope

The musical practices of Eastern Europe and the northeastern
Mediterraneanare generallyregardedas too diversein styleand formto
constitutea singlemusicalarea. Yet an examinationof certain,primarily
urban musicsin thesecountriesillustratesthattheydo shareaspects of
a distinctive harmonicsystememployingstandardizedharmonizations of
predominantlymodal melodies. The relativecontinuityof thissystem
justifiesourgroupingtogether hereseveralcountrieswhosemusicsin other
are
respects quite heterogeneous.Further, as we shall discussbelow, the
affinitiesof thisharmonicsystemwithAndalusianPhrygiantonalitymight
even enable one to speak of a "Mediterranean tonality"characterizedby
thisparticulartypeoftriadicharmonizations.Variantsof theHijaz mode
discussedabove, with its characteristic augmentedsecond betweenthe
second and thirdscalar degrees,figurepredominantly in thissyncretic
system,as do otherchromaticand diatonicnon-Westernmodes.
The relateddevelopmentof modal harmonicsystemsthemselvesmust
be seen as a productof several musicaland broader culturalaffinities
throughoutthearea of thisstudy.First,in all of thecountriesdiscussed
in this section, there exist importantcategories of secular, modal,
monophonicor heterophonicfolksongswhichconsistof discreteformal
sectionsin different modes and oftenusingdifferent tonicground-notes.
This typeof additiveformalstructureis particularlycommonin dance
tunes(or genresderivedfromthem),in whichthemusicianscan spontan-
eously extendpieces ad libitum,in accordancewiththedancers'mood,
by stringing togetherseparatemelodies,riffs,or improvisationsections,
in contrasting modesand/ortonics.It is commonin suchpiecesforsome
sort of instrument to providethe moveable dronesor even tonicdyads
or triads, followingthe modal modulationssignalled by the melody
instrument(s). Sincesuchpracticesare commonin,forexample,traditional
Turkishfolkmusic,we should not necessarilyregardthemas reflecting
Westerninfluence.It is our argumenthere, however, that theydo in
themselvesestablisha sortofpredisposition to theincorporation ofsome
formofharmonyinsofaras theshifting dronesmay occasionallytakethe
formof hierarchically relatedchordalprogressions.
Secondly,theuse of a relativelyconsistentmodal harmonicsystemin
the countriesin questionmay be seen as a productof sharedhistorical
and culturaltieswithinthe area. The entireMediterraneanarea shares,
in varyingdegrees,themusicalheritageoftheByzantineChurch,although
theextentto whichthistraditioninfluenced secularmusicremainsunclear.

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76 / 1989YEARBOOKFOR TRADITIONALMUSIC

Evidence suggeststhat therehas been considerablemutual influence

betweenGreekByzantinemusicand secularOttomanmusic,as well as
other musical genres.4We may certainlyassume, at any rate, that
Byzantinemodal traditionshad some impacton theevolutionof music
outsidethechurch,and thatthisinfluence constitutedone unifyingelement
throughoutthe areas underits domain.
We can statewithmuchgreatercertaintythattheextendedOttoman
Turkishrule in the countriesin question exertedconsiderablemusical
impactand servedas a culturallyunifying force.At differentperiodsand
indifferent regions,Ottomandominationtookdistinct forms,ranging from
direct colonial rule, to nominal suzerainty,to rule throughforeign
intermediaries. Yet despitethesedifferences,
Turkishmusicappearsto have
influenced secularmusicalpracticesto some degreethroughouttheareas
underOttomancontrol.Amongthe various aspectsof Turkishmusical
influence, themostrelevanthereis theuse of makam(Turk.p. makamlar).
Turkishmakamtheoryand practice,and manyofthemakamsthemselves,
bear close affinities
withArab counterparts, and, indeed,theirevolutions
werecloselylinkedforcenturies.Thus, forexample,theTurkishmakam
Hicaz (Humayun sub-category)closely resemblesits Arab namesake
(Hijaz); as we shall see, thismode has played an importantrole in the
developmentof modal harmonyin the areas consideredhere. It is also
significantthat modulation-involvingeitherchange of scale type or
transposition oftonic,or both-is a centralfeaturein Turkishperformance
practice,whetherof art music, gypsyurban popular music, or many
makam-informed folkstyles.The practiceof suchmodulationreflects an
important affinitywith the additive
sectional, formal structure
of the folk
dance pieces we have mentionedabove.
The thirdmusicalinfluence commonto theareasconsideredis, ofcourse,
thatof WesternEuropeanmusic.While EasternEuropeand the Balkans
were never totallyisolated fromculturaldevelopmentsin the West, it
appears to have been only in theearlynineteenth centurythatWestern
music,includingcommonpracticeharmony,became widelyfamiliarin
urbanbourgeoismusiccirclesof theBalkans. As we shall suggest,it was
in thisperiodthatsyncretic harmonicpracticesmayhave firstdeveloped.
Most ofthemusicsto be discussedbelowsynthesized ofregional
features
folk musics with Ottoman and Westernmusics. Shiftinggeopolitical
spheresof interestnaturallyfacilitatedtransmission of musicalpractices
throughoutthe area. The existenceof transnationalethnicgroups also
promotedmusicalhomogeneity. Forexample,theOttomanschoseto rule
Rumaniathrougha Greekelitetransplanted fromConstantinople,which
appears to have exerted considerable influenceon musicallifeuntilthe
Rumanianrevolutionof1821. Meanwhile,Greekcommunities in Smyrna
(Izmir)and Constantinopleplayed importantroles in culturallifeuntil
theirexpulsionin 1922.
The presenceof Jewishprofessionalsecular musicians (klezmorim)
throughoutEasternEuropealso appears to have functionedas an agent
of musical homogeneity.Jewsconstitutedan internationalcommunity
presentin all thecountriesin questionhere,and Jewishmusicianstended

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MANUEL MODAL HARMONY / 77

to serveas conduitsforthetransmission of stylisticfeaturesand musical

genres(e.g., the Rumaniandoina) across internationalborders.
However,by farthemostsignificant ethnicgroupin thetransmission
of musicalpracticeswas thegypsycommunity. By theeighteenth century,
gypsiesfiguredprominently in and in many cases dominatedprofessional
secular music performancethroughoutthe area considered. Many
sedentaryas well as nomadicgypsiesappear to have maintainedstrong
tieswiththeirbrethrenin neighboring countries.Gypsymusiciansfrom
diverseregionswereretainedas slavesby Ottomanand EasternEuropean
nobles.Further, manygypsymusicianstraditionally specializedin offering
theirclientelea variedmixture of "exotic"and novel-sounding musicsfrom
different areas. Most importantly,in EasternEurope as in Andulasia,
gypsies,forwhateverreasons, have tendedto preserveand perpetuate
older-in thiscase Turkish-musicalpractices(Garfias1981),synthesizing
themwithmodern,generallymoreWesternstyles,and therebyplaying
importantroles in the evolutionof a systemof modal harmonywhich,
in many respects,is common to the entireregion.
The gradual dismemberment of the OttomanEmpire,the subsequent
"Balkanization" of its formerEuropean domain, and the increasing
hegemonyofWesternEuropeancultureservedin somerespectsto weaken
theperpetuationof theacculturatedmusicswhichhad evolvedby 1900.
In the twentiethcentury,however, the advent of the mass media has
provideda new and unprecedented vehicleforthetransmission and sharing
of syncreticmusics,now in theformof urbancommercialgenres.Thus,
forexample,we findthatTurkishand Greekpop musicscometo constitute
new musical linguasfrancasthroughoutmuchof the Balkans as well as
in theirhomelands.
The uses of modal harmonyin the areas discussed here do exhibit
considerablevariety,in accordancewiththe distinctmusicaltraditions
of theregionsinvolved.Nevertheless,certainconventionsare employed
throughout mostof thearea. Today theseincludesome use of majorand
minorscales,withessentially Europeanchordalharmonization. Of greater
interestto us here,however,are thestandardizedharmonizations ofnon-
Westernscales, includingvariants of modes employingAeolian- and
Dorian-typescales, thescale (to be discussedbelow) whichis sometimes
referred to as the"raised-fourthscale," and above all, Hicaz-typescales.
The most distinctivefeaturerecurrent throughoutthe area is the use
of modes employingan augmentedsecondbetweentheflatseconddegree
and the naturalthirddegree,a configuration which,as we have noted,
is thetrademarkoftheHicaz mode. In manycases, althoughthestructure
of thelower tetrachordof a mode used correspondsto thatof Hicaz, it
may be improperto speak of themode as Hicaz perse. Many folksongs
usingthistetrachord mayhave restricted rangeswhichdo notreachabove
thefifthdegree;in othersongs, theintonationof the sixthand seventh
degreesmay varyconsiderably.Further,theconceptof makam extends
well beyond the simplenotion of scale, and many melodiesemploying
theHijaz scale may not followthecharacteristic patternsof themakam
itself.Thus, our discussionherefocusseson therecurrence ofscalartypes

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78 / 1989YEARBOOKFOR TRADITIONALMUSIC

and non-Westernmusical conceptionswhich we are referringto as

"modal,"whetheror not theyembodythesame subtletiesinherentin the
notion of makam.
Hicaz-typescales are generallyharmonizedin ways similarto those
employedin Andalusianharmony.The major chordon the flatsecond
degreefunctionsessentiallyas a dominant,withtheminorchordon the
flatseventhdegreeas an importantlowerneighbor.The minoriv chord
servesas an importantsecondarytonalcenter,parallelingtheimportance
of thatpitchin the makam Hicaz itself.
It may be noted thatHicaz and relatedmodes accommodatechordal
harmoniesmoreeasilythando mostoftheotherbasicTurko-Arabmodes.
Neutralintervalsplay morestructuraland indispensablerolesin several
of the latter(e.g., Rast, Bayati, and Huzzam) than does the ascending
neutralsixthdegreeof Arab Hijaz, and the neutralsecond degreeused
in the Hicaz of Turkishart music; neutral intervalsnaturallyresist
incorporation intomajorand minorchords,and thusthemodesin which
theseare seen as indispensableare avoided in acculturatedmusics.
In Turkishartmusic,thetermHicaz actuallydenotesfourrelatedbut
different makams.Of these,Hicaz properhas a raisedsixthdegree,while
theHumayunsub-modefeaturestheloweredsixthcorresponding to Arab
Hijaz and thescale discussed in this The
article. Humayun indeed,
variant,
is farmore widespreadin urban and folk musicsthroughoutthe areas
consideredhere.Itsgreaterpopularityin acculturatedmusicsmay derive
partlyfromthefactthat,withitsloweredsixthdegreeaffording a major
II chord,it accommodateschordalaccompanimentfarbetterthanHicaz
proper. In the syncreticmusics discussed here, the neutral intervals
employedin Hicaz and othertraditionalmodes are generallyadjustedto
more diatonicpitcheswhen combinedwith major-minorharmonies.
Anothercommonscale throughoutmuchof thearea in consideration
herehas thefollowingstructure: D E F G#A B C D. Slobin(1980: 314-17)
and Beregovski(1967: 549-59) have summarizedsome aspects of the
distributionof this scale throughoutEasternEurope, notingthat it is
commonin Rumania(especiallyMoldavia), theUkraine,and in traditional
Yiddishfolksong.(The scale also formsthebasis,of theTurkishmakam
Nikriz,althoughthatmode differs melodicpatterns.)
in itscharacteristic
We shall note further uses of thisscale below. Scholarshave variously
labeled the scale "UkranianDoric" (Idelsohn 1967: 185) and "altered
Dorian" (Beregovski1967: 549ff);Greekand Yiddishmusicians,mean-
while,referto it s as piraiotikominoreand misheberakh,respectively.
Here we shall followthepracticeof Slobin and referto it as the "raised-
fourthscale."
The raised-fourth thandoes
scale lendsitselfless well to harmonization
theHicaz-typescale (see, e.g., Sapoznik and Sokolow 1987: 21). Hence
melodiesemployingthisscale oftentend to be more stronglymodal in
character,and are frequently accompaniedonlyby tonicdrones(see, e.g.,
Beregovski1982: 582). A majorchordon theseconddegreeoftenappears
in thefunction ofsecondarydominant,preceding a dominantchordwhich,
however,requirestheintroduction oftheraisedseventh.Similarly,major

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MANUEL MODAL HARMONY/ 79

or minorsubdominantchordsare fairlycommon,althoughbothrequire
loweringof the sharp fourthdegree.
The raised-fourth scale, as the reader may note, is intervallically
equivalentto thatof Hijaz, differing only in the placementof the tonic
scale fromD resemblesHijaz fromE). Hence, in many
(i.e., raised-fourth
ofthemusicsdiscussedbelow,modalmodulationsbetweenthesetwoscales
frequentlyexploitthiscongruity.
A thoroughand detailedtreatment of harmonicand modal practicein
the diverseregionsconsideredis beyond the scope of a singlearticle.
Nevertheless,in thefollowingpages we shall brieflysketchsome of the
uses of chordalaccompanimentin conjunctionwiththeseothermodes.

Greece
The questionofmodal harmonyin Greekfolkmusiccannotbe treated
in such a limitedspace, both because of theextraordinary
satisfactorily
richnessand diversityof the music as well as the dearth of extant
musicologicalresearch.The studieson modeavailableto thisauthoreither
distortthemodesbyrelyingon inaccuratetranscriptions (e.g., Rosantonaki
1947), or focusonlyon specificregions(e.g., Chianis1967); mostimpor-
tantlyforour purposes,theydo not discusstheincorporationof chordal
accompaniment-a featurewhichhas been standardin mostgenresfor
several decades at least.
The study of modal practice in Greek folk music, and of the
incorporationof chordal accompanimenttherein,ultimatelyinvolves
attemptingto reconstructthe mannerin which diverseforeignmusical
influenceshave interactedin theGreekcommunitieswhichflourishedin
several parts of the Ottoman empire. We have mentionedthe initial
uncertainty regardingthehistoricalrelationships
betweenthemodesused
in contemporaryGreeksecular music,in Byzantinechurchmusic, and
in OttomanTurkishmusics.Modalityin generalcan be said to have been
strengthened by theByzantineChurch,and by Ottomanruleof Greece,
whichlastedroughlyfrom1456until1829. The largeand influential Greek
merchantcommunities in Constantinople-thetruecenterofGreekchurch
music-and Smyrnaalso fosteredsecular musics which were heavily
Turkish-influenced. (Athens was a relativelyprovincial, Albanian-
dominatedtownuntilthelatenineteenth century).At thesametime,Greek
culture(especiallyin Greeceitself)had been subjectto strongEuropean,
and especiallyItalianinfluencesincethesixteenthcentury,ifnot earlier.
Some of theGreekislands,particularly thoseservingas seaports,fostered
highlycosmopolitancultures.Syra,forexample,withitsimportantport
of Hermoupolis,hostedan opera house fromthe1820s. Greekmerchant
communities,fromParis to Moscow, also maintainedtieswithrelatives
and associatesin Greece itself,furtherpromotingEuropeanculture.By
the nineteenthcentury,Italian light songs (cantades) were popular
throughout muchofthemainlandas well as manyislands.5Otherislands,
meanwhile,remainedprovincialoutposts.
In spiteofthestrength of Europeaninfluence,
muchofGreekfolkmusic
remainsmodal in character.However, manyfolkmelodies,as we shall

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80 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

discussbelow, stronglysuggestsimplechordprogressions, especially,for

instance,an oscillationbetweentonicand subtonicchords.Unfortunately,
it may be impossibleto ascertainthe age of such chordally-suggestive
melodies,most of whichare now renderedwithchordal guitarand/or
lauto accompaniment.
Evidencesuggeststhatin someurbangenres,thepracticeofharmonizing
modalmelodieswas in vogueas earlyas thefirstdecadesofthenineteenth
century.The mostsignificant documentsin thisregardare thePann and
Rouschitzky collections ofpiano piecesbased on contemporary Rumanian
urbandance pieces, compiledin theearly1830s.6These containat least
one allegedlyGreekpiece, evidentlyderivingfromthe GreekPhanariot
eliterepresentingtheOrthodoxPatriarchate and servingas surrogaterulers
fortheOttomansuntil1821. The piece does not differin stylefromthe
syncretic Rumanianpiecesin thesamemanuscript. Thesewillbe discussed
below; at thispoint,itmaysuffice to notethatthepiececonsistsofa series
of sectionsin scales corresponding to theHijaz, Hijaz Kar, and piraiotiko
modes,withstaticAlberti-style chordalaccompaniments in thelefthand.
It maybe difficult, however,to establishany relationship betweenthe
modal harmonyof the Rumanianmanuscriptsand similarpracticesin
rebetika,themajor twentieth centuryGreekurbanpopular music,and,
forthatmatter,in Greekfolkmusic,as itis possiblethattheincorporation
of harmonyin thesegenresmay have been an early twentieth-century
development.Nevertheless,modal practices in several rural genres
illustratefeatureswhich,as we have suggestedabove, foreshadowand
certainlyfacilitatedthe introductionof chordal accompaniment.7
Particularlysignificant for our purposes here is the aforementioned
practiceof structuring dance piecesand othersongsby stringing together
discretesectionsconsistingof melodiesor improvisations usingdifferent
modes and tonicground-notes.In manygenresof Greekfolkmusic,the
lauto, a pluckedlute,would strumtheroot and fifthas a droneaccom-
panimentduringthesesections;theoccasionaladditionofthethirddegree
would renderthe accompanimenttriadic. Traditionally,this accom-
panimentwould constitutestaticdronesin autonomoussectionsrather
thanchordsin hierarchically relatedprogressions.Yet whenthesections
are short,therelationship betweentheground-notes ofthediscretesections
naturallyacquiressome hierarchicflavor,and thedyads or triadsbegin
to acquire the characterof chord progressions.8
Evenmoreimportant in Greekmodes,is thesubtonic(or "hypotonic"),
i.e. thetonebelow thetonic-usually theflatseventhor, less often,the
sixth-which functionsin certainpassages as a secondaryground-note,
temporarilyreplacingthe tonic as a modal referencepoint. Thus, for
example, scales roughlycorrespondingto the Dorian are common in
Greece,in whichtheflatseventhdegreeservesas thesubtonic;sections
of pieces in such modes may thenappear to modulateto a major-type
scale on thatdegree.Veryoften,the "modulations"betweentonic and
subtonicare regularand rapid enoughto resemblechordaloscillations,
in thiscase betweenminortonicand major subtonicchords.This usage
ofthesubtonicappearsto be traditional in Greekand westernYugoslavian

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MANUEL MODAL HARMONY / 81

of
modal practice,and indeed is one of thefundamentalcharacteristics
what may
Greekfolkmusic.It is of interesthereinsofaras it represents
be an incipientformof triadicmovement,whichlendsitselfnaturallyto
syncreticchordalaccompaniment,such as is frequently providedtoday
on lauto and/orguitar.The oscillationofminortonicand majorsubtonic
chords is illustratedin the followingexcerptof a strophicRoumeli
kalamatiano(folkdance in 3+4 meter):9

Example3:
Am
to vle - ki - no to vu - no to
pis pi-
G Amn
1 IFI I I . I
o psi - la (a-) po ta - la pu' hi an da a-
G Am
g r-
F : 'i F ifz F "
I"J' F u r
? a-man
ri an-da ri- - tsa sting gor - fi pu'
G Am

hi an -da a - ri an-da ri- tsa sting gor- fi

In thispiece the simpleVII-i chordal accompaniment(arpeggiatedby a

lauto), could be seen as latentin the melodyitself,as in the suggestion
of G major triadsin mm. 3-5 and 10-11.
Variantsof theDorian-typescale used in thisexampleappear to be the
singlemost commonmode-typein Greekfolkmusic.'0 In many cases,
however,the second degreeof thisscale is intonedhalf-flat,especially
when sung, or played on fiddleor clarinet;typicalmelodic patternsin
such cases lend themode further affinitiesto theTurkishmakam Uppak.
As in the example above, a sustainedor stressedsecond degreein the
melodyoftenis accompaniedby thesubtonicchord.The neutralintonation
oftheseconddegreemayclashwiththechordalaccompaniment, especially
since the lauto and guitarmay "adjust" theirown accompanimentby
playing,in succession,a major subtonic,followedby a minorsubtonic
chord; or the two instruments may even play both chords simultan-
eously.I
Consistentuse of eitherraised or lowered second by the vocalist or
melodicinstrument does notpose suchproblemsofintonation. Thus,when
the second is flat throughoutthe piece, the chordal accompaniment
generallyaccordswiththetonalresourcesof thePhrygianscale, stressing
such progressionsas i iv III II vii i. The followingexcerptof a strophic
syrtosillustratestheuse of such patterns.The melodyhereis played by
a violin, withchordsprovidedby lauto and guitar;a bass-obviously
a modern accretion-outlines the harmonies,which are at any rate
compatiblewith,if not latentin the melody.'2

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82 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

Example4:
) =150
Am

G C

On-AT-

The Hijaz-typescale, which,as we have noted,figuresprominently in

Greekchurchmusic,is also quitecommonin Greekfolkmusic,occurring
in roughlyelevenpercentofone largesampleoffolksongs(Rosantonaki
1947: 55ff).Its usage is fairlywidespreadin mainlandgenressuch as
kalamatianos,klephticballads, tsamiko,and rebetika.Here thelowered
seventhdegreefunctions as thesubtonic(Chianis1967:82), and thechordal
accompanimentfollowsthepatternsdiscussedabove in connectionwith
thismode,thatis, withvii and II chordsservingas "dominant"neighbors,
and the iv chord as an importantsubdominant.
The raised-fourth scale dicussed above is also common in the same
genres. It is generallyharmonizedin themanneroutlinedin our previous
discussion of this scale, occasionally with the addition of coloristic
diminished seventhchordsconsistingof thetonic,third,fourth,and sixth
degrees. Sectional modulations frequentlyexploit the enharmonic
equivalencebetweenthismodeand theHijaz-typescalebuilton thesecond
degree.
It is not possibleto reconstruct withprecisionthehistoricalprocessof
incorporationof chordal accompanimentinto Greekfolkmusic. Some
earlyrecordings of ruralgenres(e.g., ofclarinetistKarakosta,datingfrom
the1930s)do featuretriadicfigures renderedon thelautoaccompaniment,
suggestingthatthepracticewas by no means unknown.Further,as we
have observed,chordalsuccessionseven ifnot explicitlyarticulatedby
an accompanyinginstrument,seem to be stronglyimplicitin many
traditional melodies,althoughas in anyorallytransmitted art,"tradition"
may well extendno more than a generationback.
We can tracewithmuchgreateraccuracytheincorporation ofharmony
intotheurbanpopularmusicthatevolvedin theAthensand Piraeusslums
and waterfront areas in theearlytwentieth century, whenthesetwincities
were floodedwith over a millionrefugees.This music,called rebetika,
was a productof thelumpenproletariansubculturethatemergedduring
this dramaticurbanizationprocess. While some of the migrantswere
dispossessedpeasants fromthe Greek countryside,the majoritywere
formerinhabitantsof Smyrnaand Istanbulexpelledin 1922. These latter
broughtwith themtheirown Turkish-influenced urban musics,which
eventuallyevolvedintoa commercialGreekpopularmusicin conjunction
with the rise of the mass media.
The earliestrebetikarecordings, and especiallythosein theSmyrnastyle,
are rootedin makam (Greekdromos)and stronglyTurkishin character
and style.Accordingly,theymake verylittleuse of chords. Moreover,

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MANUEL MODAL HARMONY / 83

themakamlaremployedincludemodes withprominentneutralintervals
and chromaticscales (e.g., Saba, Segah) which do not lend themselves
to accompanimentwithmajor and minortriads.Subsequentrecordings
in themoremainstreamrebetikastylereflectthedeclineof such modes,
and the correspondingly greateruse of chordal accompanimentsand
modulations.Rebetikapieces, in accordancewith theiremergenceas a
commercialpopular genre, soon began to acquire the characterof
structured songs,withverses,refrains, and definitive cadences,ratherthan
simplyconstituting loose aggregatesofdiscretesectionsin different modes.
Hence chordal progressionsacquired increasingimportance,and soon
came to reflectmoregenuinelystructuraldesignand functionthan did,
forexample,thesimple,staticmodulationsof Balkan dance tunes.The
chords were generallyaccommodatedto the prevailingscales used in
rebetika:Westernmajorand minor;Mixolydian,Phrygian,and Aeolian
scales, and theraised-fourth and Hijaz-typescales. The lattertwo scales
wereinvariablyharmonizedmoreor less in themannerdiscussedabove,
althoughwithfrequent and increasinglysophisticated modulations.Modal
"Mediterranean" harmonythuscoexistedwithWesterncommonpractice,
althoughnot in such a predictableand formalizedmanneras in the
Andalusianfandango.
Fromthe1940son, particularly undertheinfluence ofVassilisTsitsanis,
Europeaninfluence increased,withevenmoreemphasison harmony.The
traditionalmodescame to be used essentially as merescales,-and interest
in and familiaritywithTurkish-derived modal theoryamong practicing
musiciansdwindled. As much of the lumpenproletariatthat fostered
rebetika became assimilated into the urban working classes and
bourgeoisie,rebetikaitselflost its underworldassociationsand evolved
intoa commercialpopularmusic(generally referred to as bouzoukimusic)
enjoyed by all classes of Greeks (exceptrebetikapurists).
Commercialas mainstream bouzoukimusicmaybe, itremainsstrongly
Greekin vocal styleand generalcharacter;moreover,manysongscontinue
to use, whethersystematically or not, the Hijaz-typeand raised-fourth
scales, withtraditionalharmonizationpatterns.The excerpton p. 84, in
the9-beatzebekikometer,illustrates a typicalusageoftheHijaz-typescale.
Note theuse of IIb and subtonicvii chordsas dominantneighborsto the
tonic,and theprogressionto themajor,thenminorsubdominant,which
itselfparallelsthestandardHicaz introduction of theraisedsixthdegree
(evc) followedby its lowered form.'3

Turkey
Turkeyholds a special importancein the studyof modal practicein
theeasternMediterraneanand Balkanregions,sinceit is themainsource
of the Oriental musical influencespervading all these areas. While
coexistingwith regional EasternEuropean traditions,Turkishmusic,
promotedbothby Ottomanpoliticalhegemonyand itsown sophistication
and complexity,constituteda musical lingua francainfluencing urban
musicsthroughoutthearea and lendingthema cohesionwhichenables
us to treatthe entireregionas a distinct,if internallydiverseentity.

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84 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

Example5:

( u
us)(accordion:)
G Cm Eb Eb D

D Cm Eb D (Cm Eb D) Cm Eb D (Cm Eb D)

a thi- ka kha - rikar- te ris k ton ge - ro - so kha -nis

Cm D Cm Eb D

o-so i- par-khi to kra-si ko - roi - thothenme pia - nis

G Gm

an thenste-rep- sun ta - kras - ia kian then-taka to - sti so

Cm D Eb D

then me si-ko - nes akh kha - re pi - so bam-be - si pi - so

As suggestedabove, theHicaz-typescale is ofparticularrelevancehere,

as it achievedsuchpopularityin theurbanfolkand acculturatedpopular
musicsof theareas discussedhere. Details of theearlyevolutionof the
makam itselfare unclear, especially since similarmodes are used in
Byzantineand Ashkenazic Hebrew chant; in Arab musics, the mode
appears to have been extantin some formby the thirteenth century.'4
AlthoughnotwidelyusedinTurkishmusicbeforetheeighteenth century,1"
by theearlynineteenth centuryHicaz had becomewidespreadin Turkish
classical music and relatedgenres,especiallymodernTurkishpopular
music and urban gypsymusic. Thus, while the scale may have been
employedin variousBalkanand EasternMediterranean musicsbeforethe
Ottomanperiod,itsusage and popularitywerestronglyreinforced by its
prominence in Turkishmusicfrom the turn of thenineteenthcenturyon.
Chordalharmonizations ofmelodieswereadoptedlaterin Turkeythan
in its formerEuropeancolonies,largely,no doubt,because untilits last
decades OttomanTurkeywas not subjectto thesame WesternEuropean
influences as weretheBalkans.Indeed,whilethesultanshostedEuropean
composersin Istanbulfromthe1820son, itwas notuntilthemodernization
and Westernization programsinauguratedby Kemal Ataturk(governed
1923-38)thatEurpoeanmusicwas introducedthroughoutthe country.
Nevertheless,both traditionalTurkishart and folk musics featurethe
practiceof modal modulationsthat, as we have argued above, could
facilitatethe incorporationof chordal accompaniment.

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MANUEL MODAL HARMONY / 85

An importantcategoryof earlytwentieth-century urbanmusicwas the

livelyinstrumental entertainment music(especiallykarpilama,ciftetelli,
assorted dance pieces, and improvisedtaksim) played by gypsies,in
ensemblesof clarinet,kanun, oud, ciimbiip(lute), and/or violin, and
dombak. Such musics,and theirantecedentsplayed on zurna (oboe) and
barreldrum,have close affinities withtheircounterparts, also playedby
gypsies,throughout Greeceand theBalkans. Feldmanbelievesthatthese
gypsy styles of Turkey, Bulgaria, Macedonia, and Rumania exerted
considerablemutualinfluence upon each otherthroughout theirformative
periods, and that one can indeed speak of a gypsyinternationalstyle
throughout thearea datingfromtheeighteenth century.'6As heardtoday
in such places as Istanbul's Sulukuleh and Cicek Paisaje, this music
continuesto be predominantly modal in character,whilefeaturing tonic
modulationsand occasionalplagal droneshifts,forexample,to thefourth
degreein passages in Hicaz.
Suchmusicis ofinterest hereprimarilybecauseoftheinfluence itexerted
upon theevolutionofmainstream Turkishcommercial popularmusicfrom
1950 on. The latterperiodsaw theunprecedented urbanizationofTurkish
society, as rural migrantsflooded Turkishcities-especially Istanbul,
whose populationgrewfromless thanone millionin 1950 to over seven
millionat present.The subsequent"ruralization"of the populationsof
Istanbuland otherTurkishcitiesresultedin theemergenceof new social
classes of proletarianizedmigrants,withnew culturalaesthetics,and the
subsequentemergenceof new formsof commercialpopular music.
Some of thisnewTurkishpop remainscloselyrootedin ruralAnatolian
music,particularly tiirkii.Urbanversionsofthismusictendto retaintheir
modal characterand make relativelylittleuse of any sortof harmony.
However, chordal accompanimenthas come to play an importantrole
in much urban popular music of recentdecades. Its incorporationhas
occasioned,or accompaniedthesame typesofchangesas in Greekurban
music. Thus, neutralintervals,and the modes using them,have been
largelyreplacedby otherscales, some of whichbear onlyloose affinities
with particularmakamlar.
The Hicaz-typescale, or variantsthereof,figuresprominently in this
music. Chordal accompaniment,whetherprovided orchestrallyor on
electricguitar,followsthepatternsoutlinedabove in reference to thisscale,
and requiresno further commenthere.Also commonare songsin a scale
roughlycorresponding to thePhrygian,occasionallywithsome usage of
theneutralseconddegree.Scalarpatterns in suchsongsbearsomeaffinities
to Uppak,Huseyni,and HicazkarKurdimakamlar,butoftenfailto exhibit
the characteristicmelodicfeaturesof thosemodes. In thesecases, as in
flamenco,and in the modernGreeksyrtosand kalamatianosusingthe
same scales,thechordalaccompaniment derivesfromthemodalresources,
affording progressionssuch as thefamiliariv III II i. Example6 below,
a refrain-likeostinatofroma contemporary pop song, is typicalin this
respect:7

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86 / 1989YEARBOOKFOR TRADITIONALMUSIC

Example6:
E Phrygian:
iv III II III vii i

J=200 Am G F G Dm Em

Rumania
Rumaniais important in thisstudynotonlyforitscontemporary music,
but especiallyforthe role it appears to have played as an earlysitefor
theconfluenceof WesternEuropeanharmonicpracticesand non-Western
modality.As mentionedabove, evidencesuggeststhatRumanianmusic
may have exertedsome influenceon Turkishmusic,as it is known,for
example,thatRumaniangypsymusiciansfigured prominently in Ottoman
courtsfromat leastas earlyas theeighteenth century.Farmoreextensive,
however,was Turkishmusicalinfluenceon courtlyas well as folkmusic
in Rumania,mostofwhichit governed,directlyor indirectly, from1417
to 1877.
Garfiashas outlinedaspects of the Turkishinfluenceon Rumanian
music.Turkishceremonialand militaryensembleswerein regularuse in
Rumaniaby thistime,and Turkishinstruments and musicalterminology
survive to this day in Rumania. Urban gypsy musicians played an
importantrole in preservingTurkishmusical characteristics. With the
declineof theOttomancourts,gypsymusiciansformerly employedtherein
dispersedthroughout thecountryas professional entertainers, synthesizing
theircourtmusicswithindigenoustraditions. The lautareascamusicplayed
by thesegypsiesretainedstrongTurkishaffinities in its use of additive
meters,terminology, and Turkishmodes-especially Nikriz,Segah, and
above all, Hicaz. These modes were,and stillare generallyemployedin
thecontextofdancepiecesconsisting offreelyaddedsectionsin contrasting
modes and tonics(Garfias1981).
The presenceof theGreekPhanariotaristocracyin Rumania appears
to have furthercontributed betweenRumania,
to musicalcross-fertilization
OttomanTurkey,and Greece.By themid-1700s,however,theemerging
Rumanianbourgeoisiewas beginningto play an increasingly important
role in patronageof urbanmusic.The piano was thefavoredinstrument
of thisgrowingmiddleclass, whichimportedfamilymusic tutorsfrom
Germanyand sponsoredpublicationof manuscriptsof contemporary
popular songs, adapted to piano. The earliestmanuscriptsin linear
notation(the Pann and Rouschitzky,fromthe 1830s) are of particular
interest hereforthemannerin whichchordalaccompanimentis adapted
thereinto chromaticmodes of Turkishor EasternEuropeanorigin.The
manuscripts thusconstitute by fartheearliestdocumentationwe have of
modal harmony in the entireregion. Most significantin the Pann
manuscriptare theassorted"secularsongs" (cintecede lume) associated
withgypsymusicians.As theintroduction to theirmodernrecompilation
states, thereshow most clearly"the fightfor supremacybetweenthe
Easternand Westernmusicalcultures"(Unionof Composers,19757:22).

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MANUEL MODAL HARMONY / 87

Aside fromsome simplepieces in common-practice Westernstyle,the

Rumanianpieces in the manuscriptare identicalin termsof styleand
texture.Each consistsof simple right-handmelody, with Alberti-style
chordal-arpeggiated left-handaccompaniment;such a texturesuggests
imitationof an ensembleof melodyand chordalinstruments (probably
violinand cymbalom(tambal)zither,respectively). All piecesare in duple
metre,althoughthephraselengthsare frequently irregularand uneven.
The phrases,indeed,oftenconsistofmelodieswithstaticchordaldrones,
and thusare constructed alongthesameadditive,non-directional principle
as the aforementioned dance pieces commonthroughoutthe region.In
some cases, a chordmay last onlyone or two bars, suggesting some sort
of incipiently intentionalharmonicmotion.The melodiesthemselvesare
modal, thefavoritescales beingthefollowing(or transposedequivalents
thereof):A Bb C#D E F G#A (corresponding roughlyto thescale of the
TurkishmakamHicazkar); D E F G#A Bb C#(i.e., thesame pitches,but
froma different tonic, and sharngthe lower tetrachordof the afore-
mentionedraised-fourth scale); themajorscale; and themajorscale with
raised fourthand flatseventh.
The excerptbelow (example7), from#28in thecurrenteditioncited,
"CintecGresescFacut de Rusinschi,"is entirelytypical.As the analysis
below illustrates,itconsistsof a seriesof discretesectionswhosemelodies
scales, all of whichemploytheaugmentedsecondsso
are set in different
characteristicof Rumanianmusic.The modulations,or chordsuccessions,
as the case may be, exploitmodal enharmonicequivalencies(e.g., as in
themodulationbetweenC Hicazkarand G Hicaz in m. 10). In somecases,
such as the modulationfromG Hicaz to the alteredC minorin m. 13,
thesequenceresemblesa dominant-tonic progression.Nevertheless, there
are no definitivecadences, and on the whole, the relationshipbetween
thechords,or thestaticdrones,as thecase may be, is not functionalin
the Western sense; the modulations seem meanderingrather than
teleological.At the same time,however,the chordal movement,while
incongruent withWesterncommonpractice,does not conformeitherto
the syncreticMediterraneanpatterndiscussedin thisarticle.
The scalar successions,withtheirTurkishmodal counterparts, maybe
representedas follows:
mm. 2-9: C Db E F G Ab B (C Hicazkar)
mm. 10-12: G Ab B C D (-) F (G Hicaz)
mm. 13-16: C D Eb F#G Ab-A B
The Pann and Rouschitzkypiecesare significantin thattheyrevealthat
the confluenceof chordal practices and non-Westernmodality had
commenced,howeveridiosyncratically, by theearly1800s. It is difficult,
to tracetherelationshipbetweenthegenresrepresented
nevertheless, in
this manuscript-includingthe "Greek" song discussed above-and
modernurban syncreticmusicselsewherein EasternEurope. We know
thatgypsymusicians,whose musicprovidedthemodel forthesepiano
pieces,perpetuatedthe"secularsong" traditionand maintainedtieswith
othergypsycommunitiesthroughoutthearea (Garfias1981: 102; Union

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88 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

Example 7:

t3

of Composers 1975?: 21). This song traditionsurvivestoday in the

aforementionedlautari music, which, like the other syncreticmusics
discussedhere,frequently usesHicaz and raised-fourth
scales,withchordal
accompanimentas describedabove (see Garfias 1981: 98-106). Also
noteworthy is thedoina (a free-rhythmicsongform),whichoftenemploys
the raised-fourthscale, especiallywhen played by gypsy(and klezmer)
musicians;harmoniesused in thedoina are simplerand morestaticthan
thoseaccompanying,forexample,songsset to theHicaz- and Hicazkar-
typescales. Rumaniangypsyballads, oftenof Greekor Balkan origin,
also employ the raised-fourth scale and its standardharmonizations.

Hungary
In termsof modal harmony,Hungarylies on theperipheryof our field
of enquiry. Hungarian urban music has tended to be more Western
Europeanin styleand orientationthantheothermusicsdiscussedabove.
Nevertheless,certainHungariangenres,and especiallythose associated
withgypsymusicians,do illustrateto some degreethe aforementioned
"fightforsupremacybetweentheEasternand Westernmusicalcultures,"
althoughthe latterhad clearlywon the battleby the early nineteenth
century.
The Ottomansruledmuch of Hungaryfrom1526 untilbeing ousted
by theAustriansin 1718. DuringthisperiodHungariangypsymusicians
performedin Ottoman courts, and many of them returnedto their
homeland,bringingtheirTurkish-informed musicswiththem.Hence it
is notsurprisingthattheHijaz-typescale is foundin seventeenth-century
Hungarianfolksongs(Sarosi1971: 39, 58, 44). Kodaly (1971: 6) notesthat
theraised-fourth scale was also popularizedby gypsies,who dominated
professionalmusic performance fromthe late eighteenth
centuryon.
UnderVienneseinfluence,Europeanharmonycame to dominatemost
Hungarian urban music such that the Hijaz and raised-fourth scales
persistedonlyin gypsymusic,ratherthanin genuineHungarianfolksong
perse (Kodaly 1971: 73-4).Gypsyperformers werenotedfor"exoticizing"
folksongsand populartuneswithaugmentedseconds,pedal drones,and

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MANUEL MODAL HARMONY / 89

characteristicornamentation(Sarosi 1971: 96). Such featuressurvivein

the verbunkos,an nineteenth-century urban song genrecomposed by
known(ifmusicallyilliterate)musicians,and in thecafemusicperformed
by moderngypsyviolinists.Still,theharmoniesused in thesegenresare
predominantly European (see, e.g., Sarosi 1971: 111).
For a time,some sortof modal harmonyappears to have survivedin
the music of ruralgypsybands. While Kodaly (1971: 5) denouncedthe
gypsies'use of"inappropriate harmonies"in theirrenditions ofHungarian
folktunes,Sarosi's assessmentof thepractice(1971: 226) is moreappre-
ciative, and is worthquotingin full:
This kindofharmonicthinking is rootedin an age wheneveninhigher
composed music harmony was not functionalbut modal. This
harmonizationof archaic character,freshand beautiful,was not
somethinginventedby villagepeople or ruralgypsymusicians,but
an inheritancehanded down fromabove, in all probabilityfromthe
musicallifeofaristocraticresidencesin theseventeenth and eighteenth
centuries.
If Sarosi's hypothesisis correctin principle,the Rumanianpiano pieces
in thePann and Rouschitzky mss. discussedabove mayrepresent another
instanceof "inheritancefromabove", transmitting the use of chordal
harmoniesfromaristocraticto popular realms.Nevertheless,it remains
unclearwhethersuch practicesemergedfromabove, or frombelow, as
it is quite possible, for example, that the Rumanian manuscriptmay
representbourgeoisstylizationsof pre-existing urban folk traditions.

KlezmerMusic
We have mentionedabove how Jewishklezmorim servedas performers
of secularinstrumental entertainment musicthroughoutEasternEurope.
Playingforboth Jewishand non-Jewish weddingsand otherfestivities,
klezmorimperformeda wide varietyof musicalgenres.Aside fromthe
sherand freilach,thebulk of theklezmerrepertoire consistedof regional
genressuch as thepolka, quadrille,mazurka,doina, joc (zhok), bulgar,
and instrumental versionsof assorted(and especiallyRumaniangypsy)
songs.Despitesuchvariedsources,theklezmerrepertoire variedlittlefrom
regionto region.'"Thus, because of theirco-territoriality withso many
otherethnicand regionalgroups,klezmorimoftenfunctioned as vehicles
forthetransmission ofregionalgenresto otherareas. In thisrespect,their
role as musicalconduitsresembledthatofgypsies,and, indeed,evidence
suggeststhatthetwo musiciangroupsofteninteractedand overlapped.
A detailedoverviewofmodal and harmonicpracticesin klezmermusic
is beyond thescope of thispaper. Much klezmermusicfollowsWestern
conventions ofmajorand minortonality.Also common,however,is usage
ofHijaz-typeand raised-fourth scales,bothofwhichwerefamiliarto most
AshkenaziJewsfromtheirusage in easternHebrewchant.19Beregovsky
(1982: 295-6) notes thatthe Hicaz-typescale, whichYiddishmusicians
referred to as ahava raba or freygish is foundin roughly
(cf."Phrygian"?),
one quarterofinstrumental Yiddishfolktunes,and thattheraised-fourth

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90 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

scale appears in some 12-15% of songs in thesame category(especially

Jewishdoinas). In klezmermusic,thesescales are generallyharmonized
in the same manneras the otheracculturatedmusics discussedin this
article.20

Conclusions
It has longbeen customaryto assumethat,excludingmodernWestern
innovationsand purelypercussivemusics,onlyone significant tradition
of chordal harmonyhas appeared since the Renaissance. Most other
musical traditions,fromAmericanIndian chantsto Javanesegamelan
music, operate under fundamentallymodal rather than harmonic
principles.With theproliferation of acculturatedpopular musicsin the
twentieth century, it has been recognized thatmanynon-Western musics
have cometo employsomeformofsimplified common-practice harmony.
This articlehas attemptedto demonstratethat at least one otherpan-
regionalformof harmonicusage exists.21 Althoughnotentirely unrelated
to Westerntonality,thistraditionis autonomous,widespread,relatively
consistent, and clearlydistinctfromcommon-practice Westernharmony.
The "Mediterranean tonality"describedin thisarticlecan be regarded
as a formof modal harmonyin the sense that,first,thevocabularyof
chordsand progressions employedderivesfromthetonalresourcesofnon-
Westernmodes, and second, the harmonizationsgenerallyplay a less
structural role thanin Westerncommonpractice.In all the examplesin
this essay, the chordal accompanimentsconsisteitherof static, non-
directionaloscillationsbetweena tonic and a secondarychord, or else
theyfunctionas enhancements ofa melodywhichremainspredominantly
modal. The ostinato-like binaryalternation of twochords,illustrated here
in ex. 2-3,is commonin manyworldpopularmusics,and can be regarded
as harmonicallyfunctionalonly in the most qualifiedsense; when the
secondarychord(e.g., IIb in ex. 2, and VIIb in ex. 3) derivesfrommodal
ratherthanmajor-minor resources,thenthemodal,ratherthancommon-
practice character of the harmonybecomesparticularly clear. Similarly,
flamencoguitarharmonies, as theymaybe, function
richand sophisticated
essentially as ornaments to a fundamentally modalmelody;eventheGreek
bouzoukisongincludedhere(example5), whileincorporating an extended
chordalpatternwithinthe standardizedframeworkof a popular song,
usesa melodywhoseformand character deriveprimarilyfromconventions
of Hicaz makam,as employedby Greekmusicians.Such an ornamental,
secondaryusage of chordalaccompanimentis thusqualitativelydistinct
fromcommon-practice harmony.Naturally,thedegreeto whicha chordal
accompaniment is structural ratherthanthedecorativeis difficultto assess,
and is inherently subjectiveto someextent.Moreover,manysongsor styles
maylie in intermediate positionsin a continuumbetweenmodal harmony
and common-practice tonality.Such ambiguities, however,do notnegate
the fundamentaldifferences in functionbetweenthesetwo approaches.
One mightexpectthatacculturatedArab urbanpopular musicwould
exhibitsome of thesame uses of chordalaccompanimentas discussedin
thisarticle.Arabmodalpractice,indeed,is veryclosein styleand structure

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MANUEL MODAL HARMONY / 91

to that of Turkishart music, and the Arab world has been exposed to
manyof thesameWesterninfluences, fromtheopeningofan operahouse
in Cairo in 1871 to thepresentinundationofmass-mediated Westernpop.
Yet it is significant
thata synthesisof modalitywithchordalaccompani-
menthas not occurredin therealmofArab urbanmusic.Arab musicians
have indeedborrowedheavilyfromtheWest,especiallyin suchparameters
as orchestration, pedagogicaluse ofnotationand sol-fa,and thetendency
towardroteensembleplayingratherthantraditionalheterophony.Yet,
except in thoroughlyacculturatedand lesser genreslike the so-called
"Franco-Arab"pop, Arab music has eschewedchordal harmony.Arab
musicthusretainstheneutralintervalsand chromaticmodes that,in the
musics discussedabove, were generallysacrificedin orderto facilitate
chordal accompaniment.EvidentlyArab musiciansand audienceshave
chosento regardthesefeatures,along withsuch elementsas vocal style,
as "centraltraits"too importantto forsake.Such differences between
regionalsyncretic adaptationsillustrate
how acculturationis oftena highly
selectiveprocess.
It is hoped thatthisarticlewill inspirefurtherresearchby individual
area expertsintobroaderaspectsas well as detailsof theuse of chordal
harmonyin theregionsdiscussedhere. Such researchshould entailnot
onlyfurther explorationofhistoricalsources(especiallymanuscripts),but
also it mustkeep up with the constantnew developmentsin the world
of acculturatedpopularmusics.These latter,ratherthanforsaking native
traditionsin obsequiousimitationof theWest,are blendingold and new,
and indigenous and Western elementsin syntheseswhose constant
proliferation promisesto providemusicologists withperpetually new fields
of inquiry.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The numerousreferences to Walter (Zev) Feldman,of the Universityof Pennsylvania,

giveonlypartialindicationoftheassistancegrantedmeby thisauthorityon EasternEuropean
and Turkishmusics.Gratitudeis also due to Harold Powersand DieterChristensen fortheir
manythoughtful comments, and to LynnDion and AliciaSvigalsfortheirassistance.I retain,
however,fullresponsibility for the contentsof thispaper.

NOTES

1. Fandango de Alosno, sung by the HermanosToronjo on Magna antologiadel cante

flamenco(Hispavox S 66.201, VII: A, 1). The transcription,likeothersin thisarticle,
is transposed.For anotherfandangotranscription and analysis,see Manuel 1986.
2. Thus, thefandangomaybe performed eitherin straightforward Andalusianfolkstyle,
or in flamencostyle,withcharacteristic
vocal melismasand, frequently,in freerhythm.
3. Soleares de Triana, sung by Antonio Mairena, on Hispavox S/C66.201, VII:A, 3.
4. WalterFeldman,personalcommunication.Feldmanfurther notesthatGreekByzantine
chant as practiced today employs several non-diatonicmodes, including one
correspondingto theHicaz scale-type;moreover,certainstandardmodulationpractices
in makamHicaz adoptedin Turkishartmusicin thelast two centuriesare traditional
in GreekByzantinechant.Ifthelatterpracticesare as old as theirperformers maintain

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92 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

themto be, thenTurkishHicaz and otherOttomanmusicalfeaturesmay have in fact

been stronglyinfluencedby Greekchurchmusic,and theusage of Hicaz-typemodes
in EasternEuropemaypredatetheOttomanperiod.Also see theearlierworkofHeinrich
Husmann,of Greekmusicologistssuch as Michaelides(1948: 9), and the references
to recentresearchby Rudolph Brandlreportedin Powers 1988: 214.
5. Angelikiand Charles Keil, personalcommunication.
6. The two sets of compilationsare: Versurimuzicsti("Musical Verses") and Poezii de
lumesau Cintecede lume ("Secular Poems or Secular Songs"), by Anton Pann, and
Musique orientale,42 Chansons et danses moldaves,valaques, grecqueset turques,
issuedat Jassyin 1834, by Fr. Rouschitzky(Rusinschi).These have been recompiled,
withan introduction, in SourcesofRomanianMusic (Unionof Composers:Bucharest,
19757). I am gratefulto WalterFeldmanforprovidingpartsof thisvaluable source
to me. Brandl (referredto in Powers 1988: 214) has discussedothercontemporary
manuscriptswhichillustratethe extentto which the Phanariotsregardedtheirown
modal traditionsas essentiallycognatewithTurkishcounterparts.
7. Polyphony,in theformofparallelfourthsand fifths, is also conspicuousin traditional
Pontic fiddle(Turkishkemanche)music.
8. See, forexample,thekalamatianoson "Folk Music of Greece"(FolkwaysFE 4454: A,
2), or thePeloponnesiandance on "Folk Dances of Greece"(FolkwaysFE 4467: B, 3).
9. "Anastasia,"from"Songsand Dances of Greece"(PhilipsPCC213), B, 1. Instruments
employedincludeclarinet,fiddle,and lauto. The chordprogressionsoutlinedby the
latterare renderedmore clearlyon anotherrecordingof the same melody,Coronet
TC OLYM 200035: A, 1.
10. See Baud-Bovy1958: 75; Rosantonaki1947: 55, and Chianis 1967: 44ff.
11. See, e.g., "Thalassina"(CoronetTC-PA 5321), songsA, 4; A, 6; and B, 1, respectively.
12. "Tis Thalassas ta Kymata,"from"Thalassina," A, 4.
13. Source is "Songs and Dances of Greece" (B, 6). The transcription is transposed,and
showsonlythechordprogressionof theinstrumental accompaniment, whichincludes
two bouzoukis,bass, and drums.The similarityto theHicaz modulationwas noted
by WalterFeldman.Forfurther discussionof Greekpopularmusic,includinganother
transcription of a typicalrebetikasongshowingchordalprogressions, see Manuel1988,
ch. 4.
14. In thisperiod, maqam Hijazi was describedby Safiuddin,albeit with a scale quite
different fromits modernnamesake;a scale closer to the latter,withan augmented
secondbetweentheneutralsecondand raisedthirddegrees,was describedby Qutbuddin
as occurringin maqam Uzzal, out of whichmay have evolved TurkishHicaz. Owen
Wright,however,opines thatthe Hicaz-typescale was alreadyin use by this time,
even if theoristsof art musicwere reluctantto acknowledgeit (1978: 51-2, 128 ff).
15. Feldman,personalcommunication. Feldmanfurther notesthatalthoughHicaz is familiar
in ruralAnatolia in thecontextof theArab-derivedazan (call to prayer),and in
#aik
and Alavi songs, it does not appear to be prominentin Anatolianfolkmusicand is
not extantin CentralAsian Turkishmusic. Hence it seemssurprising that the Hicaz-
typescale should come to constitute,or to be regardedas one of the trademarksof
Turkishmusical influencethroughoutEasternEurope.
16. Personalcommunication.
17. FromFerdiTayfur's"Bizimsokaklar,"on "Haram Oldu" (Raks TS 2240: A, 3). The
song is in theso-calledarabeskstyle,usingthetypicalArab baladi rhythm,rendered
on the dombak as: dum dum tek tek dum - tek-. forfurther discussionof Turkish
popular music, see Manuel 1988: 161-67.
18. Feldman,personalcommunication.
19. The termsahava raba and misheberakhderivefromthe textsof prayersset to the
correspondingmodes. Idelsohn(1967: 87) opines that the ahava raba scale entered
Ashkenazicmusicvia Tartarmusic,notingthatitis commonamongJewish communities
in areasexposedto Tartaric-Altaic viz., Egypt,Palestine,Syria,Asia Minor,
influence,
the Balkans, Hungaryand Rumania.
20. See, forexample,itemA, 1, on "KlezmerMusic 1910-1942"(FolkwaysFSS 34021).
21. Furtherattentionis also due to thesyncretictonalityof thetwentieth-century music
that has become, at least in termsof pan-regionality and audience size, the most
widespreadtraditionof all, namely,rock(and itsrelatedstylesof blues, rhythm-and-

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MANUEL MODAL HARMONY/ 93

blues, rock ballad, etc.). While many rock songs use some formof Westernmajor-
minortonality,mostemployharmonieswhichderiveinsteadfromthemodal resources
of the anhemitonicblues scale (whichcould be represented in a simplifiedschematic
formas EGABD(E) ). Rock harmoniesfrequently consistofonly majorchordsplayed
on thesescalardegrees,affording suchdistinctly
non-common-practice chordalostinati
as E-D-A-E-D-A etc. and E-G-A-E-G-A etc.

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